1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION:
In this paper the available diversity channels are utilized by coding in Adaptive
Binary Fashion to improve the reliability of the system, as well as reduce the fading
effects. Adaptive Binary Coding has been proposed as an alternative basis of
implementing diversity selection and it has been shown to be more attractive than the
conventional diversity selection based on power measurement and reliability of the
received signals. It is found that the proposed system provides noticeable gain over the
classical diversity system when binary BCH codes with hard-decision decoding are used.
Moreover, the proposed system offers flexibility in choosing the throughput of the
system, which the diversity system lacks. The advantages of the proposed system are
obtained at only slight increase in implementation complexity. Among the countless
efforts to guarantee the quality of service under this hostile environment, this project
focuses on how to combat path loss and fading.
Fading is a severe problem that most of the wireless communication systems face.
Fading, also called the small-scale path loss, comes from the multipath propagation of
signals. Fading signicantly degrades the performance of wireless communication systems.
In a wireless transmission the signal quality suffers severely from a bad channel quality
due to fading caused by multi-path propagation. Basically, fading in a wireless channel
refers to the time and frequency variations of the channel quality. To reduce such effects,
Diversity can be used to transfer the different samples of the same signal over
independent channels realized in time, frequency, polarization or over space.
The diversity technique can be used to maximise the received signal strength or to
minimise the delay spread. In Diversity Technique several replicas of the information
signal can be transmitted over independently fading channels. At receiver end, atleast one
of the signal will be present which is not severely degraded by fading.
Diversity along with Coding are two powerful techniques to combat fading
effects on communication channels. In this paper the available diversity channels are
utilized by forward error correction coding in an adaptive fashion to improve the
reliability of the system. Based on the quality of the diversity channels, the code rate over
each channel is determined using discrete optimization of the overall error probability,
subject to the constraint of fixed overall throughput rate. Diversity schemes are effective
2

each channel is determined using discrete optimization of the overall error probability,
subject to the constraint of fixed overall throughput rate. Diversity schemes are effective
over independently fading channels because it is very improbable that all the received
copies of the signal are affected by deep fade. Coding, on the other hand, gives the system
the capability of combating the bit errors that are caused by channel noise. For time-
varying channels adaptive coding, in which the error correction capability is matched to
the prevailing channel conditions, improves the performance significantly.
Coding and diversity have been combined in a number of ways to further enhance
the performance of digital communication systems over fading channels. A
straightforward way of employing both techniques is first to encode the information
sequence for the purpose of error correction (Forward Error Correction Systems, FEC)
and then send the resulting codeword over several diversity channels. Upon receiving the
several copies of the transmitted signal, the receiver may either select the best one or use
them all to obtain an estimate of the transmitted codeword that is more reliable than that
obtainable from any of the diversity channels. In both cases decoding is performed
afterwards.. Based on the quality of the diversity channels, the code rate over each
channel is determined using discrete optimization of the overall error probability, subject
to the constraint of fixed overall throughput rate.
Adaptive techniques seek to modify the transmission scheme used by the sender
according to the state of the channel seen by the receiver. Generally, such schemes
involve feedback, concerning the state of the channel, from the receiver to the sender. A
number of adaptive signalling techniques have been proposed for fading channels, which
adjust certain parameters of the transmitted signal to compensate for channel conditions,
such as the transmitted signal power or the signalling rate. These techniques are
extremely effective for fading channels with AWGN. Power control is a commonly used
type of adaptive transmission. Many practical schemes consider modifying the
modulation used in order to combat fading. A common means of adapting transmission is
to use different types of modulation according to the state of the channel and possibly
other considerations such as multiuser interference. But none of the above schemes
considers dynamically adapting the codes at the transmitter to the quality of the channel
surement at the receiver.
In this project we consider a different type of Adaptive scheme, using Binary
Coding For Diversity Communication Systems, that would be successful in not only
reducing the Signal Fading, but also Identify the Type of Communication Channel in
3

order to increase the Transmission Rate. While the scheme still adapts the transmission to
the channel seen by the receiver, the transmitter does not use feedback to determine its
policy. Instead, the transmitter takes into account the time-varying quality of the channel
measurement available at the receiver in order to modify its transmission policy. Thus,
the transmitter adapts its signaling and coding to the quality of the channel measurement,
rather than to the quality of the channel (in terms of carrier to noise ratio or other
metric).This system uses adaptive forward error correction scheme where the distribution
of the information bits, and hence the encoding process, are dependent on the relative
channel qualities. Both correlated and uncorrelated channels will be considered. The
performance criterion of the system is to communicate at as small an error as possible
whilst maintaining a fixed throughput rate. The system, in implementation terms, reduces
to that of selecting the best group of codes for a given channel estimation. Therefore, the
system proposed here may be viewed as a wider-range selective diversity system.

1.2 BACKGROUND:
In 1999 Philips introduced two cordless telephones: the Kala for the consumer
market and the Zenia for the semi- professional market. Their radio interface was based
on the Digital European Cordless Telecommunication (DECT) standard. The usable
indoor range was maximised by two internal antennas, which was used in combination
with fast switching technology to ensure good reception quality throughout the area
served by the DECT network.
It was observed that
Indoor range increased from about 40 to 50 metres (+30%),
Total muted time reduced from 2.2% of the total time to 0.25% (-90%),
Number of audible clicks reduced from 4 per minute to 0.
Experiments proved that the improvement was obtained by an implementation of
the antenna-diversity principle. The performance of an antenna-diversity transceiver was
better than a standard transceiver with a single-antenna. This improvement could not
easily and inexpensively be obtained by other techniques.
Since then, various researches have been carried out on Diversity Techniques to
achieve a System that combats the Fading Effects and Reliability Issues associated with
the current Communication Systems.
4

Benelli suggested using a number of independent channels in a manner different
from that of classical diversity systems. He proposed a system in which each the code
words to be transmitted are divided into L sub-blocks for transmission over L channels
such that the i
th
sub-block of all code words are transmitted as one block over the i
th

channel such that 1< i <L. His technique was extremely effective for fading channels
with Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN).
Today Digital transmission that would assure high-level voice security over
wireless systems has recently become a subject of active study. Several methods of
modulation and coding have been proposed for digital transmission over various fading
conditions. Unfortunately, no conclusion has been reached yet regarding the optimum
choices of signal shaping, modulation, and coding and lots of challenges still remain open
in-front of the communication engineers for designing an optimum communication
technique for the near future.

1.3 OBJECTIEVES:
The main objectives of this project are:
To define and verify a procedure for designing Diversity Communication
Systems using Adaptive Binary Coding.
To identify the type of communication channel, in order to improve the
transmission rate.
To implement detectors for Diversity Communication Systems using Adaptive
Binary Codes in the fading channels.
Investigate the performance of the prescribed system and identify areas for
improvement.
Introduce and develop improvements to the existing diversity techniques to
further reduce loss rates of signals and improve their reliability.
Investigate through simulations the performance achieved by the Adaptive
Binary Coded Diversity Communication Systems.
Investigate possible applications of Binary Adaptive Coding in Diversity
Communication Systems.
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the proposed communication
technique.

5


1.4 NECESSITY:
The main necessities of Adaptive Binary Coding for Diversity Communication
Technique are:
To reduce signal fading.
To enhance the error performance.
To identify the type of communication channel.
To increase signal reliability.
To increase signal to noise ratio.
To improve the transmission rate.
To resolve the problems of hand off.




.



















