Marcel Van Der Linden Workers of The World, Essays Toward A Global Labor History Studies in Global Social History 2008

Workors of llo WorId
VanderLinden_f1_i-.indd i 8/8/2008 3:14:10 PM

Sludios in
GIobaI SociaI Hislory
!"#$"% '($)*#
MarcoI van dor Iindon
InlornalionaI Inslilulo of SociaI Hislory, Amslordam, Tlo NollorIands
'($)*#$+, -*+#(
Svon I. Bockor
Harvard Univorsily, Cambridgo, MA, USA
IliIip Bonnor
Univorsily of llo Wilvalorsrand, }olannosburg, Soull Africa
Dirk Hoordor
Univorsily of Arizona, Iloonix, AR, USA
Clilra }osli
Indrapraslla CoIIogo, DoIli Univorsily, India
Amarjil Kaur
Univorsily of Nov IngIand, ArmidaIo, AuslraIia
Barbara Woinsloin
Nov York Univorsily, Nov York, NY, USA
VOIUMI 1
VanderLinden_f1_i-.indd ii 8/8/2008 3:14:12 PM
Workors of llo WorId
Issays lovard a GIobaI Iabor Hislory
-.
MarcoI van dor Iindon
IIIDIN - BOSTON
2008
VanderLinden_f1_i-.indd iii 8/8/2008 3:14:12 PM
Tlis book is prinlod on acid-froo papor.
Iindon, MarcoI van dor, 1952
Workors of llo vorId : ossays lovard a gIobaI Iabor lislory / by MarcoI van dor
Iindon.
p. cm. (Sludios in gIobaI sociaI lislory)
IncIudos bibIiograplicaI roforoncos and indox.
ISBN 978-90-04-16683-7 (lbk. : aIk. papor) 1. IaborHislory. 2. Iabor
movomonlHislory. 3. InlornalionaI Iabor acliviliosHislory. I. TilIo.
HD4841.I497 2008
331dc22
2008029647
ISSN 1874-6705
ISBN 978 90 04 16683 7
Copyrigll 2008 by KoninkIijko BriII NV, Ioidon, Tlo NollorIands.
KoninkIijko BriII NV incorporalos llo imprinls BriII, Holoi IubIisling,
IDC IubIislors, Marlinus Nijloff IubIislors and VSI.
AII riglls rosorvod. No parl of llis pubIicalion may bo roproducod,
lransIalod, slorod in a rolriovaI syslom, or lransmillod in any form or by
any moans, oIoclronic, moclanicaI, plolocopying, rocording or ollorviso,
villoul prior vrillon pormission from llo pubIislor.
Aullorizalion lo plolocopy iloms for inlornaI or porsonaI uso is granlod by
BriII providod llal llo approprialo foos aro paid diroclIy lo Tlo Copyrigll
CIoaranco Conlor, 222 Rosovood Drivo, Suilo 910, Danvors, MA 01923, USA.
Ioos aro subjocl lo clango.
IRINTID IN THI NITHIRIANDS
VanderLinden_f1_i-.indd iv 8/8/2008 3:14:12 PM
!"#$%#$&
AcknovIodgmonls ........................................................................................ vii
Claplor Ono Inlroduclion .................................................................... 1
/*01"2)3+,$4+)$*0%
Claplor Tvo Wlo aro llo vorkors` ................................................... 17
Claplor Tlroo Wly 'froo vago Iabor` ................................................. 39
Claplor Iour Wly clalloI sIavory` ..................................................... 63
5+#$")$"% *6 73)3+,$%7
Claplor Iivo Tlo muluaIisl univorso ................................................. 81
Claplor Six MuluaI insuranco ........................................................... 109
Claplor Sovon Consumor cooporalivos ................................................ 133
Claplor Iigll Iroducor cooporalivos ................................................... 151
8*#7% *6 #"%$%)+01"
Claplor Nino Slrikos .............................................................................. 173
Claplor Ton Consumor prolosl .......................................................... 209
Claplor IIovon Unions ............................................................................. 219
Claplor TvoIvo Iabor inlornalionaIism .................................................. 259
VanderLinden_f1_i-.indd v 8/8/2008 3:14:12 PM
!" $ %&'()'(*
90%$:;)% 6#*7 +(<+1"0) ($%1$2,$0"%
Claplor Tlirloon WorId-syslom lloory .................................................. 287
Claplor Iourloon InlangIod subsislonco Iabor ...................................... 319
Claplor Iifloon Tlo IalmuI oxporionco ................................................ 339
Claplor Sixloon OulIook ......................................................................... 359
BibIiograply ................................................................................................... 379
Indox ................................................................................................................ 455
VanderLinden_f1_i-.indd vi 8/8/2008 3:14:12 PM
'()#"*+%,-.%#$&
Wriling llo ossays coIIoclod in llis voIumo and proparing llom for pubIicalion
invoIvod a coIIaboralion vill many frionds, al lomo and abroad, lo vlom
I oxpross my sincoro graliludo.
I pro!lod, as aIvays, from inspiring discussions vill my coIIoaguos al
llo InlornalionaI Inslilulo of SociaI Hislory in Amslordam vloro as far as
I knov llo concopl of GIobaI Iabor Hislory vas invonlod. Miko Hana-
gan, }offroy Harrod, Iox Hoorma van Voss, }aap KIooslorman, }an Iucasson,
and AIico MuI look llo limo lo road Iargo parls of llo manuscripl. Tloy
assislod mo voII vill lloir many profossionaI commonls and suggoslions
for improvomonl. In addilion, llo foIIoving scloIars crilicizod parls of llo
loxl, or inspirod mo lo nov idoas in our convorsalions and discussions: Iva
Abralam, Ravi Aluja, Iolor AIoxandor, Slalid Amin, Touraj Alabaki, Vinay
BalI, GopaIan BaIaclandran, }airus Banaji, CIaudio BalaIlo, Rana BolaI,
Sabyasacli Blallaclarya, UIbo Bosma, Tom Brass, }an Broman, CaroIyn
Brovn, Hans do Boor, GugIioImo Carclodi, Sidnoy ClaIloub, MoI Dubofsky,
AngoIika Ibbinglaus, Babacar IaII, Dick Goary, }oln Ironcl, }im Hagan,
Dirk Hoordor, Karin Hofmooslor, Riclard Hyman, Clilra }osli, Amarjil Kaur,
Androa KomIosy, }urgon Kocka, Tlomas Kuczynski, VaI Mogladam, Irablu
Molapalra, David Monlgomory, RafaoI Orliz, Riclard Irico, Marcus Rodikor,
MagaIy Rodriguoz, KarI Hoinz Roll, Ralna Saplari, Viconl Sanz, Bruco Scalos,
Samila Son, Bob SIonos, AIossandro Slanziani, }an WiIIom Sluljo, Abram do
Svaan, Sjaak van dor VoIdon, IIiso van Nodorvoon Moorkork, WiIIom van
SclondoI, Adrian Vickors, Iolor Walorman, and Androv WoIIs. Ioon Iink
suggoslod llo lilIo.
Claplors 16, 10 and 1214 aro basod lo a groalor or Iossor dogroo on loxls
I proviousIy pubIislod in =6#$1+0 !)3($"%, 66, 23 (AuguslDocombor 2007),
pp. 16980, Sabyasacli Blallaclarya and }an Iucasson (ods.), >*#?"#% $0 );"
906*#7+, !"1)*#@ !)3($"% $0 A+B*3# C$%)*#. DEFFGHFFF (DoIli |olc.j: MacmiIIan
India, 2005), pp. 2144, Tom Brass and MarcoI van dor Iindon (ods.), 8#""
VanderLinden_f1_i-.indd vii 8/8/2008 3:14:13 PM
+0( I06#"" A+B*3#J K;" L"B+)" /*0)$03"% (Borno: Iolor Iang, 1997), pp. 50123,
M. Irdom Kabadayi and Tobias Roiclardl (ods.), I06#"$" =#B"$)@ M?*0*7$%1;"
30( ?3,)3#:"%1;$1;),$1;" N"#%2"?)$O"0 (HiIdosloim, Zuricl and Nov York: Goorg
OIms VorIag, 2007), pp. 26079, Abram do Svaan and MarcoI van dor Iindon
(ods.), P3)3+,$%) P$1#*!0+01"@ 906*#7+, !+O$0: 830(% 6#*7 );" Q,*B+, N"#$2;"#.
)* );" /*#"R (Amslordam: Aksanl, 2006), pp. 183210, MarcoI van dor Iindon
(od.), !*1$+, !"13#$). P3)3+,$%7 (Borno: Iolor Iang, 1996), pp. 1138, 90)"#0+S
)$*0+, A+B*# +0( >*#?$0:S/,+%% C$%)*#., 46 (IaII 1994), pp. 10921, ImmanuoI
WaIIorsloin (od.), K;" P*("#0 >*#,(S!.%)"7 $0 );" A*0:3" L3#T" (Woslporl,
CT: Iaradigm, 2004), pp. 10731, 90)"#0+)$*0+, U"O$"V *6 !*1$+, C$%)*#., 46, 3
(Docombor 2001), pp. 42359, A+B*3# C$%)*#. |AuslraIiaj, 89 (Novombor 2005),
pp. 197213. Claplors 7, 8, 9, 11, 15, and 16 aro nov maloriaI, nol proviousIy
pubIislod oIsovloro in any form.
During llis projocl, I rocoivod socrolariaI assislanco from Mona HiIfman
and subsoquonlIy AngIo }anso. Claplors or passagos vlicl I did nol vrilo
in IngIisl mysoIf voro lransIalod by Ioo Milzman and }urriaan Bondion
from Dulcl, and by Iolor Tlomas from Gorman. }urriaan Bondion odilod
llo manuscripl as a vloIo, oxcopl for llo bibIiograply.
Amslordam/Vionna, Marcl 2008
!""" $ +,-'&./)012)'(*
VanderLinden_f1_i-.indd viii 8/8/2008 3:14:13 PM
!"#$%&' )*&
!"#$%&'(#)%"
Tlinking is nol buiIding callodraIs or compos-
ing symplonios. If llo symplony oxisls, il is llo
roador vlo musl croalo il in lis ovn oars.
CornoIius Casloriadis
Al llo boginning of llo 21sl conlury, lisloricaI
rosoarcl aboul llo loiI, lroubIos and acliovomonls
of vorkors and Iabor movomonls is undorgoing an
oxciling lransilion lo a lruIy G|co.| Iabor Hislory.
To undorsland vlal is clanging, ono onIy noods
lo comparo llo roconl porspoclivos vill lradilionaI
onos.
IroviousIy, lislorians of llo vorking cIassos pro-
occupiod llomsoIvos aImosl oxcIusivoIy vill llo
dovoIopod capilaIisl counlrios and Iaslorn Iuropo/
Russia. Tloy inlorprolod llo objocl of lloir sludy
in a vory narrov uIlimaloIy Iuroconlric vay. A
ono-sidod paradigm lloroforo prodominalod in llo
groal slroam of pubIicalions appoaring sinco llo
discipIinos pionooring days in llo 1840s. Tlo lypi-
caI vorkor sludiod by llo lradilionaI Iabor lislorian
vas a doubIy froo individuaI (in llo Marxian sonso
of froo lo clooso onos ompIoyor, and frood from
llo ovnorslip of capilaI). Tlis vorkor vas usuaIIy
maIo, and ompIoyod in llo lransporl soclor (docks or
raiIvays), minos, induslry or Iargo-scaIo agricuIluro.
In llo background, lis (or somolimos lor) famiIy
VanderLinden_f2_1-14.indd 1 8/8/2008 7:49:34 PM
+ , !"#$%&' )*&
soomod lo lavo mainIy a consumplivo or roproduclivo funclion: vagos voro
sponl on il, and cliIdron voro raisod by il. Iabor prolosls voro lakon sori-
ousIy, and anaIyzod, mainIy if lloy look llo form of slrikos, lrado union acliv-
ily or parly-poIilicaI aclion by Iofl-ving movomonls.
Irom llo 1950s onvards, many moro conlribulions voro mado lo llo Iabor
lislory of coIonios or formor coIonios. Bul iniliaIIy lloy foII viclim lo llo
samo Iuroconlric biasos.
1
Tloy loo conconlralod on minovorkors, dockors,
pIanlalion vorkors olc., nogIocling famiIios and lousoloId Iabor. Tloir main
focus vas aIso on slrikos, lrado unions and poIilicaI parlios, aIllougl llo
aullors voro inspirod by many difforonl poIilicaI porspoclivos. Ior oxampIo,
}. Norman Iarmors llorougl Cc|cni.| I.ocr Pc|ic .n! A!minisir.iicn (1960)
on llo MaIaysian rubbor pIanlalion induslry (llrougl sovoraI docados pro-
coding llo Socond WorId War) Iookod al vorkors llrougl llo oyos of onlro-
pronours and slalo aullorilios. }oan Closnoauxs cIassic Ic mcutcmcni cutricr
cn C|inc !c 1919 . 192 (1962) vas vrillon from an of!ciaI Communisl posi-
lion. GuiIIormo Ioras Hisicri. !c| mctimicnic corcrc oc|iti.n. (19671970) vas
a Trolskyisl vork.
Ialor sludios oflon lriod lo dovoIop a Ioss Iuroconlric approacl. Iallbroak-
ing vorks in llis rogard incIudo ClarIos van OnsoIons C|io.rc (1976) on mino
Iabor in Soullorn Rlodosia and Ranajil Das Guplas I.ocur .n! Wcr|ing C|.ss
in |.sicrn |n!i. (1994) on pIanlalion vorkors, minors and loxliIo vorkors in
Assam, BongaI and oIsovloro.
2
In llo Iasl lvonly yoars or so, Iabor lislory
onjoys groving inlorosl in parls of llo GIobaI Soull. In Ialin Amorica and
llo Caribboan, }oln Ironcl concIudod a fov yoars ago, llo !oId !rsl gainod
visibiIily in llo oarIy lo mid-1980s and las nov von rocognilion as an oslab-
1
AIroady prior lo llo Socond WorId War, a fov imporlanl conlribulions lo Iabor
lislory in do GIobaI Soull voro pubIislod. Soo for oxampIo Das, I.cicr I.ocr in
|n!i., idom, I.cicr Icgis|.iicn in |n!i., idom, I.ocr Mctcmcni in |n!i., CIark, Org.nizc!
I.ocr in Mcxicc.
2
Tloso nov dovoIopmonls lavo boon covorod ovor llo yoars by a sorios of coI-
Ioclions of ossays. Sandbrook and Colon, Dctc|cpmcni c| .n A|ric.n Wcr|ing C|.ss,
Gulkind, Colon, and Copans, A|ric.n I.ocr Hisicr, Colon, Gulkind, and Brazior,
Pc.s.nis .n! Prc|ci.ri.ns, MunsIov and Iincl, Prc|ci.ri.nis.iicn in i|c 1|ir! Wcr|!,
Agior, Copans, and Morico, C|.sscs cutricrcs !A|riuc ncirc, Amin and van dor Iindon,
Pcrip|cr.| I.ocur.
-*%'./01%2.* , 3
Iislod spociaIizalion among scloIars of many discipIinos.
3
In Soull Asia on
Soullorn Africa simiIar lronds aro visibIo.
4
Novadays llo !oId of Iabor lislory is dovoIoping inlo a lruIy g|co.| projocl,
as slovn by llo numbor of profossionaI conforoncos, associalions, olc. orga-
nizod inlornalionaIIy. Aflor a pionooring Soull African inilialivo in 1978 llo
Hislory Workslop on Iabour, Tovnslips, and Irolosl of llal yoar
5
, llo
roaI lako-off occurrod in 1996 vill llo founding of llo Associalion of Indian
Iabour Hislorians, a dynamic organizalion slaging a sorios of imporlanl con-
foroncos aIong vill many ollor scloIarIy aclivilios. Soon aflorvards Mun-
dos do TrabaIlo vas oslabIislod a nolvork of Iabor lislorians villin llo
BraziIian HisloricaI associalion ANIUH (Associo NacionaI do Hislria).
Iounding conforoncos voro aIso loId in Iakislan (Karacli, 1999), Soull Koroa
(SoouI, 2001), Indonosia ( }ogjakarla, 2005), a socond Soull African conforonco
vas slagod in }olannosburg in 2006. Tlo vasl goograplic oxpansion of llo
discipIino and llo subslanliaI nov ro"oclions il slimuIalos las promplod a
ro-ovaIualion of llo oIdor Iabor lislory ovoryvloro.