6

2. LITERATURE SURVEY

The discussions done by M. A. Kousa and S. A. Al-Semari in their paper titled
Adaptive Binary Coding for Diversity Communication Systems, proposed that the
available diversity channels could be utilized effectively by forward error correction
coding in an adaptive fashion to improve the reliability of the system. Based on the
quality of the diversity channels, the code rate over each channel is determined using
discrete optimization of the overall error probability, subjected to the constraint of fixed
overall throughput rate. Their proposed system provides noticeable gain over the classical
diversity system when binary BCH codes with hard-decision decoding are used.
Moreover, the proposed system offers flexibility in choosing the throughput of the
system, which the diversity system lacks. Finally they proposed that using binary BCH
codes with hard-decision decoding, the proposed system offers a gain of 0.4-1.3 dB over
classical diversity systems for diversity orders of 2-4. Moreover, the proposed system can
operate at any desirable throughput rate which is an added advantage compared to
selective diversity systems.
According to a Cooperative Diversity in Wireless Networks discussed by J.
Nicholas Laneman, David N. C. Tse and Gregory W. Wornell in their paper titled
Cooperative Diversity in Wireless Networks: Efficient Protocols and Outage Behaviour
the authors proposed and analyzed low-complexity cooperative diversity protocols that
combat fading induced by multipath propagation in wireless networks. The underlying
techniques exploit space diversity available through cooperating terminals relaying
signals for one another. Their developed scheme gave the performance characterizations
in terms of outage events and associated outage probabilities, which measure robustness
of the transmissions to fading, focusing on the high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) regime.
Finally they got from the scheme that all of our cooperative diversity protocols are
efficient in the sense that they achieve full diversity (i.e., second-order diversity in the
case of two terminals), and moreover, are close to optimum (within 1.5 dB) in certain
regimes.
A. Afrashteh and D. Chukurov proposed a diversity technique in their paper titled
Performance Of A Novel Selection Diversity Technique In An Experimental TDMA
System For Digital Portable Radio Communications. Their developed scheme described
the measured average Bit Error and Block Error Ratio performance of a coherent burst
Time Division Multiple Access radio link in a simulated flat Rayleigh fading environment
7

using a unique technique for implementing two-branch selection diversity. The link
consists of a 500 Kbits Quadrature Amplitude Modulation burst transmitter and a
coherent receiver with a fast carrier recovery circuit. Their proposed technique gives the
performance of selection diversity is achieved with only one receiver chain. Results
obtained by the author indicated that the presented showing link performance as functions
of Rayleigh fading rate (F
d
) and the time delay between signal measurement diversity
selection and the actual data burst.
Rodney G. Vaughan and J. Bach Andersen developed antenna diversity in their
paper titled Antenna Diversity in Mobile Communication. Their developed scheme
describes the conditions for antenna diversity actions are investigated. In terms of the
fields, a condition is shown to be that the incident field and the far field of the
diversity antenna should obey (or nearly obey) an orthogonality relationship. From
their scheme they getting the result that high gain antennas at the mobile, which
approximates most practical mobile antennas, is shown to be zero (or low) mutual
resistance between elements. This is not the case at the base station, where the condition
is necessary only.
Elisabeth A. Neasmith and Norman C. Beaulieu are proposed on selection of
diversity in their paper titled New Results on Selection Diversity. Their proposal
scheme discuss the performances of selection diversity receiver structures in a slow flat
Rayleigh-fading environment are assessed. In this structure a number of new and
interesting results are obtained. Binary digital signaling using non-coherent frequency-
shift keying (NCFSK), differential phase-shift keying (DPSK), coherent phase-shift
keying (CPSK), and coherent frequency-shift keying (CFSK) is considered. According to
their proposal scheme results show that S + N selection systems perform better than
predicted by the Traditional Selection Diversity Model.
Lukas Leijten proposed the antenna diversity transceivers for wireless consumer
product in his paper titled Design of Antenna Diversity Transceivers for Wireless
Consumer Products. He give a discussion of his thesis is that Antenna-diversity
implementations consist of two or more antennas and a circuit to combine the antenna
signals in an optimum way. The performance of an antenna-diversity transceiver is better
than a standard transceiver with a single-antenna. This improvement cannot easily and
inexpensively be obtained by other techniques. Antenna diversity is therefore an
important principle that can be implemented in many wireless consumer products, like
mobile phones and wireless networks. He found result from his scheme that to define and
8

verify a procedure to design adaptive diversity implementations for portable consumer
products. This procedure focuses on an optimal design with respect to circuit complexity,
power dissipation, size, cost and other relevant issues. The procedure enforces a
systematic approach towards designing and testing diversity implementations. To verify
the procedure, it has been applied to design a state-of-the-art antenna-diversity receiver.
This receiver has been built and tested. The performance of the receiver is close to that
predicted by simulations.
Choo Chiap Chiau developed the diversity antenna array in his paper titled Study
of the Diversity Antenna Array for the MIMO Wireless Communication Systems. The
main challenge in designing two or more antennas on a small mobile terminal is to
achieve a high isolation between the antennas. So he proposed a scheme to accept the
challenge and describe two approaches to address in antenna design. Firstly, a compact
self-balanced antenna which is a folded loop antenna with a loaded dielectric slab is
proposed. The second method is to employ Electromagnetic Band-Gap (EBG) structures
on the ground plane of the antennas to suppress the surface currents at specific
frequencies band (i.e. stop-band region). A new EBG structure with smaller dimensions
and wider stop-band is developed. Finally he getting result that the future IEEE 802.11n
standard is going to support the current Wi-Fi frequency bands at 2.4GHz and 5.2GHz.
The proposed dielectric loaded folded loop antenna could be further developed to operate
at 2.4GHz band or to operate at both bands.
Andrea Conti, Moe Z. Win and Marco Chiani developed adaptive M-ary
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) with antenna subset diversity in his paper titled
Slow Adaptive M-QAM with Diversity in Fast Fading and Shadowing. In their
proposed scheme gives slow adaptive modulation (SAM) technique that adapts the
constellation size to the slow variation of the channel due, for example, to shadowing.
The proposed SAM technique is more practical than conventional fast adaptive
modulation (FAM) techniques that require adaptation to fast fading variations. Our results
show that the SAM technique can provide a substantial increase in throughput with
respect to fixed schemes while maintaining an acceptable low bit-error outage. We also
compare SAM and FAM techniques, showing that through put of SAM can be, in many
practical cases, close to that of FAM, despite the fact that SAM is less complex and
requires a lower feedback rate. After their proposed scheme getting to compared SAM
with FAM and non-adaptive modulation schemes in terms of both bit-error outage and
normalized throughput (SE) for coherent detection of M-QAM with ASD in the presence
9

of Rayleigh fading and log-normal shadowing. It is shown that the SAM technique can
provide substantial improvement over non-adaptive schemes in terms of both SE and
BEO. In particular, it is shown that by using the SAM technique with modulation levels
in {M
min
, , , , , , , , M
max
}, a substantial increase in SE can be achieved while maintaining
the same outage of non-adaptive modulation using M=M
min
. We also showed that the
performance of SAM is close to FAM, despite the need for a lower feedback rate, and
thus less complexity, with SAM. The proposed methodology is applicable to other
modulation formats, diversity techniques, and fading channels. By using the proposed
methodology, one can obtain SE and BEO for various channel parameters as well as for
different diversity techniques.
Jingxian Wu, Chengshan Xiao and Norman C. Beaulieu developed optical
diversity in their paper titled Optimal Diversity Combining based on Noisy Channel
Estimation. In their proposed scheme describe the optimal diversity receiver for
coherent reception with noisy channel state information and independent and identically
distributed fading channels is derived. Exact expressions for the average error probability
of optimal diversity MPSK with noisy channel estimation are derived for Rayleigh and
Ricean fading channels; closed-form expressions are obtained for some special cases.
Some interesting observations regarding practical diversity receiver design for higher-
order modulation formats are drawn. From their scheme they finally got the result of the
optical diversity was that a novel diversity receiver structure which is optimal for noisy
channel state information has been derived. Exact, closed-form expressions for the
average error probability of the optimal diversity receiver operating with noisy channel
state information have been derived for MPSK modulation in both Rayleigh and Ricean
channels. The new results for systems with noisy channel state information include
systems with perfect channel state information as special cases. Simulation results are in
excellent agreement with the theoretical results. A useful observation of significant
practical design value was that improving the channel estimation.
Ibrahim Abou-Faycal, Muriel Medard, and Upamanyu Madhow developed binary
adaptive coded on Pilot symbol assisted modulation (PSAM) on their paper titled Binary
Adaptive Coded Pilot Symbol Assisted Modulation over Rayleigh Fading Channels
without Feedback. In their proposed scheme show that PSAM schemes can be improved
by adapting the coded modulation strategy at the sender to the quality of the channel
measurement at the receiver, without requiring any channel feedback from the receiver.
They consider performance in terms of achievable rate for binary signalling schemes. The
10