Wlon il omorgod in llo 19ll conlury in Iuropo and Norll Amorica, Iabor
lislory combinod mollodoIogicaI nalionaIism vill Iuroconlrism. Tlal
approacl las bocomo conlrovorsiaI in roconl yoars. Mci|c!c|cgic.| n.iicn.|ism
con"alos socioly and llo slalo, and in offocl lroals difforonl nalion slalos as
'Ioibnizoan Monads for lisloricaI rosoarcl. |urcccnirism can bo llougll of as
llo monlaI ordoring of llo vorId from llo slandpoinl of llo Norll-AlIanlic
rogion llo modorn poriod is porcoivod lo bogin in Iuropo and Norll-
Amorica, oxlonding slop by slop lo llo rosl of llo vorId, llo lomporaIily of
llo coro rogion dolorminos llo poriodizalion of dovoIopmonls in llo rosl
of llo vorId. So lislorians roconslruclod llo lislory of llo vorking cIassos
and vorkors movomonls in Iranco, Brilain, llo Unilod Slalos, olc. as scp.r.ic
dovoIopmonls, and if lloy paid allonlion lo sociaI cIassos and movomonls in
Ialin Amorica, Africa or Asia, lloso voro inlorprolod according lo 'Norll-
AlIanlic sclomas.
3
Ironcl, Ialin Amorican and InlornalionaI Working CIass Hislory, p. 137, soo
aIso Ironcl, Ialin Amorican Iabor Sludios Boom.
4
Soo for oxampIo Iround, Iabor and Iabor Hislory in Africa, and BolaI and van
dor Iindon, |n!i.s I.ocuring Pccr.
5
Bonnor, Nov Nalion, Nov Hislory, pp. 9789.
4 , !"#$%&' )*&
Doos llis moan llal Iabor lislorians novor Iookod boyond nalionaI bordors`
Of courso lloy did, and aIroady oarIy on loo. Tlo poinl lovovor is llal lloir
approacl romainod monadoIogic novorlloIoss. Tlo civiIizod Iuropoan
vorId vas lroalod as if il consislod of poopIos aII dovoIoping in moro or Ioss
llo samo diroclion, according lo llo samo principIos, bo il in a difforonl lompo.
Ono nalion vas rogardod as 'moro advancod llan anollor, so llal llo moro
backvard nalions couId soo lloir fuluro ro"oclod in llo Ioading nalions. Al
!rsl llis llougll vas simpIislicaIIy inlorprolod. Iabor movomonls in ollor
counlrios voro sludiod, for oxampIo, lo discovor nov poIicy idoas for ovory-
day poIilics in onos ovn counlry. Sucl an approacl is ovidonl in llo vrilings
of a Gorman pionoor of cross-bordor Iabor movomonl lislory, Ioronz Sloin. In
lis 1842 sludy of sociaIisl and communisl curronls in llo Ironcl proIolarial,
lo assumod from llo oulsol llal lislory dovoIops via soparalo nalions. In llis
vay, lo pIacod limsoIf !rmIy on llo lorrain of monadoIogic llinking. Bul
lo llougll llal ovory profound movomonl in ono nalion vouId soonor or
Ialor ropoal ilsoIf in anollor nalion. Ior llis roason, a sludy of dovoIopmonls
in Iranco soomod an urgonl lask lo foIl llo radicaI movomonl appoaring
lloro vouId soon bosol Gormany, and so lo quoriod rloloricaIIy: Can vo
passivoIy sland by and valcl, lov |llo movomonlj grovs among us, and
romains ruddorIoss, bocauso il is nol undorslood`
6
Tlis kind of molivalion croalod slrong inlorosl in apparonlIy liglIy dovoI-
opod poopIos vlo slovod llo vay of llo fuluro. Soon, lovovor, il bocamo
apparonl jusl lov dif!cuIl il acluaIIy vas lo dorivo usofuI poIilicaI rocipos
from oIsovloro. Wlon Wornor Sombarl roconslruclod llo lislory of llo IlaI-
ian proIolarial, laIf a conlury aflor Sloin, lo concIudod llal sucl compara-
livo sludios providod lardIy any usofuI poIicy advico for ovoryday poIilics
al lomo. Sombarl did boIiovo llal nalions can Ioarn from oacl ollor, bul lo
arguod for a moro fundamonlaI approacl llal vouId focus puroIy on impor-
lanl lloorolicaI quoslions (from vloro`, lo vloro`). Tlis nov mollod-
oIogy slraigllavay oxpandod llo lorrain for rosoarcl, bocauso il moanl llal
sludying moro advancod counlrios vouId no Iongor suf!co. Ono aIso lad lo
immorso onosoIf in Ioss dovoIopod counlrios, insofar as lloy boIong lo llo
samo cuIluraI aroas |Ku|iur|rciscj. Aflor aII: If roguIarilios in sociaI dovoIop-
monl can bo idonli!od al aII, lloso musl rocur in llo Ialo slarlors, il is lloro llal
6
Sloin, Scci.|ismus un! Ccmmunismus, pp. iv, ix.
-*%'./01%2.* , 5
llo corroclnoss of llo lypollosos, formuIalod on llo basis of oarIior oxpori-
oncos in ollor counlrios, musl bo con!rmod.
7
In llis vay, Sombarl raisod monadoIogic Iabor lislory lo scionli!c slalus.
Bul graduaIIy llo monads gainod vindovs. Sombarl limsoIf acknovIodgod
llo in"uonco of llo oxampIo of llo advancod counlrios on llo Iands llal
foIIov llom.
8
In llo courso of llo lvonlioll conlury, allonlion for rociprocaI
in"uoncos bolvoon soparalo poopIos incroasod, ovon if lloso soparalo poopIos
sliII romainod llo fundamonlaI unils of anaIysis. Irom }amos GuiIIaumo lo
}uIius BraunllaI, inlornalionaI organizalions of llo Iabor movomonl voro, for
oxampIo, inlorprolod as coIIaboralivo lios bolvoon vorkors vlo roprosonlod
difforonl counlrios, lios among palriols vill difforonl fallorIands a por-
coplion vlicl, of courso, aIso Iivod in llo movomonl ilsoIf. And in sludios of
inlornalionaI Iabor migralion, llo migranls voro soon as poopIo vlo oillor
prosorvod llo cuIluro of lloir counlry of origin, or oIso assimiIalod in llo cuI-
luro of llo counlry lo vlicl lloy omigralod.
OnIy in llo Iasl docados las llo Iuroconlric monadoIogy boon quoslionod
.s . u|c|c. On llo ono land, Sombarls idoa llal onIy poopIos boIonging lo llo
samo cuIluraI aroa can bo moaningfuIIy comparod las como undor !ro. On
llo ollor land, llo nalion-slalo is incroasingIy lisloricizod, and lloroby roIa-
livizod. Tloso lvo subvorsivo londoncios slouId bo cIoarIy dislinguislod,
bul lloy run moro or Ioss paraIIoI lo oacl ollor. Tloir omorgonco is Iinkod lo
imporlanl inloIIocluaI lransformalions occurring parlicuIarIy sinco llo Soc-
ond WorId War, bul somolimos ovon oarIior, namoIy:
- DocoIonizalion Iod lo many nov indopondonl counlrios, ospociaIIy in
Africa and Asia, vloso cilizons bogan lo invosligalo lloir ovn sociaI lis-
lorios. In llis vay, Iabor lislory acquirod nol onIy an incroasingIy impor-
lanl poriploraI compononl (llo numbor of monads oxpandod), bul il
aIso quickIy bocamo cIoar llal llo poriploraI lislory obviousIy couId nol bo
vrillon villoul conslanlIy roforring lo llo molropoIilan lislory.
9
- TransconlinonlaI imaginod communilios dovoIopod, sucl as Ian-
Africanism.
7
Sombarl, Sludion zur InlvickIungsgosclicllo, p. 178.
8
Ibid.
9
Soo for oxampIo WaIlor Rodnoys Hisicr c| i|c Uppcr Guinc. Cc.si and Hisicr c|
i|c Gu.ncsc Wcr|ing Pccp|c.
6 , !"#$%&' )*&
- In lisloricaI migralion rosoarcl, llo insigll davnod llal llo porspoclivo
of nalion-lo-ollnic-oncIavo misinlorprolod llo roaIily of migranl Iifo,
bocauso migranls oflon Iivo lranscuIluraIIy.
- Bordor cuIluros voro discovorod vlicl did nol !l in llo monadoIogic
scloma.
- Tlo samo appIiod lo lransnalionaI cycIos of vorkors prolosls and slrikos.
AII lloso nov dovoIopmonls (pIus mucl groalor conlacl bolvoon llo lislorians
of difforonl counlrios and conlinonls) croalo a silualion in vlicl llo pilfaIIs
of Iuroconlrism and mollodoIogicaI nalionaIism in lradilionaI Iabor lislory
aro nov cIoarIy visibIo, and lloroforo bocomo a lopic of conlrovorsy.
To vlal, llon, slouId llo lorm GIobaI Iabor Hislory proporIy rofor` Ivory-
ono is onlilIod lo lloir ovn concopl, bul I moan llo foIIoving. As rogards
mci|c!c|cg, an aroa of concorn is invoIvod, rallor llan a voII-do!nod lloo-
rolicaI paradigm lo vlicl ovoryono musl cIosoIy adloro. Our concoplions of
rosoarcl and inlorprolalivo framovorks can and viII diffor. InloIIocluaI pIu-
raIism is nol jusl an inovilabIo roaIily, il is aIso slimuIaling and fruilfuI for
rosoarcl providod vo aro proparod lo onlor inlo a sorious discussion of our
disparalo viovs. Nolvillslanding difforonl approaclos, vo slouId slrivo lo
coIIaboralo produclivoIy in llo samo subjocl aroas. Indood, llo moro vo slaro
a profossionaI Iiloraluro vlicl las in roaIily bocomo an inlornalionaI rosourco,
llo moro llis coIIaboralion aIso bocomos a nocossily.
As rogards i|cmcs, GIobaI Iabor Hislory focusos on llo lransnalionaI and
indood llo lransconlinonlaI sludy of Iabor roIalions and vorkors sociaI
movomonls in llo broadosl sonso of llo vord. By conlinonl I moan pIac-
ing aII lisloricaI procossos in a Iargor conloxl, no mallor lov goograplicaIIy
smaII lloso procossos aro by moans of comparison vill procossos oIso-
vloro, llo sludy of inlornalionaI inloraclions, or a combinalion of llo lvo.
Tlo sludy of Iabor roIalions oncompassos oci| froo Iabor and unfroo Iabor,
boll paid .n! unpaid. Workors sociaI movomonls invoIvo oci| formaI orga-
nizalions .n! informaI aclivilios. Tlo sludy of boll Iabor roIalions and sociaI
movomonls furllor roquiros llal oquaIIy sorious allonlion is dovolod lo llo
ollor sido (ompIoyors, pubIic aullorilios). Iabor roIalions invoIvo nol onIy
llo in!iti!u.| vorkor, bul aIso lis or lor |.mi| vloro appIicabIo. Gondor
roIalions pIay an imporlanl parl oci| villin llo famiIy, .n! in Iabor roIalions
invoIving individuaI famiIy mombors.
-*%'./01%2.* , 7
As rogards llo |isicric.| pcric! sludiod, GIobaI Iabor Hislory pIacos no Iim-
ils on lomporaI porspoclivo, aIllougl in praclico llo omplasis is usuaIIy on
llo sludy of llo Iabor roIalions and vorkors sociaI movomonls llal omorgod
vill llo oxpansion of llo vorId markol from llo fourloonll conlury. Sludios
of oarIior opocls slouId by no moans bo oxcIudod, for inslanco for compara-
livo purposos.
GIobaI Iabor Hislory is an oxlromoIy ambilious nov vonluro. Many of ils
rosoarcl objoclivos romain conlrovorsiaI, or nood furllor cIari!calion. Ils fur-
llor dovoIopmonl viII nood lo ovorcomo many obslacIos in ordor lo "our-
isl. ToclnicaI probIoms viII nood lo bo soIvod.
10
Bul llo groalosl obslacIo,
I boIiovo, romains our ovn monlaIily, burdonod as il is by lradilionaI lloo-
rios and inlorprolalions. I monlionod llo lvo mosl imporlanl pilfaIIs aIroady:
mollodoIogicaI nalionaIism and Iuroconlrism.
Mci|c!c|cgic.| n.iicn.|isis, I arguo, aro llo viclims of lvo imporlanl inloIIoc-
luaI orrors. IirslIy, lloy naluraIizo llo nalion slalo. By llis I moan llal lloy
considor llo nalion slalo as llo basic, soIf-ovidonl anaIylicaI unil for lisloricaI
rosoarcl. Ivon if lloy rocognizo llal nalion slalos onIy "ourislod in llo 19ll
and 20ll conlury, lloy sliII inlorprol oIdor lislory as llo prc|isicr of llo Ialor
nalion-slalo. Cross-bordor or bordor-subvorling procossos aro porcoivod as
dislraclions from llo puro modoI. Wo aro doaIing loro vill a faIso loIooIogy
vlicl ougll lo bo abandonod radicaIIy. In a gIobaI porspoclivo, llo oxislonco
of nalion-slalos obviousIy romains an ossonliaI aspocl of llo vorId syslom.
Bul il is an aspocl vlicl noods lo bo llorouglIy lisloricizod and roIalivizod
vis-a-vis sub-nalionaI, supra-nalionaI and lrans-nalionaI aspocls.
SocondIy, mollodoIogicaI nalionaIisls con"alo sccici vill i|c si.ic and a
n.iicn.| icrriicr. Tlal is lo say: lloy assumo llal 'sociolios (sociaI formalions)
aro goograplicaIIy idonlicaI vill nalion slalos. Tlo Unilod Slalos lavo lloir
ovn socioly, Moxico las ils ovn socioly, Clina las ils ovn socioly, and so
on. Horo, loo, a lolaIIy nov approacl is caIIod for. Iorlaps vo slouId llink
moro profoundIy aboul MiclaoI Manns assorlion llal sociolios aro muIlipIo
ovorIapping and inlorsocling sociospaliaI nolvorks of |idooIogicaI, oconomic,
miIilary and poIilicaIj povor. By impIicalion, Sociolios aro nol unilary. Tloy
10
Sucl as llo facl llal in many counlrios of llo GIobaI Soull voII-cIimalizod,
aclivoIy coIIocling arclivaI inslilulions aro absonl. Il is possibIo lo buiId a voII-func-
lioning arclivo vill modosl !nanciaI moans, as provod by llo oxampIo of llo V.V.
Giri NalionaI Iabour Inslilulo in Noida, India.
8 , !"#$%&' )*&
aro nol sociaI sysloms (cIosod or opon), lloy aro nol lolaIilios. Wo can novor
!nd a singIo boundod socioly in goograplicaI or sociaI spaco.
11
Tlroo varianls of |urcccnirism slouId bo monlionod spoci!caIIy loro. Tlo !rsl
varianl consisls simpIy of ncg|cci: lloro is onIy allonlion for parl of llo vorId,
llo aullor assumos llal llo lislory of lis pioco of llo vorId can bo por-
lrayod villoul giving any allonlion lo llo rosl. Tlis alliludo is voII oxprossod
by llo dislinclion commonIy mado bolvoon llo Wosl and llo Rosl.
Tlo socond varianl is oxpIicil prcju!icc: llo aullors do considor gIobaI con-
noclions, bul novorlloIoss boIiovo Groalor Iuropo (incIuding in llis Norll
Amorica and AuslraIasia) slovs llo vay. Tlis kind of Iuroconlrism is ospo-
ciaIIy ovidonl among modornizalion lloorisls. Roborl Nisbol claraclorizod llis
dovoIopmonl lloory as foIIovs: Mankind is Iikonod lo a vasl procossion, vill
aII, or al Ioasl a vory Iargo numbor of poopIos mado inlo llo mombors of llo pro-
cossion. |. . .j NaluraIIy, Woslorn Iuropo and ils spoci!c, lisloricaIIy acquirod
pallorn of oconomic, poIilicaI, moraI, and roIigious vaIuos vas rogardod as
boing al llo load, in llo vanguard, of llo procossion. AII ollor poopIos, lov-
ovor ricl in lloir ovn civiIizalion, sucl as Clina and India, voro rogardod as,
so lo spoak, 'slops in a procossion llal vouId somo day bring llom loo inlo llo
fuI!IImonl of dovoIopmonl llal vas llo sacrod Wosl.