transmitter employs interleaved codes, with data symbols coded according to their
distance from the nearest pilot symbols. Symbols far away from pilot symbols encounter
poorer channel measurements at the receiver and are therefore coded with lower rate
codes, while symbols close to pilot symbols benet from recent channel measurements
and are coded with higher rate codes. The performance benets from this approach are
quantized in the context of binary signalling over time-varying Rayleigh fading channels
described by a GaussMarkov model. Causal and non-causal channel estimators of
varying complexity and delay are considered. They also shown that, by appropriate
optimization for the spacing between consecutive pilot symbols, the adaptive coding
techniques proposed can improve achievable rate, without any feedback from the receiver
to the sender. At finally they got the result of their scheme was that they had considered
no feedback and hence no adaptation at the sender to the state of the channel, their
scheme can be applied when there is channel side information at the sender. For instance,
power control when there is adaptive coding of the type described in their paper may
yield more power allocation to better SNR realization than when there is no adaptation to
the channel estimation error variance at the receiver. The benets of the latter adaptation
they had shown to increase with SNR. Therefore, the benet of high SNR over low SNR
would, in turn, increase through the use of coding adaptation to channel estimation error
variance.
Ola Jetlund, Geir E. Oien, Kjell J. Hole, Vidar Markhus and Bard Myhre proposed
adaptive coding and modulation (ACM) in their paper titled Rate-Adaptive Coding and
Modulation with LDPC Component Codes. In their scheme they take a closer look at the
consequences of introducing block codes into an adaptive coding and modulation (ACM)
system. One key issue is the bit-error rate (BER) performance of the error correcting
codes used in the scheme. They have simulated the BER performance for the promising
low density parity check (LDPC) codes. Also they made some simple considerations
regarding the mobility constraints of such a scheme. Their proposed scheme gave the
results strongly indicate the trade-off between good BER performance (i.e., longer code-
words) and mobility.
The effective capacity (EC) proposed by Qing Wang, Dapeng Wu and Pingyi Fan
provides a powerful tool for the design of quality of service (QoS) provisioning
mechanisms in their paper titled Effective Capacity of a Correlated Rayleigh Fading
Channel. In their proposal scheme new discrete-frequency EC formula for a correlated
Rayleigh fading channel; different from the EC formula developed in earlier by Wu and
11

Negi and their new discrete-frequency EC formula can be used in practice. Through
simulation, they verify that the EC formula developed by Wu and Negi is accurate.
Furthermore, to facilitate the application of the EC theory to the design of practical QoS
provisioning mechanisms in wireless networks, their propose a spectral-estimation-based
algorithm to estimate the EC function, given channel measurements; they also analyze the
effect of spectral estimation error on the accuracy of EC estimation. Finally from their
proposal simulation scheme describe the results to showing that their proposed spectral-
estimation-based EC estimation algorithm is accurate and indicating the excellent
practicality of their algorithm.
In adaptive coded modulation described by Bengt Holter in his paper titled
Adaptive Coded Modulation in Spatial and Multiuser Diversity Systems. In his
proposed scheme was devoted to performance analysis of an adaptive coded modulation
(ACM) scheme based on multidimensional trellis codes. The performance of the ACM
scheme is evaluated for slowly at-fading channels. His analysis scheme was focused on
two different combining techniques: maximum ratio combining (MRC) and switched
combining (SC). A multiple-input multiple output (MIMO) diversity system is also
considered, in which case the combined effect of both transmit and receive diversity is
realized by using space-time block coding at the transmitter. At last he was getting result
from his proposed scheme that to reduce the Average feedback load (AFL) in multiuser
systems relying on feedback to maximize the Average spectral efficiency (ASE). Also he
getting numerical results quantifying the trade-off between ASE and AFL have been
presented, showing that the AFL can be reduced signicantly compared to the optimal
SCT scheme without experiencing a big performance loss in ASE. The proposed access
schemes are quite attractive also from a fairness perspective.










12

3. SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION

3.1. DIVERSITY TECHNIQUES:
The Diversity Technique uses several replicas of the information signal
transmitted over independently fading channels. At receiver end, at least one of the
signals will be present which is not severely degraded by fading. The objective of
diversity is to provide a communication system with two or more paths from transmitter
to receiver across the radio channel so that the fading phenomena of these paths are as
uncorrelated as possible. Continuously selecting the path with the best signal quality will
result in an improved communication link. Different ways of accessing the radio channel
(diversity) are possible to obtain uncorrelated paths. The application of diversity results in
an improved signal-to interference ratio. The various types of diversity techniques are
discussed below.
3.1.1 Time Diversity
The properties of the radio channel changes as a function of time. By
transmitting a message in two or more time slots on the same frequency across the radio
channel, the probability of good reception is increased. For achieving D independently
fading versions of the same information-bearing signal is to transmit the same
information in D different time slots, where the time separation between successive time
slots equals or exceeds the coherence time T
ct
of the channel.


Figure 3.1.1: Time diversity illustrated by a data block that is transmitted
twice with delay td.

Increasing the time interval between the messages increases the de-correlation
between the received signal levels of the messages. A measure of this de-correlation is the
coherence time. This time diversity implementation, however, result in half the available
bandwidth in terms of bytes per second. As a result, this implementation is not very
popular. At the moment it is only used in paging systems. The major advantage is of
course that no additional hardware is needed. In Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)


13

a derivative of time diversity is sometimes used. In TDMA system the information of the
source is compressed and subsequently transmitted on a single carrier frequency together
with the information of other sources. These information packages are called time slots.
In the case of interference due to a time slot of an adjacent communication cell, a
different time slot on the same or on different carrier frequency can be chosen. This slot
hopping results in an improved signal-to interference ratio.
3.1.2. Frequency Diversity:
The fading characteristics of the radio channel are not the same for different
carrier frequencies. Transmitting the information using different carrier frequencies may
result in uncorrelated signals. This diversity implementation is called Frequency
Diversity. Thus for achieving D independently fading versions of the signal same
information-bearing signal is transmitted on D Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM) carrier frequencies, where the separation between successive
carriers equals or exceeds the coherence bandwidth B
cb
of the channel.


Figure 3.1.2: Frequency diversity using three carrier frequencies f0:1, f0:2 and f0:3
The frequency separation between the carrier frequencies determines the amount
of de-correlation of the signals. The frequency separation for which sufficient de-
correlation is obtained is related to the coherence bandwidth. This form of diversity is not
very efficient with respect to the use of the available bandwidth. In most implementations
the signal is not simultaneously transmitted on several carrier frequencies but only on the
one that will result in good transmission. This form of diversity is used in modern multi-
carrier communication systems, like GSM or DECT. The hopping between different
frequencies results in an increased circuit complexity. The carrier frequency de
correlation is also exploited in modulation techniques, like Orthogonal Frequency
14

Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and in access techniques, like Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA). A communication system based on these techniques is more robust
against frequency selective fading or interfering transmitters.
3.1.3. Space Diversity
Multiple receive (or transmit) antennas can be placed at different positions at a
distance less than the signal wavelength. Each antenna will receive the transmitted signals
via different paths through the radio channel. The received signals of the different
antennas will therefore be mutually de-correlated. The amount of de-correlation depends
on the antenna separation. The receiving antennas must be spaced sufficiently far apart so
that the multipath components in the signal have significantly different propagation paths.
Usually, a separation of a few wavelengths is required between a pair of receiving
antennas in order to obtain signals that fade independently. In most cases, a separation of
approximately half a wavelength is sufficient. This principle of obtaining de-correlated
signals is called Space Diversity.