12
Tlo llird varianl consisls of imp|icii .ssumpiicns orionling rosoarcl. Tlis
varianl is llo mosl dif!cuIl ono lo rocognizo and combal. Wo aro doaIing loro
11
Mann, Scurccs c| Scci.| Pcucr, I, pp. 12.
12
Nisbol, Illnoconlrism, p. 101. Nisbol nolos llal Iuroconlrism (al llal limo sliII
caIIod Illnoconlrism) is symboIizod according lo a bioIogicaI molaplor of grovll and
dovoIopmonl: sociolios aro a bil Iiko pIanls, omorging from sood and llon dovoIoping
inlo maluro organisms. Tlis grovll molaplor is basod on al Ioasl !vo addilionaI
assumplions: Tlis moanl, in llo !rsl pIaco, llal clango is normaIIy ccniinucus. Tlal
is, oacl idonli!abIo condilion of a lling, bo il a lroo, a man, or a cuIluro, is lo bo undor-
slood as laving grovn oul of a procoding condilion of llal samo lling. Socond, Iargo
clangos aro lo bo undorslood as llo cumu|.iitc, as voII as incromonlaI consoquonco
of a losl of smaII clangos. Tlird, sociaI clango is claraclorizod by !i||crcnii.iicn. Iro-
cisoIy as llo sood or forliIizod gorm coII is markod by difforonlialion and variogalion
of funclion and form in ils lislory, so is llo luman cuIluro or inslilulion simiIarIy
markod by llis kind of manifoslalion ovor limo. Iourll, clango of a dovoIopmonlaI
sorl is rogardod as causod for llo mosl parl by somo porsisling, uni|crm proporly or
sol of proporlios. Irom llo doclrino of uniformily camo llo boIiof llal sociaI con"icl,
cooporalion, goograplic Iocalion, raco, or any of llo ollor aIIogod causos so riclIy
slrovn across llo pagos of sociaI lislory, is llo primo and conlinuing causo of aII
dovoIopmonl. Iifll, il is cIoar llal in aII of lloso lloorios of sociaI dovoIopmonl a kind
of ic|cc|cg is prosonl. AIvays lloro is somo 'ond in viov. Tlo ond is concoivod
in puroIy Woslorn lorms. Nisbol, Illnoconlrism, p. 100.
-*%'./01%2.* , 9
vill gonoraI boIiofs aboul lisloricaI oxporionco vlicl, aIIogodIy, lavo boon
con!rmod limo and again by provious scionli!c rosoarcl, and lloroforo can
bo lakon for granlod. So ImpiricaI Iuroconlrisls mako assorlions as if lloy
aro basod on soIf-ovidonl |.cis. Tloy simpIy assumo, for oxampIo, llal lrado
unions aro aIvays mosl offoclivo if lloy conconlralo on somo or ollor form of
coIIoclivo bargaining. Tlis, lloy llink, las boon do!niloIy provod by lislori-
caI oxporionco. Tloy viII oflon dony omplalicaIIy llal a |urcccniric viov of
llo ovidonco is invoIvod in dofonding sucl an inlorprolalion, and fov of llom
aro consciousIy avaro llal a rogionaI projudico is invoIvod loro. As llo Ialo
}im BIaul obsorvod: Iuroconlrism, |. . .j is a vory compIox lling. Wo can ban-
isl aII llo vaIuo moanings of llo vord, aII llo projudicos, and vo sliII lavo
Iuroconlrism as a sol of ompiricaI boIiofs.
13

Counloring llo !rsl lvo varianls (nogIocl and projudico) is roIalivoIy
slraigllforvard, bul llo llird varianl prosonls a mucl biggor obslacIo. Iucion
Iobvro aIroady formuIalod llo probIom laIf a conlury ago: Any inloIIocluaI
calogory vo may forgo in llo vorkslops of llo mind is abIo lo imposo ilsoIf
vill llo samo forco and llo samo lyranny and loIds ovon moro slubbornIy
lo ils oxislonco llan llo maclinos mado in our faclorios.
14
Will llo sludios offorod in llis voIumo, I vanl lo conlribulo lo a GIobaI Iabor
Hislory frood from Iuroconlrism and mollodoIogicaI nalionaIism. Using Iil-
oraluro from divorso rogions, opocls and discipIinos, I provido argumonls
and concopluaI looIs for a difforonl inlorprolalion of lislory a Iabor lislory
vlicl inlogralos llo lislory of sIavory and indonlurod Iabor, and vlicl pays
sorious allonlion lo divorging yol inlorconnoclod dovoIopmonls in difforonl
parls of llo vorId. Tlroo quoslions aro conlraI lo my inquiry:
- Wlal is llo naluro of llo vorId vorking cIass, on vlicl GIobaI Iabor His-
lory focusos` Hov can vo do!no and domarcalo llal cIass, and vlicl fac-
lors dolormino ils composilion`
- Wlicl forms of coIIoclivo aclion did llis vorking cIass dovoIop in llo
courso of limo, and vlal is llo Iogic in llal dovoIopmonl`
13
BIaul, Cc|cnizcrs Mc!c|, p. 9.
14
Iobvro, Hov }uIos MicloIol Invonlod llo Ronaissanco, p. 258.
:; , !"#$%&' )*&
- Wlal can vo Ioarn from adjaconl discipIinos` Wlicl insiglls from anllro-
poIogisls, socioIogisls and ollor sociaI scionlisls aro usofuI in llo dovoIop-
monl of GIobaI Iabor Hislory`
In pursuing lloso quoslions, my ossays do nol prolond lo provido compIolo
and !naI ansvors. I aim rallor lo slov vlal is al issuo for Iabor lislorians,
and lo mark oul a diroclion llal couId usofuIIy orionl fuluro rosoarcl. AII
llo claplors can bo road soparaloIy from oacl ollor, bul lloy form ono con-
noclod vloIo vlicl I llink is consislonl.
Tlo books slapo rosombIos a cIassic lourgIass. Il bogins vill a broad por-
spoclivo. Tlon, llo focus narrovs. IinaIIy, llo viovpoinl vidons again. Tlo
ossays in llo !rsl parl discuss llo concopl of llo vorking cIass, so conlraI
in aII Iabor lislory. Il Iooks Iiko llo nolion vas invonlod in llo ninoloonll
conlury lo idonlify a group of so-caIIod rospoclabIo vorkors in conlrasl lo
sIavos and ollor unfroo Iaborors, llo soIf-ompIoyod (parl of llo polly bour-
gooisio) and poor oulcasls (llo Iumpon-proIolarial). Horo I slov llal, for
many roasons, sucl a cIassi!calion simpIy !ccs nci .pp| in llo GIobaI Soull.
Tlo sociaI groups vlicl in llo oyos of llo oIdor Iabor lislory aro quanlila-
livoIy nol signi!canl oxcoplions vlicl provo llo ruIo .rc llo ruIo in Iargo
parls of Asia, Africa and Ialin Amorica. Wo lloroforo nood a nov concoplu-
aIizalion Ioss orionlod lo llo cxc|usicn llan lo llo inc|usicn of various dopon-
donl or marginaIizod groups of vorkors. Wo lavo lo rocognizo, llal llo roaI
vago-vorkors vill vlom KarI Marx vas conlraIIy concornod, i.o. vorkors
vlo as froo individuaIs can disposo of lloir ovn Iabor-povor as lloir ovn
commodily, and lavo no ollor commodily for saIo, roprosonl cn| cnc u.
.mcng ci|crs in vlicl capilaIism lransforms Iabor povor inlo a commodily.
Tloro aro many ollor forms vlicl domand oquaI allonlion, sucl as clalloI
sIavos, indonlurod Iaborors, slaro-croppors, olc. Claplor 2 oIaboralos llis llo-
sis ompiricaIIy and lloorolicaIIy, vliIo claplors 3 and 4 probo moro doopIy
llo lisloricaI Iogic of llo lvo oxlromos aIong llo spoclrum of Iabor roIalions,
namoIy so-caIIod froo vago Iabor and clalloI sIavory.