Figure 3.1.3: Space diversity illustrated by three antennas separated by
distances r1, r2 and r3.

A disadvantage of space diversity is the increased volume needed to contain
multiple antennas. The attractiveness of this diversity implementation is its simplicity.
Space Diversity is the most widely used diversity technique in wireless communication
system. Space Diversity can be further classified into 3 types.
3.1.3.1. Feedback or Scanning Diversity:
Principle: Scanning all the signals in a fixed sequence until the one with SNR
more than a predetermined threshold is identified.


15












Fig 3.1.3.1: Block diagram of Feedback Diversity
This method is very simple to implement, requiring only one receiver.
The resulting fading statistics are somewhat inferior to those obtained by the other
methods
3.1.3.2. Maximal Ratio Combining
Principle: Combining all the signals in a co-phased and weighted manner so
as to have the highest achievable SNR at the receiver at all times.

Figure 3.1.3.2: Block diagram of Maximal Ratio Combining
Equal Gain Combining

Combining all the signals in a co-phased manner with unity weights for all signal levels
so as to have the highest achievable SNR at the receiver at all times.
The probability of producing an acceptable signal from a number of unacceptable
inputs is still retained. In certain cases it is not convenient to provide for the
variable weighting capability.
This allows the receiver to exploit signals that are simultaneously received on
each branch.
16

The probability of producing an acceptable signal from a number of unacceptable
inputs is still retained.
The performance is marginally inferior to maximal ratio combining and superior
to selection Diversity.
3.1.4. Polarization Diversity
The polarization of the electromagnetic fields has different orientations at
different positions. If a linear receive antenna is used, there will be a probability that the
orientation or polarization of the antenna does not match the polarization of the
electromagnetic fields. This will result in a low received signal level. A differently
oriented linear antenna will result in a higher received signal level. Using multiple
differently polarized antennas is a way of obtaining uncorrelated signals. This
implementation, called Polarization Diversity, is relatively simple to implement.

Figure 3.1.4: Polarization diversity illustrated by two dipoles, one in the x
direction and one in the z direction

A disadvantage is the increased volume to contain the antennas. For polarization
diversity the combination of horizontally and vertically polarized linear antennas
(monopole or dipole antennas) is quite often suggested. However, the horizontally
polarized antenna has two large nulls in its directivity pattern in the horizontal plane.
These nulls reduce the mean received power, because the power is predominantly
transmitted in the horizontal plane. A vertically polarized antenna is Omni-directional in
the horizontal plane, which results in a higher mean received power. Using two diversity
antennas which have a certain angle with respect to the horizontal, e.g. 45 and 45 degrees,
results in a better performance than that of the horizontal-vertical implementation. This
type of polarization diversity is referred to as slanted polarization diversity. For mobile
communication systems, like GSM, the transmitted signals are scattered and reflected by
many objects. In this system polarization diversity seems to have a performance close to
that of space diversity.
17

3.1.5. Field-Component Diversity
At a certain location in a multi-path environment with many reflections the
electric field strength can be completely different from the magnetic field strength. This is
similar to standing waves occurring in resonators and transmission lines. For these
standing waves the maximum of the electric field coincides with the minimum of the
magnetic field and vice versa. Using antennas that predominantly couple to only one of
the field components can result in uncorrelated signals. The advantage of this field-
component diversity implementation is that the antennas can be situated at the same
location.

Figure 3.1.5: Field-component diversity illustrated by two antennas, electric
dipole and magnetic loop.

The major disadvantage is the relatively low efficiency of small antennas
(including the matching circuits) that predominantly couple to the magnetic field.
Especially in the frequency range from 1 to 5 GHz the electric-field antennas have a
better efficiency. Directly summing the signals of an antenna that couples to the electric
field (dipole) with one that couples the magnetic field (loop) can result in a diversity
antenna with a better output signal than a single antenna [Young, 2000]. In this case no
additional signal processing is needed.
3.1.6. Angle Diversity
Local variations of the electromagnetic field are the result of interference between
two or more reflected waves. By using a directional antenna one of the reflected waves
can be selected and the other ones can be suppressed. A good angle diversity
implementation is established either if more than one directional antenna is used or if a
directional antenna is used that can change its direction.
18


Figure 3.1.6: Angle diversity illustrated by three directional horn antennas,
dotted lines indicates directivity patterns.

A significant advantage of using angle diversity is the reduction of the time delay
spread due to the reduction of received (reflected) waves. This is an interesting feature,
especially in environments or locations with high delay-spread values, like highly
reflective assembly halls or at the boundaries of communication cells.
A disadvantage of directional antennas is that they have to be large in terms of
wavelengths. For the mobile communications frequency range, approximately from 1 to 5
GHz, antennas are needed that are too large to fit in a handset. However, phased arrays
can also adaptively suppress undesired waves by means of null and beam steering. The
smallest phased array consists of two antennas and a variable phase shifter. Space
diversity using equal-gain or maximum-ratio combining constitutes a phased array.
3.1.7. Selection Diversity:
Given that the information is transmitted to the receiver via D independently
fading channels, there are several ways that the receiver may extract the transmitted
information from the received signal. The simplest method is for the receiver to monitor
the received power level in the D received signals and to select for demodulation and
detection the strongest signal. In general, this approach results in frequent switching from
one signal to another. A slight modification that leads to a simpler implementation is to
use a signal for demodulation and detection as long as the received power level in that
signal is above a preset threshold. When the signal falls below the threshold, a switch is
made to the channel which has the largest received power level. This method of signal
selection is called Selection Diversity.
The main advantage of Selection diversity offers an average improvement in
the link margin without requiring additional transmitter power or sophisticated receiver
circuitry.

19

3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF DIVERSITY SYSTEMS:
Diversity Systems can be classified into Macroscopic and Microscopic
diversity.







Fig 3.2: Classification of Diversity

Macroscopic Diversity:
Prevents Large Scale fading, caused by shadowing due to variation in both the
terrain profile and the nature of the surroundings.
Large Scale fading is log normally distributed signal.
This fading is prevented by selecting an antenna which is not shadowed when
others are; this allows increase in the signal-to-noise ratio.
Microscopic Diversity:
Prevents Small Scale fading, caused by multiple reflections from the
surroundings.
It is characterized by deep and rapid amplitude fluctuations which occur as the
mobile moves over distances of a few wavelengths.

3.3 DIVERSITY COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS:
The first scheme, denoted in the following as S1, is illustrated in the block
diagram given in Fig. 3.3. The source generates symbols from a finite alphabet A = {a
1
,
a
2
,. . . , a
M
} with M elements. The information symbols exiting the source may or may not
be encoded through an (n, k) channel code C ( i.e., a code with a codeword length of n
and k information symbols). The code C
1
when present, is assumed defined on alphabet B
with N = M
u
symbols, U 1 being an integer. In fact, while code C
1
is often introduced to
reduce the error probability at the user side, it is not always used. Code C
1
when present,
is assumed capable of correcting t errors; when C is absent, n is naturally equal to k.
Macroscopic diversity Microscopic diversity
Diversity
20