15
15
SIavoj Zizok rigllIy poinlod oul, llal llo concopl of llo vorking cIass, lov-
ovor do!nod, donolos a group llal is in ilsoIf, a group villin llo sociaI odi!co,
a nongroup, in ollor vords, ono vloso posilion is in ilsoIf conlradiclory, lloy aro
a produclivo forco. Socioly (and lloso in povor) noods llom in ordor lo roproduco
llomsoIvos and lloir ruIo, bul nonolloIoss, lloy cannol !nd a propor pIaco for llom.
-*%'./01%2.* , ::
Tlo ossays in llo socond and llird parls aro llo narrov middIo pioco.
Draving on lisloricaI and conlomporary caso sludios, lloy sook lo unravoI
llo lisloricaI Iogic in vorking-cIass coIIoclivo aclion. I am vory avaro lloro is
nolling roaIIy nov aboul llal kind of inquiry. Ollors boforo mo lavo mado
simiIar offorls, llo bosl knovn of vlicl is probabIy SoIig IorImans A 1|c-
cr c| i|c I.ocr Mctcmcni (1928), a somovlal dalod vork novadays, bul ono
vlicl conlains insiglls llal romain of inlorosl. Hovovor, my approacl dif-
fors from provious conlribulions in imporlanl rospocls. I inlorprol llo concopl
of a vorkor moro broadIy llan vas cuslomary in llo pasl, I do nol roslricl
mysoIf lo lrado unions, and I lry lo incIudo oxporioncos from aII conlinonls.
Workors coIIoclivo aclion can bo do!nod as mcrc cr |css cccr!in.ic! .ciicn
o . grcup c| ucr|crs (.n!, pcr|.ps, .||ics ic .ii.in . spcci!c! cojcciitc, u|ic| i|c
ucu|! oc un.o|c ic .c|ictc in!iti!u.|| uii|in i|c s.mc iimc |r.mc uii| i|c mc.ns
.t.i|.o|c ic i|cm. Tlis doscriplion is obviousIy vory gonoraI, bocauso il covors
boll crg.niz.iicns (o.g. llo oslabIislmonl of a funoraI fund) and grcup .ciitiiics
(o.g. prolosl marclos). Organizalions aro lloroforo a form of coIIoclivo aclion
by lloir vory naluro.
16
In addilion, llo do!nilion covors nol jusl con"icls of
inlorosl or poIicy, bul aIso difforonl kinds of coIIoclivo aclivilios (o.g. sociaI
ovonls).
Tlo !oId of rosoarcl vlicl llis inlorprolalion opons up is unmanagoabIy
Iargo for ono aullor. I lloroforo focus primariIy on scmcu|.i |crm.| lypos of
vorkors coIIoclivo aclion aboul cccncmic mallors.
17
Tlis roslriclion moans
llal ospociaIIy llo aclivilios of lloso vorkors vlo lavo signi!canl .uicncm
(as do!nod in claplor 2) aro discussod. ObviousIy, llo amounl of porsonaI
Zizok, Againsl llo IopuIisl Tomplalion, p. 565. Tlo vorking cIass in llal sonso
doos nol dosignalo a subjoclivo posilion. Ior dobalo on llis inlorprolalion, soo IacIau,
Wly Conslrucling a IoopIo is llo Main Task, p. 660, and Zizok, Sc||.gcn!, .ocr
nic|i irc||cn!!, p. 188.
16
Tlis idoa is oIaboralod in: Iriodborg, Ios qualro dimonsions do Iaclion
organiso.
17
Tlo dislinclion bolvoon formaI and informaI organizalions is nol aIvays onliroIy
cIoar. Somo scloIars llink llal an organizalion noods vrillon ruIos lo bo formaI,
bul llis vouId impIy iIIiloralos cannol conslilulo a formaI organizalion. Wo migll say
llal an organizalion bocomos moro formaI, vlon il do!nos moro spoci!caIIy vlo is a
mombor, and vlo is nol, vlicl .ciitiiics aro approprialo (usofuI and Iogilimalo), and
vlicl aro nol, vlicl rcscurccs aro approprialo (usofuI and Iogilimalo), and vlicl aro
nol, vlicl mciitcs .n! purpcscs aro approprialo for aclors lo lavo, and vlicl aro nol,
vlicl cuiccmcs aro approprialo, and vlicl aro nol, in vlicl spoci!c ccnicxis (vlon,
vloro) llo organizalions aclivilios aro or aro nol lo lako pIaco. I lavo dorivod lloso
six domains from Burns and IIam, S|.ping c| Scci.| Org.niz.iicn, p. 107.
:+ , !"#$%&' )*&
froodom vlicl subaIlorn vorkors lappon lo lavo slrongIy in"uoncos lloir
abiIily lo buiId oIaboralo, durabIo organizalionaI slrucluros of lloir ovn, sucl
as producor and consumor cooporalivos, or lrado unions.
18
Tlal is vly pIan-
lalion sIavos and ollor groups of vory unfroo vorkors aro nol discussod mucl
in lloso claplors, and vly my focus is moro on vago oarnors, indonlurod
Iaborors on soIf-ompIoyod vorkors.
CoIIoclivo aclion nood nol invoIvo or prosumo prolosl al aII, and in sovoraI
imporlanl aroas lloy aro nol rogardod as prolosls by llo vorkors invoIvod,
llo ompIoyors and slalo aullorilios.
19
Sucl ncn-ccn|rcni.iicn.| aclivilios aro
anaIyzod in claplors 58. Claplors 912 by conlrasl focus on ccn|rcni.iicn.|
aclivilios in vlicl vorkors !gll oul a dispulo vill ompIoyors or slalo aullor-
ilios. Claplors 5, 6, 8 and 10 discuss mainIy roIalivoIy sm.||-sc.|c forms of coI-
Ioclivo aclion in vlicl llo parlicipanls lavo groal in"uonco on day-lo-day
affairs. In somo parls of llo vorId, smaII-scaIo organizalions boIong IargoIy
lo a bygono ora (for oxampIo in llo Norll AlIanlic rogion), vliIo in ollor parls
lloy aro sliII found in Iargo numbors. Claplors 7, 11 and 12 by conlrasl aIso
givo allonlion lo llo ir.nsiiicn from smaII-scaIo lo Iargo-scaIo forms of coIIoc-
livo aclion.
In llo Iasl parl of llis book, a broad paIollo of quoslions passos llo roviov.
Bocauso GIobaI Iabor Hislory is drivon boyond lradilionaI discipIinary
boundarios by rodo!ning coro concopls, mucl can and slouId bo Ioarnl from
adjaconl discipIinos. Tlal is lruo boll lloorolicaIIy and concopluaIIy (I dis-
cuss llo vorId sysloms approacl and llo BioIofoId SclooI), as voII as
18
Tlo dividing Iino is of courso nol absoIulo. Somo of llo coIIoclivo aclivilios ana-
Iyzod, sucl as rolaling Iabor and rolaling crodil, aIso occur somolimos among clalloI
sIavos. Iolor KoIclin rigllIy poinls oul llal clalloI sIavos in llo Caribboan (in conlrasl
lo llo Amorican Soull) voro nol infroquonlIy oconomicaIIy soIf-supporling: lloy
raiso lloir ovn food on pIols of Iand aIIollod lo llom for llo purposo and somolimos
ongagod in subslanliaI commorciaI aclivily by soIIing lloir agricuIluraI surpIus as voII
as lloir various landicrafl producls. KoIclin, RoovaIualing llo AnloboIIum SIavo
Communily, pp. 5889. Tlal aulonomy mado simpIo forms of muluaIism possibIo.
19
Somo lislorians IaboI aII forms of vorkors coIIoclivo aclion as acls of prolosl,
ovon vlon llo vorkors invoIvod do nol inlond llom as sucl. I rogard llis praclico as
ono of llo sublIor forms of condosconsion in lisloricaI vriling llal }oln Slovonson
las doscribod. Soo lis Pcpu|.r Disiuro.nccs in |ng|.n!, p. 4. Wlollor an aclion is a
vioIalion of oxisling IogaI and oxlra-IogaI ruIos doponds onliroIy on llo spoci!c lis-
loricaI conloxl. Duo parlIy lo llo prossuro of coIIoclivo aclion, slalo aullorilios koop
rodo!ning llo ruIos, as a consoquonco, aclions llal may bo sorious vioIalions al ono
momonl may al anollor limo bo onliroIy IogaI. Hislory abounds vill casos of sucl
slifls from a moro roprossivo lo a Ioss roprossivo slanco, or vico vorsa.
-*%'./01%2.* , :3
ompiricaIIy. Tlus, for oxampIo, llo boundary bolvoon llo lisloriograplios of
sIavory and vago Iabor viII nocossariIy bocomo vaguor in llo fuluro. Bul vo
can aIso !nd inspiralion oIsovloro. Tlo fourll parl of llo book aims lo dom-
onslralo llal mucl can bo Ioarnl from llo sociaI scioncos, ovon vlon lloy aro
nol oxpIicilIy concornod vill Iabor issuos. Bocauso of llo oxpIoralory naluro
of llo sludios bundIod in llis voIumo, llo !naI claplor doos nol prolond lo
drav any gonoraI concIusions, bul insload spoci!os llo lasks of GIobaI Iabor
Hislory moro cIosoIy in llo Iigll of vlal las boon said.
Tlo Auslrian poIymall Ollo Nourall onco vrolo llal scloIars aro Iiko saiIors,
vlo, lravorsing llo ligl soas, vanl lo clango llo slapo of llo framo and
luII of lloir unvioIdy slips. As voII as using limbor from llo oId conslruc-
lion, lloy pick up driflvood vill vlicl lo lransform llo slips slrucluro.
Bul lloy aro unabIo lo pul lloir slip in llo dock so llal lloy can bogin al
llo boginning. Tloy lavo lo slay on board vliIo lloy aro al vork, dofying
loavy slorms and llundoring vavos. In robuiIding lloir slip, lloy lako caro
lo onsuro llal no dangorous Ioaks appoar. A nov slip llus omorgos oul of llo
oId, slop by slop.
20
GIobaI Iabor Hislorians faco llo samo prodicamonl, vo cannol buiId our
nov slip villoul llo oId ono, and somolov vo lavo lo lransform llo oId ono
inlo llo nov. Ior llal roason, llo ossays I prosonl loro aro sliII lrappod in
llo Iogacy of llo oId Iabor lislory lo a groal oxlonl. In addilion, vloroas I do
go boyond lradilionaI concopluaI and lorriloriaI boundarios, I am Iimilod by
my ovn knovIodgo and llo maloriaI avaiIabIo al prosonl llo Iallor vlicl is
oxcoplionaIIy unovonIy dovoIopod, boll rogionaIIy, lomporaIIy and llomali-
caIIy. Tlo roaIily is llal vo simpIy knov mucl moro aboul froo vago oarn-
ors in Iuropo and Norll Amorica in llo 19ll and 20ll conlury, llan aboul
unfroo Iaborors in Clina or Soull Asia in llo sovonloonll and oiglloonll
conlury. Tlis book lloroforo admillodIy conlains an unvanlod bul inovilabIo
oi.s, ospociaIIy in claplors 69, vloro llo omplasis is disproporlionaloIy on
llo Norll AlIanlic rogion and on froo vago oarnors, indonlurod Iaborors
and soIf-ompIoyod vorkors. I can onIy lopo llal by oxpIicilIy acknovIodging
llis Iimilalion I viII, in llo nol loo dislanl fuluro, slimuIalo moro allonlion by
rosoarclors for llo Ioss-sludiod vorIds of subaIlorn vorkors.
20
Nourall, GrundIagon dor SoziaIvissonsclaflon, p. 918.
:4 , !"#$%&' )*&
I furllormoro lopo llal my idoas viII claIIongo ollor scloIars nol onIy lo
criliquo, bul ospociaIIy lo rosoarcling llo nov lorrain mucl moro llomsoIvos.
Tlo novIy omorging GIobaI Iabor Hislory is ovon jusl bocauso of llo many
Ianguagos vlicl rosoarclors lavo lo knov, llo vasl sizo of llo oxisling Iil-
oraluro, and llo many concopluaI lransIalion probIoms a !oId in vlicl
coIIaboralion bolvoon scloIars from difforonl cuIluros and rogions is of vilaI
imporlanco. In doing so, vo can as I viII domonslralo in llis book aIso
pro!l from llo vork of oarIior Iabor lislorians. AIllougl llo signi!canco of
lloir sludios is roframod in a nov porspoclivo, lloy romain a vaIuabIo sourco
of insiglls and dala.
!"#$%&'()*+,)'+"#-
!"#$%&' )*+
./" )1% '/% 2"13%1-4
Tlo vorking cIass concopl, originaling in 19ll-
conlury Iuropo, las boon quoslionod moro and
moro in roconl docados. Hislorians and socioIogisls
poinl oul llal llo bordorIino bolvoon froo vago-
Iabor, soIf-ompIoymonl and unfroo Iabor is in roaIily
nol cIoar-cul, and llal llo difforoncos bolvoon urban
and ruraI Iabor slouId nol bo mado absoIulo.
1
Iolor
Iinobaugl and Marcus Rodikor, for oxampIo, rovoaI
lov a muIliform proIolarial of lovors of vood and
dravors of valor dovoIopod in llo oarIy-modorn
Norll AlIanlic rogion, vill various silos of slruggIo:
llo commons, llo pIanlalion, llo slip, and llo fac-
lory. Tloy mako a pIausibIo caso for llo viov llal
sIavos and maroons from Africa, indonlurod Iabor-
ors from Iuropo, nalivo Amoricans, and froo vago
oarnors and arlisans logollor conslilulod a com-
pIox, bul aIso sociaIIy and cuIluraIIy inlorconnoclod,
amorplous muIliludo, vlicl vas aIso porcoivod
as ono groal mass (a many-loadod Hydra) by
lloso in povor. Iinobaugl and Rodikor rofor lo llo
1791 roboIIion of Hailian sIavos as llo !rsl succoss-
fuI vorkors rovoIl in modorn lislory. Tloy suggosl
llal llis rovoIulion conlribulod lo llo sogmonlalion
1
V.I. AIIon vas ono of llo !rsl lo inilialo llis discussion in Moaning of llo Work-
ing CIass in Africa. Soo aIso Borgquisl, I.ocr in I.iin Amcric., ospociaIIy claplors 1
and 6, Broman, P.ircn.gc .n! |xp|cii.iicn, O| Pc.s.nis, Migr.nis .n! P.upcrs, Bccn!
P.ircn.gc .n! |xp|cii.iicn, Icci|ccsc I.ocur, Gooplu, Pc|iiics c| i|c Uro.n Pccr.
,- . !"#$%&' )*+
of llal roboIIious muIliludo aflorvards: Wlal vas Iofl bolind vas nalionaI
and parliaI: llo |ng|is| vorking cIass, llo o|.c| Hailian, llo |ris| diaspora.
2

Tlo narrov ninoloonll-conlury concopl of llo proIolarial vo !nd in Marx and
ollors vas, lloy suggosl, a rosuIl of llis sogmonlalion.
Wlal migll a moro roaIislic, broadonod concopl of llo vorking cIass Iook
Iiko` To !nd an ansvor lo llis quoslion, I viII slarl off vill a conslruclivo
criliquo of Marx do!nilion of llo vorking cIass. I uso Marx as a slarling poinl
for lvo roasons: lo is sliII an imporlanl sourco of inspiralion for scloIars
around llo vorId, and, in spilo of sovoraI voaknossos, lis anaIysis is sliII llo
bosl vo lavo.
5/% $"6&*%7+'8 "9 *):"1 &"2%1 $"66";+!$)'+"#
Tlo oponing Iinos of Marx C.pii.| aro famous: Tlo voaIll of sociolios in
vlicl llo capilaIisl modo of produclion provaiIs appoars as an 'immonso coI-
Ioclion of commodilios, llo individuaI commodily appoars as ils oIomonlary
form. Our invosligalion lloroforo bogins vill llo anaIysis of llo commod-
ily.
3
Marx rogardod llo capilaIisl modo of produclion as llo consoquonco
of llo ccmmc!i!c.iicn of (i) Iabor povor, (ii) moans of produclion and rav
maloriaIs, and (iii) Iabor producls. Tlo !rsl oIomonl is cruciaI for my argu-
monl. Marx assumod llal Iabor povor can bocomo a commodily, an objocl
of lrado, in onIy cnc vay llal is lruIy capilaIisl, namoIy llrougl |rcc u.gc
|.ocr, in vlicl llo vorkor as a froo individuaI can disposo of lis Iabour-
povor as lis ovn commodily and las no ollor commodily for saIo.
4
Ho
2
Iinobaugl and Rodikor, M.n-Hc.!c! H!r., pp. 286, 319, 327.