The scheme S1 also requires a second error-correcting code, denoted by C
1
. The
code C
1
, defined on the alphabet A, has b information symbols and a codeword length of
n = mb, where m 2 is an integer and is assumed capable of correcting t
1
errors.
We shall start by examining a transmit codeword c = {cj} of C, n symbols long. If
U > 1, each component of c, defined on the alphabet B, is transformed in U elements of
the alphabet A.
Therefore, the codeword c is transformed in a vector c, n
c
, = nu symbols of the alphabet
A long. The vector c = {c
j
} for 1 j n
c
is divided into s sub blocks, each b symbols
long, being s = [n
c
/ b], and [x] the lowest integer greater than or equal to x. The i
th
sub
block, designated c
i
is given by:
C
i
= [ c
(i-1)b+1
, c,.......,c
ib
]
Code C
1
encodes each sub block c
j
into a codeword w
i,
mb symbols long.
Codeword w, is divided into m sub blocks w
i
,
j
= {w
i
,
j
( p ) } ,each b symbols long (1 j
s, 1 j m, and 1 p b ). If code C, is a systematic code, then w
i
,
1
= c
i
.
After all the s sub blocks have been encoded, m different vectors, each n symbols
of the B alphabet long, are constructed. The jth vector, v
i
, for 1 j m, is:
V
j
= [w1,j, w
2,j
, ....w
s,j
]
In the classical diversity techniques, the transmitter sends c over all m channels.
In the scheme S1, the transmitter sends vector v
i
, n symbols long, over the j
th
channel so
that the transmitted message differs from one channel to another. In this paper, it is
always assumed an interleaving procedure; in this way, the noise affecting
successive symbols can be assumed as incorrelated.
Let us use r* to denote the vector, n
c
symbols long, received on the j
th
channel (1
j m). The receiver divides r* into s sub blocks; the i
th
sub block (1 i s), b symbols
long, is denoted by: r*
j,i
, = {r*
j,i
(p)} for 1 p b . This is followed by the construction of
vector r
i
composed of n
l
symbols and defined as:
r*
i
= [ r*
1,i
, r*
2,i
, ....., r*
s,i
]
The vector r, represents the received version of w
i
and is therefore given by:
r
i
= w
i
+ e
i

where e
i
is the error vector, n
1
symbols long, representing the errors introduced by the
transmission channel on the i
th
sub block.
Vector r
i
is decoded through code C
1
and the recovered information symbols are
stored in a vector c*
i
. This procedure is repeated for each sub block.
21


Figure 3.3 (a): General structure of a classical diversity communication system.

Figure 3.3 (b): General structure of a diversity communication system using the S1
technique.
When all the s sub blocks have been decoded, the vector c* = (c*
1
, c*
2
.., c*
s
),
composed by n
c
from the alphabet A, is transformed in a vector c defined on the alphabet
B and composed of n symbols. The vector is sent to the decoder which decodes it in a C
codeword, denoted by c.
The use of the code C
1
which has a code rate of 1/m with m 2, makes it possible
to achieve lower error probabilities at the C decoder input than attainable with the
classical diversity techniques. Both convolution and block codes can be used as code C
1.
A modification of the scheme S1, designated S2, has been developed to enhance
communication system performance in certain applications. While the transmitter
structure and protocol are the same in both techniques, the S2 always requires a C code.
In the S2, C
1
is assumed capable of correcting t
1
, errors and at the same time of detecting
t
1
errors, while C
1
is assumed capable of correcting both erasures and errors.
Let us consider the i
th
received sub block r. This sub block is sent to the C,
decoder. If it contains t, or fewer errors, then it is decoded by C
1
thereby yielding a sub
block c*
i
. On the contrary, if an uncorrectable error pattern is detected, C
1
does not
22

proceed to decoding, and the i
th
sub block is declared an erasure vector x
i
= (x*
i,1
, x*
i,2
, .
. . , x*
i,b
); Each erasure vector contains b erased symbols xi = (1 j b). After s sub
blocks have been decoded through C
1
vector c contains n
e
erased sub blocks (0 n
e
s)
and p errors, with 0 p (s - n
e
)b. If code C and C
1
are defined on the same alphabet (A
= B), correct decoding of c is obtained through C if n
e
b + p d
H
where d
H
is the
minimum Hamming distance of code C.
However, the performance of the technique S2 is generally enhanced by choosing
the code C defined on an alphabet B # A. In this way, each erasure block x
i
defined on the
alphabet B with N = M
u
symbols gives rise to n
a
= [b/u] erasures. In particular, a good
choice is U = b. If code C is properly selected, lower error probabilities can be attained by
using the scheme S2 with respect to the classical diversity schemes and to the S1 scheme.
A typical class of error correctors suitable for this application is the Reed-Solomon (RS)
codes. As the C
1
contains a high number of redundancy symbols in relation to
information symbols, the probability of nondetection of an uncorrectable error pattern,
and therefore of having errors in c*
i
, can be kept to a low level.

3.4. ADAPTIVE AND NONADAPTIVE CODING:
First we consider the scheme where the transmitter does not adapt its transmission
strategy to the statistics of the channel estimates used at the receiver. More precisely, we
compute the achievable rates when the transmitter is using a single fixed input
distribution at all times. For this case, we assume that the transmitter considers the
channel to be block-faded i.e., the fading coefficient is assumed constant over intervals of
length and changing independently from one interval to the next. In order to evaluate the
performance of such a scheme for our model, we find first the optimal input distribution
for the block faded system, and then compute the average mutual information under this
distribution for different values of. This will allow us to quantify the performance of a
system when the transmitter does not adapt its coding strategy and uses instead one fixed
codebook independently of the time index. Next we consider the scheme where, without
any channel state information, the transmitter takes into consideration the statistics of the
channel estimates at the receiver. It adapts accordingly its modulation and coding to
maximize the rates that can be reliably transmitted over the channel. While no optimal
power allocation is performed here (a constant amount of power is used instead), at each
time step the transmitter uses a good codebook achieving the highest mutual
23

information of the Ricean channel the receiver sees. Equivalently, one can think of the
problem as that of finding the best input strategy that maximizes the expected mutual
information E X Y Y for each time step between ends. For these computations, we
considered the estimation methods for the pair R given by both set of (4) and (5), or of (5)
and (6), or of (7) and (8). Since no closed form expression can be obtained for the optimal
input distribution, we use standard Matlab tools to optimize, for each time period, the
expected mutual information over the input probability distribution. The input alphabet is
restricted to consist of only two points. The corresponding optimal distribution yields of
course the highest achievable rates depending on how far the transmission is occurring
with respect to the pilot signals. Sending pilot tones frequently clearly reduces the rates as
a significant portion of the time and power is used to estimate the channel and no
information is conveyed from the transmitter to the receiver. On the other hand, when the
pilots are used very infrequently, the channel estimates at the receiver are of poor quality
and the information rates are low. It is worth mentioning that the numerical results
confirm what one expects regarding the optimal input distribution. Namely, the solution
lies between the extremes of on-off keying (optimal for the IID Rayleigh fading case) and
antipodal signaling (optimal for a perfectly known channel). Indeed, the optimal input
distribution consists of two nonzero masses, the first of which is negative located
between-and zero, and the second, positive greater than.

3.5. ADAPTIVE BINARY CODING IN DIVERSITY COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS:
The objective of using Adaptive Binary Coding in Diversity Communication
Systems is to provide a communication system with multiple paths from transmitter to
receiver across the radio channel, that would not only Reduce the Fading Phenomena of
these paths but, also improve the Reliability of the System by utilizing the available
communication channels, by forward error correction codes in an adaptive fashion.
Continuously selecting the path with the best signal quality will result in an improved
communication link. Different ways of accessing the radio channel (diversity) are
possible to obtain uncorrelated paths. This results in an improved signal-to-interference
ratio.
For wireless communication systems the level or amplitude of the received signal
varies due to varying radio-channel characteristics. As a result the status of the radio
24

channel itself is unknown and time varying. If the channel is in a deep fade then errors
might occur in the reception of data. The received signal has a certain probability to fade
below a threshold value. Within a diversity system one or more interfaces to the radio
channel diversity branches are connected to a receiver. If the received signals from each
diversity branch fade independently, then the probability that all received signals will
fade below the threshold value is considerably reduced.
The signals at the output of the diversity circuits vary as a function of time and
location. Circuits that are implemented to compensate for the imperfections of the radio
channel should therefore be adaptive. The application of adaptive diversity techniques is
used for indoor portable communication systems at frequencies around 1 to 2 GHz (GSM,
DECT). Space diversity seems to be the most favorable technique. The received signals
from the diversity branches are selected or combined before they arrive at the detector.
The different combining techniques are compared for a space-diversity receiver. The
measure for ranking them is the diversity gain and array gain, which are introduced in the
same section. Equal-gain combining is chosen as the best performing combining
technique with respect to circuit complexity. The equal-gain combiner is in most studies
and an ideal one that has the ability to combine signals with an arbitrary phase difference.
Depending on the type of system the implementation of the diversity algorithm should be
fast enough to track the variations of the received signals.

3.6. MODULATION USING ADAPTIVE BINARY CODING:
Adaptive binary coding and modulation have the motivation is to be able to
transmit with an ASE as close to the MASE as possible, at an average bit-error rate
(BER) which fullls the desired quality requirements. The schemes are based on dividing
a at fading channel into time slots where the channel introduces impairments that can be
closely approximated by AWGN. The channel is periodically evaluated at the receiver
and an estimate (prediction) of the future channel state is sent back to the transmitter on a
separate channel (the return channel). The transmitter adapts to the instantaneous channel
quality by choosing between deferent available transmission schemes of varying spectral
eciencies.
When using code and modulation techniques designed for AWGN channels of
dierent CSNRs, adaptive schemes may behave in a fashion that allows transmission at
an ASE close to the MASE.
25

3.6.1. Adaptation Strategy:
In this report we use a rate-discrete transmission scheme which approximates the
Optimal Rate constant power Adaptation (ORA). This implies that the average transmit
power is held constant, and the adaptation is done changing the channel code and
modulation constellation, and thus the spectral eciency according to the channel
condition. The constraint used is that the overall codec should have a BER lower than a
certain target bit error rate, BER, for any given CSNR, except for very low CSNR values,
when the channel will not be used for transmission.
The CSNR () can take on all values larger than zero. We divide {0, 8} into
N +1 region (indexed with n {0, 1... N}) as shown in Fig. 2a. The CSNR will at any
given time fall into one of these regions (often referred to as fading regions).

Figure 3.6.1: (a) Fading Regions (b) Transmission System
The estimator at the receiver determines the CSI, and sends a message to the
receiver indicating which region n the CSNR is most likely to fall into during the next
transmission (see Fig. 2b). For each region there is assigned a component codec, i.e., a
proper chosen channel coding and modulation technique. When the estimated index is n =
0, the channel is in such a bad state that it should not be used for transmission. The
number of component codecs to use (or equivalent, the number of fading regions) should
be so high that the AWGN assumption is a good one over each fading region. However, it
should be low enough for the ACM system to be able to adapt reliably between the
codecs as the channel varies. The performance of these component codes, which must of
course be known, is measured in BER as a function of CSNR. The performance can be
26

approximated by closed form expressions using curve tting techniques on simulated
data. This is of interest when designingand analyzing the average BER performance
ofACM schemes.
Several of the ACM systems that have been presented so far apply trellis coded
modulation. ACM systems using trellis codes are not very sensitive to channel variations
over each transmitted channel symbol block, since only a short sequence of channel
symbols are transmitted between each channel estimate. In this report however we
consider the use of block codes, in particular low-density parity check (LDPC) codes,
which have shown very promising performance on AWGN channels. A more
comprehensive description of LDPC codes are given in Sec. 3. For now it is sucient to
say that LDPC codes are block codes, whose promising behavior is based on transmission
of relatively long sequences or blocks of channel symbols, combined with soft decision
iterative decoding of relatively low complexity. We shall combine LDPC codes with
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) and phase shift keying (PSK) to produce
codewords of multilevel channel symbols. To fully utilize the error correcting properties
of the LDPC codes we must ensure that the channel stays within one and the same fading
region for the time period, T [s], used to transmit each codeword. For the BER-CSNR
relationship of LDPC codes, MacKay et.al. have found a good closed form
approximation. We have used a slightly modied version of this equation (the
modication being the constant a, which in (was set to 1)

where a, b, c, and d are constants that can be found by using some curve tting
technique. The thresholds {} are dependent on the target BER and can be calculated by
demanding that BER (n) = BERn for code n, and then using the inverse of the
approximation used to describe the simulated data points

We also dene N+1 = 8. The performance of the ACM system described above is
measured by the ASE, which is then compared to the MASE to see how far from
optimum the system is operating. The ASE is given by
27


Where Rn is the spectral eciency of the code used in component codec n, and P
is the probability of that codec being used, i.e., the probability that the CSNR is falling
into fading region n. This probability is given by:

Where m is the Nakagami parameter.

3.7. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION:
It is assumed that L fading channels are available for transmission. The L
channels are utilized equally in terms of transmission rate, i.e. an equal number of bps is
transmitted over each channel. Considering a block of K information bits. To utilize the L
channels, the block of K bits will be split into L segments according to the relative
qualities of the channels. Each segment is then encoded into a codeword of length n to be
transmitted over the available channels. This procedure requires obtaining estimates of
the channel quality through a Channel Quality Estimator (CQE) circuit.
The operation of the system can be summarized as follows. Based on the current
information about the quality of each of the L channels, the number of information bits,
and hence the number of check bits that are to be transmitted over each channel is
determined. This is done subject to the constraint that a total of K information bits are
transmitted through the transmission of the L code words. Those channels having a poor
quality are allocated fewer information bits and more check bits, transmitted over each
channel is determined. This is done subject to the constraint that a total of K information
bits are transmitted through the transmission of the L code words. Those channels having
a poor quality are allocated fewer information bits and more check bits, whereas the
better quality channels are allocated an increased number of information bits and a
reduced number of check bits. In other words, the code rates are adjusted to match the
prevailing channel conditions, subject to the constraint of constant average rate.
The L channels are assumed to be slowly-fading Rayleigh channels with AWGN.
During an adaptation period, the i
th
channel is attenuated by | |, where , is a complex
28

Gaussian random variable with zero mean and a variance of one-half for both the real and
imaginary parts, and | | denotes the envelope, which is Rayleigh distributed in this case.
All the channels are assumed to be identical on the average; i.e., E [ |
i
|
2
] = 1. The
channels, however, are not assumed uncorrelated. They are described by the joint
probability density function of the
i
s. Let
i
= {1, a
2
, ..., a
L
}. Then, the probability
density functions of is expressed as:
()

)

Where ()* denotes the Hermitian transpose, and K

is an LxL covariance matrix

with entries (K)
ij=
E [
i

j
*] the
i
,'s are uncorrelated then K

will simply reduce to the
identity matrix . Define E
b
to be the transmitted energy per information bits and N
0
to be
the one-sided power spectral density of the AWGN. Let the L estimates of channel
qualities be denoted by the vector = (
i
,
2
,..,
L
}, where
i
, is the SNR per (information)
bit on the i
th
channel, defined as (E
b
/ N
0
)|
i
|
2
. Based on , a block of K information bits
will be partitioned into L segments of lengths {k
1
, k
2
... k
L
}. Each segment i, 1 <i < L, will
be encoded into n bits using an (n, ki,) code before transmitting it over the i'
h
channel.
The throughput of the system, R, is given by:

and is kept constant at all times.
Let P
i
denote the post-decoding bit error probability on the i'
h
channel. Then the
bit error probability averaged over the L channels is:

The exact equation relating the post-decoding bit error probability to the channel
bit error rate is a function of the code weight structure and the decoding algorithm, and is
unknown for most codes. Various close approximations or bounds are usually involved
for analysis purposes. In this study, the bound is used with slight improvement, to read:

) (

()

29







Figure 3.7 (a): Block diagram of the system for L=3

Figure 3.7 (b): Distributing K inf. bits for transmission over three channels
Where U is the error correction capability of the code and e, is the bit error rate on
the i'
h
channel, which is a function of y; for a given modulation scheme. Non-coherent
BFSK is assumed.
Let () denote the joint pdf of . The overall average post- decoding bit error
probability of the system is obtained by averaging Equation over (), that is
()
The objective of the adaptation process is to minimize Equation subject to the
constraint in Equation. It should be noted that P is a function of k, and s and both of
them are functions of
i
's, the elements of the vector . What is hoped out of the
30

minimization process is to obtain a set of relations between k
i
s minimization process is to
obtain a set of relations between k{s and
j
's. Unfortunately, such an analytical solution is
an extremely tedious task due the complexity of the problem. An alternative discrete
optimization is carried out.
The process of error minimization referred to earlier involves (in effect) first
selecting the appropriate L-code set and then allocating its L codes to the appropriate
channels. This amounts to allocating the higher-rate code to the best channel and
continuing down to the point where the lowest-rate code is assigned to the worst channel.
Given a vector , the question of which L-code set yields the best performance can be
determined in a relatively simple manner. As will be shown later, the L dimensional space
of can be neatly partitioned into regions; where in each of these regions a particular L-
code set outperforms other sets. Every new estimate of represents a point in the space;
the region in which this point lies determines the best set to use.

3.8. FLOWCHART AND ALGORITHMS:
A flow chart for decoding with channel measurement information is shown in Fig.
3.6. All the decoding algorithms to be discussed will conform to Figure. However, the
actual set of test patterns used in each decoding algorithm will become progressively
smaller. Since these decoding algorithms are to be used with a binary decoder capable of
finding a codeword only when (3) is satisfied, it is possible that no legitimate error pattern
will be found for a given algorithm. Under these circumstances the estimate of the
codeword is given by the received binary sequence despite the fact that this sequence is
surely in error.

31



Figure 3.8: Flowchart for decoding of diversity communication system using
adaptive binary coding

3.8.1. A Class of Decoding Algorithms:
In this section a class of decoding algorithms that utilizes the information
provided by the sequence =
1,

2,

N
is presented. These algorithms are designed to
work with any binary decoder that can correct up to [(d - 1)/2] errors. The binary decoder
will determine the codeword X
m
=X
m1
, Xm2,Xm3,.X
mN
which differs in the least
number of places from the received sequence Y = Y
1
,Y
2
, . . . Y
N
, pro- vided that this
difference is not greater than [(d - 1)/2]. The sequence that contains a 1 in the places
where Y and X
m
differ, i.e., the error sequence, is given by

Where the notation represents modulo-2 addition. If we define the binary
weight of a sequence Z
m
as
32

(

the function of a binary decoder is to find the codeword, or equivalently the error
sequences, that satisfy
(

) ( )
The binary decoder will find a unique codeword if the inequality given by (3) is
satisfied; otherwise, no codeword will be found. (The assumption that the binary decoder
is a bounded distance decoder is for convenience only. The performance of these
decoding algorithms will surely not be degraded if the binary decoder is capable of
finding a codeword when (3) is not satisfied.) A complete4 binary decoder can be
defined as a decoder capable of finding the codeword that satisfies
(

)
where the range of nz is over all possible codewords. This decoder differs from a
conventional binary decoder given by (3) in that a codeword will always be obtained even
if the error sequence of minimum binary weight has more than [(d - 1)/2] 1s in it.
In a similar manner we can define a complete channel measurement decoder as
one that is capable of finding the codeword that satisfies


(

)
In this case we are concerned with finding the error pattern Z
m
= Y X
m
of
minimum analog weight, where the analog weight of a sequence Z
m
is defined as

()

just as a binary decoder attempts to achieve a performance close to a complete binary
decoder, the channel measurement decoders to be described will attempt to achieve a
performance that is close to that for a decoder that satisfies (5). In Section III we will
show that for certain channels the decoder given by (5) can be made equivalent to a
maximum-likelihood decoder.
The basic concept behind the channel measurement decoding algorithms can be
illustrated with the aid of Fig. 2. A geometric sketch is shown, which illustrates the binary
distance between four codewords X
A
, X
B
, X
c
, X
D
, and the received sequence Y. Each
codeword is surrounded by a sphere of radius [(d - 1)/2]. Thus, a unique codeword, or
equivalently a unique error pattern, is obtained by a binary decoder if the received
sequence is within one of these spheres. In our case there is a unique error pattern Z = Y
33

@ X
A
within the sphere of radius [(d - 1)/2], which surrounds Y. The objective of the
channel measurement decoder is to use a binary decoder to help obtain a relatively small
set of possible error patterns rather than just one error pattern and choose the error pattern
of minimum analog weight as defined by equation.
The set of error patterns considered is obtained by perturbing the received
sequence Y with a test pattern T, which is a binary sequence that contains ls in the
location of the digits that are to be inverted. By adding this test pattern, modulo-2, to the
received sequence a new sequence
Y= Y T
is obtained and by binary decoding a new error pattern Z` is obtained. The actual error
pattern relative to Y is given by
Z
T
= T @ Z`
which may or may not be different from the original error pattern depending on whether
or not Y` falls into the sphere of a new codeword. For the class of algorithms under
consideration, the received sequence will always be perturbed within the sphere of radius
d - 1, which surrounds Y.
3.8.1.1 Algorithm 1:
For this particular algorithm a very large set of error patterns is considered. In
fact, we consider the entire set of error patterns within a sphere of radius d - 1 about the
received sequence Y shown in Fig. 2. Thus, all possible error patterns of binary weight
less than or equal to d 1 are considered. Since the selected error pattern is determined by
its analog weight, not its binary weight, it is quite possible to select an error pattern with
more than [(d - 1)/2] members and thus extend the error correcting capability of

Figure 3.8.1.1: Geometric sketch for decoding with channel measurement
information
34

A set of test patterns that are sufficient, but surely not necessary, to generate all
error sequences of binary weight less than d are given by the set of T, which contain [d/2]
ls in them. Note that the binary decoder is capable of obtaining error patterns of binary
weight up to [(d - 1)/2], which when combined with an appropriate test pattern can yield
any error pattern that has up to (d - 1) members. Needless to say, since there are
(

)
different test patterns, this method of implementing Algorithm 1 would only be applicable
for codes whose minimum distance is quite small. Actually, a considerable reduction in
the number of test patterns can be achieved by eliminating test patterns that yield identical
error patterns. Nevertheless, one generally would not want to implement this particular
algorithm since there are considerably simpler algorithms that perform almost as well.
However, Algorithm 1 is still of interest since it can be modified (by Theorem III) to
provide a lower bound on a complete channel measurement decoder and does illustrate,
when compared to Algorithms 2 and 3, how the relative performance is affected by
simplifications in decoding procedures.
3.8.1.2. Algorithm 2:
For this algorithm a considerably smaller set of possible error patterns is
considered. Only those error patterns with no more than [(d - 1)/2] errors located outside
the set, which contains the [d/2] lowest channel measurements, are considered. The error
patterns now tested contain no more than (d - 1) errors, but we no longer test all possible
error patterns with (d - 1) or less members. A set of test patterns, which generates all
required error patterns, is given by letting T have any combination of 1 s, which are
located in the [d/2] positions of lowest con- fidence values, i.e., the [d/2] positions with
the lowest channel measurements. Since there are 2
[d/2]
possible test patterns, including
the all zero pattern, there are at most 2tdi2 error patterns considered by this decoding
algorithm and generally much less. Note that if the initial error pattern Z has a binary
weight of 1, then all test patterns of binary weight less than or equal to [(d - 3)/2] will
yield Z
T
= Z.
3.8.1.3. Algorithm 3:
This decoding algorithm is almost identical to Algorithm 2 except the number of
test patterns considered is just [(d/2) + 1] rather than 2
[d/2]
each test pattern has i 1s
located in the i positions of lowest confidence values. For a code with an even value of d,
the values that i takes are given by i = 1,3,,d - 1 and i = 0, which yields the all-zero test
35

pattern T = 0. When d is an odd number, i = 0,2,4,, d - 1. This particular algorithm has
the smallest set of possible error patterns and yet has the same asymptotic error
performance as Algorithms 1 and 2. Computer simulated performance of these algorithms
for the Golay code shows that Algorithm 3 is somewhat inferior to Algorithms 1 and 2.
Nevertheless, this particular algorithm requires less computation than the previous
algorithms and thus in some applications may be more desirable. This is especially true
for codes whose minimum distance is large since the number of test patterns grows only
linearly with the minimum distance of the code.


























36

4. CONCLUSION

4.1. CONCLUSION:
The basic problem in digital communication through a fading channel is that a
large number of errors occur when the channel attenuation is large; i.e., when the channel
is in a deep fade. If we can supply to the receiver two or more replicas of the same
information signal transmitted through independently fading channels, the probability that
all the signal components will fade simultaneously is reduced considerably. If p is the
probability that any one signal will fade below some critical value, than p
D
is the
probability that all D independently fading replicas of the same signal will fade below the
critical value. There are several ways that we can provide the receiver with D
independently fading replicas of the same information-bearing signal.
For better performance, we may use one of several more complex methods for
combining the independently fading received signals. One that is appropriate for coherent
demodulation and detection requires that the receiver estimate and correct for the
different phase offsets on each of the D received signals after demodulation. Then, the
phase-corrected signals at the outputs of the D demodulators are summed and fed to the
detector. This type of signal combining is called Equal-Gain Combining. If, in addition,
the received signal power level is estimated for each of the D received signals, and the
phase-corrected demodulator outputs are weighted in direct proportion of the received
signal strength (square-root of power level) and then fed to the detector, the combiner is
called a Maximal-Ratio combiner. On the other hand, if orthogonal signals are used for
transmitting the information through D independently fading channels, the receiver may
employ non-coherent demodulation. In such a case the outputs from the D demodulators
may be squared, summed, and then fed to detector. This combiner is called a Square-Law
Combiner.
All these types of combining methods lead to performance characteristics that
result in a probability of error which behaves as K
D
/
D
where K
D
is a constant that
depends on D, and
D
is the average SNR/diversity channel. Thus, we achieve an
exponential decrease in the error probability.
It is apparent that a large reduction in SNR/bit is achieved in having D = 2 (dual
diversity) compared to no diversity. A further reduction in SNR is achieved by increasing
the order of diversity to D = 4, although the additional gain from D = 2 to D = 4 is smaller
37

than going from D = 1 to D = 2. Beyond D = 4, the additional reduction in SNR is
significantly smaller.
These performance results illustrate that efficient use of transmitter power in a
Rayleigh fading channel can be achieved by using some form of diversity to provide the
receiver with several independently fading signals all carrying the same information. The
types of diversity that we described (time or frequency) are a form of channel coding
usually called repetition coding where the code rate is 1/D. Thus, if each information bit
is transmitted twice in two widely separated time slots or in two widely separated
frequency bands, we have a dual diversity (D = 2) system obtained with a repetition code
of rate R
c
= 1/2. However, in general, a nontrivial code of rate 1/2 will yield significantly
better performance if the coded bits are interleaved prior to transmission, so that the
fading on each bit of a code word is statistically independent. In particular, a binary linear
(n, k) code with minimum Hamming distance d
min
results in a performance that is
equivalent to a repetition code of diversity d
min
when soft-decision decoding is used and
d
min
/2 when hard-decision decoding is used. Therefore, for any code rate 1/D, a nontrivial
code can be selected which has a minimum Hamming distance d
min
> D and, thus,
provides a larger order of diversity than the corresponding repetition code of the same
rate.
An adaptive forward error correction scheme based on binary codes and operating
over diversity channels has been presented and analyzed in this paper. Based on the
quality of the diversity channels, the code rate over each channel is determined using
discrete optimization of the overall error probability, subject to the constraint of fixed
overall throughput rate. Using binary BCH codes with hard-decision decoding the
proposed system offers a gain of 0.4-1.3 dB over classical diversity systems for diversity
orders of 2-4. Moreover, the proposed system can operate at any desirable throughput rate
which is an added advantage compared to selective diversity systems. The effect of
channel correlation on system performance is similar to that in selection diversity.

4.2 FUTURE SCOPE AND APLICATIONS :
The uses of multiple antennas at both transmit and receive results in a multiple-
input multiple-output (MIMO) system. The use of diversity techniques at both ends of the
link is termed spacetime coding.
38

Today, many Research papers and journals are being published on the
transformation of various Adaptive Diversity concept to combat multi-path fading into
the Space-Time coding concept, that exploit the multi-path effects to increase channel
capacity. This Space-Time coding strives for a joint optimization of advanced signal
processing and coding techniques in combination with the diversity and receiver circuits.
At this moment it is not clear for which type of communication system or product this
technique is most suitable or when it will appear in commercial products. A possible
research project is to extend the simulation tools and measurement set-up such that they
can be used for analyzing various Diversity Systems. In this way a quantitative
comparison between these new systems and the classical diversity systems is possible.
A more advanced measurement set-up could be devised based on an arbitrary
waveform generator. In this way the modulated high frequency signals can be generated
with the arbitrary waveform generator, transmitted across the radio channel and
subsequently received with an analogue to digital convertor or sampling scope. With such
a set-up the propagation effects on the transmitted signals can be analyzed in detail. By
using deep-memory sampling scopes, the received data can be stored on a computer, such
that the performance of different implementations of signal processing methods, like
diversity and equalizing, can be analyzed. The diversity prototype uses a received signal-
strength indicator as a quality signal for the adaptive circuits. If this method is
implemented then the expected behavior and performance of this method in the presence
of interfering systems could be analyzed.
Adaptive Binary Coding for Diversity in communication system is yet to be
implemented on hardware, due to its complexity and ongoing experiments. However the
system shows enormous potential for being used in wireless communication.
It could also be used is in Wi-Fi networking gear and cordless telephones to
compensate for multipath interference. The base station could switch reception to one of
two antennas depending on which it is currently receiving a stronger signal. For
microwave bands, where the wavelengths are under 100 cm, this could often be done with
two antennas attached to the same hardware. For lower frequencies and longer
wavelengths, the antennas must be several meters apart, making it much less reasonable.



39

4.3 ADVANTAGES:
Adaptive Binary Coded Diversity System has the freedom to avoid using a
channel when it is in deep fade, thus it shows more improvement in the
performance than any other systems.
The Adaptive Binary System can operate at any desirable throughput rate which is
an added advantage compared to selective diversity systems which operates at
fixed rates of 1/L.
The signal to noise ratio ( E
0
/ N
0
) increases with increasing the diversity order,
thus the error probability ( p
e
) decreases.
The system utilizes the available diversity channels by forward error correction
coding in an adaptive fashion to improve the reliability and transmission rate of
the system.
The system reliability is improved without increasing the signal power or the
antenna size.
The system, in implementation terms, reduces to that of selecting the best group of
codes for a given channel estimation. Therefore, the system proposed here may be
viewed as a Wider-Range selective diversity system.
Based on the quality of the diversity channels, the code rate over each channel is
determined using discrete optimization of the overall error probability, subject to
the constraint of fixed overall throughput rate.
As the order of diversity becomes higher, the Bandwidth requirement is lower,
thereby improving the Bandwidth Requirement.
As the number of carrier ( Q ) increases, the symbol duration increases Q times
thereby increasing the spectrum efficiency and capacity.

4.4. LIMITATIONS:
Diversity Communication Techniques using Adaptive Binary Coding is still at its
infantry. Various researches and experiments are still being carried out using simulation
programmers. The circuit could still not be implemented on hardware due to its design
complexity.