3
Marx, C.pii.|, I, p. 125. Tloso oponing Iinos voro aImosl llo samo as in Marxs
provious vork A Ccniriouiicn ic i|c Criiiuc c| Pc|iiic.| cccncm (1859), vlicl Marx
limsoIf doIiboraloIy acknovIodgos in a foolnolo. Tlis oarIior vork, vlicl !rsl skolclod
oul llo circuils of commodily lrado and capilaI accumuIalion in llo dislinclivo Marx-
ian vay, vas IargoIy ignorod by lis inlondod audionco and faiIod lo soII voII upon
pubIicalion. OnIy llo profaco, in vlicl Marx brio"y indicalod lis inlorprolalion of
luman lislory, vas Ialor vidoIy cilod.
4
Ibid., p. 272. AdmillodIy Marx doos oxpIicilIy rocognizo in C.pii.| llal Wagos
llomsoIvos again lako many forms vlicl lo inlondod lo anaIyzo in a spociaI sludy
of vago-Iabour (ibid., p. 683). Bul lo novor did so, a lloorolicaI anaIysis of llo
inslilulions of Iabor markols is conspicuous for ils absonco in lis vrilings. Ho aIso
omplasizos in a suppIomonlary loxl lis viov llal Abovo aII, |capilaIj ovorlurns aII
llo IogaI or lradilionaI barriors llal vouId provonl il from buying llis or llal kind of
Iabour-povor as il soos !l, or from approprialing llis or llal kind of Iabour (ibid.,
/"+ #'& %"& *+'0&'12 . ,3
omplasizod llal Iabour-povor can appoar on llo markol as a commodily
onIy if, and so far as, ils possossor, llo individuaI vloso Iabour-povor il is,
offors il for saIo or soIIs il as a commodily.
5
Tlo narrov concopl of llo vorking cIass is basod on llis idoa. If onIy llo
Iabor povor of |rcc vago Iaborors is commodi!od, il impIios llo roaI vork-
ing cIass in capilaIism can onIy consisl of sucl vorkors. Bul Marx lypollosis
las, as far as I knov, novor boon supporlod by propor roasoning or lard facls.
Ior a Iong vliIo, il probabIy soomod soIf-ovidonl, il soomod lo corrospond lo
llo procoss by vlicl a proIolarial vas formod in llo Norll AlIanlic rogion.
Yol Marx lypollosis in lrull prosumos lvo liglIy quoslionabIo idoas,
namoIy llal Iabor povor slouId bo offorod for saIo by llo vorkor vlo is llo
c.rricr and pcsscsscr of llis Iabor povor, and llal llo vorkor vlo soIIs lis or
lor ovn Iabor povor sc||s nci|ing c|sc.
6
Bul vly slouId llal bo so` Wly canl
Iabor povor bo soId by somoono ci|cr llan llo carrior` Wly can llo porson
vlo offors (lis or lor ovn, or somoono oIsos) Iabor povor for saIo nol soII il
condilionaIIy, logollor vill moans of produclion` And vly can a sIavo nol
p. 1013). NovorlloIoss lo assumos llrougloul llal capilaIism las llo londoncy lo
univorsaIizo froo vago Iabor invoIving llo kind of Iabor roIalionslip jusl doscribod,
i.o. llal i|is form of commodi!calion is i|c csscnii.|, |un!.mcni.| cnc claraclorislic of
llo capilaIisl modo of produclion as il dovoIops, grovs and dispIacos ollor vays of
producing. Ivon if ono inlorprols Marxs sludy as ono of capilaIism onIy in ils puro
form or in ils idoaI avorago, minus ils varialions and gradalions, lis idoa is cIoarIy
llal llrougl lisloricaI dovoIopmonls llo puro form viII bo approximalod moro and
moro cIosoIy, procisoIy by cIoaring avay aII obslacIos in ils pall. Tlis impIios llal aII
ollor kinds of Iabor roIalions vouId lond lo disappoar, bocauso lloy aro uIlimaloIy
aII dysfunclionaI lo capilaI accumuIalion and markol oxpansion. If in facl lloso Iabor
roIalions porsislod, llo quoslion is vly. Tlo mosl obvious ansvor is llal lloy aro,
commorciaIIy or in lisloricaI roaIily, al Ioasl quilo compalibIo vill capilaIisl markols,
mosl vill llom, or ovon .rc ncccss.r for lloir furllor dovoIopmonl.
5
Ibid., p. 271.
6
SovoraI aullors lavo arguod llal llo lorm soIIing is nol roaIIy approprialo in
llo caso of vago Iabor, bocauso il aIvays invoIvos onIy a icmpcr.r saIo of Iabor (llo
uso of Iabor povor), and usuaIIy vo vouId nol caII sucl a lransaclion soIIing,
bul liring oul (or Ioasing). Tlis may soom a fuliIo or lriviaI poinl of Iinguislic
nuanco onco Iabor offorl las boon mado, vo can novor lurn llo cIock back so llal
llo approprialod Iabor offorl is ilsoIf rolurnod lo llo vago Iaboror (llo IogaI ovnor of
Iabor povor) vlo lirod or Ioasod il oul, in conlrasl lo ollor kinds of lirod, ronlod or
Ioasod oconomic goods vlicl can bo so rolurnod bul llo lloorolicaI and praclicaI
impIicalions can bo groal. Soo for oxampIo Opponloimor, sczi.|c Ir.gc un! !cr Sczi.|-
ismus, pp. 11922, IIdrod and HanIon, Roconslrucling VaIuo-Iorm AnaIysis, p. 44:
Iundkvisl, Krilik af Marx Ionloori, pp. 1618, Burklardl, Krilik dor Marxsclon
Molrvorllloorio, pp. 1257, Rubon, Isl dio Arboilskrafl oino Waro`, and Kuczynski,
Was vird auf dom Arboilsmarkl vorkaufl`.
45 . !"#$%&' )*+
porform lirod Iabor for a llird parly for llo bono!l of lis ovnor` }usl laking
llo dislinclion bolvoon a carrior and an possossor of Iabor povor as sucl,
vo can aIroady dislinguisl four difforonl lypos of possibIo Iabor commodi!ca-
lion, namoIy .uicncmcus commodi!calion, in vlicl llo carrior of Iabor povor
is aIso ils possossor, and |cicrcncmcus commodi!calion, in vlicl llo carrior
of Iabor povor is nol ils possossor, in boll casos, llo carriors Iabor povor can
bo offorod by llo carrior lim- or lorsoIf or by anollor porson (TabIo 2.1).
TabIo 2.1
Somo forms of Iabor commodi!calion
Aulonomous
(llo carrior is llo possossor)
Holoronomous
(llo carrior is nol llo possossor)
Tlo carrior soIIs lis
or lor ovn Iabor
povor
Iroo vago Iabor (Marx)
Slaro-cropping
Iabor by soIf-ompIoyod
arlisans
Wago Iabor by sIavos
Tlo carrior doos nol
soII lis or lor ovn
Iabor povor
Subconlraclod vago Iabor Iabor by clalloI sIavos
Wago Iabor by cliIdron
Il sooms moro roasonabIo lo admil llal in rc.|ii Iabor commodi!calion lakos
m.n !i||crcni |crms, of vlicl llo froo vago-oarnor onIy soIIing lis or lor ovn
Iabor povor is onIy cnc oxampIo.
7
I oxpIoro lloso muIlipIo forms boIov, boll
by poinling al llo lransilionaI forms bolvoon Marx subaIlorn cIassos, and
aIso by uncovoring somo impIicil faIso assumplions. I lopo llis doconslruc-
lion viII proparo llo ground for a concopluaIizalion vlicl corrosponds
mucl bollor lo llo lisloricaI facls.
<1);()* '1)#-+'+"#-
In addilion lo capilaIisls and IandIords, Marxian orllodoxy dislinguislod
!vo main subaIlorn cIassos or somi-cIassos in capilaIism: llo |rcc u.gc |.ocrcrs,
vlo onIy ovn lloir ovn Iabor povor and soII llis, llo pcii ocurgccisic,
7
}oln Hicks aIroady roaclos llo concIusion llal lloro aro sovoraI forms of Iabor
povor commodi!calion: Iillor llo Iabouror may bo soId oulrigll, vlicl is sIavory,
or lis sorvicos onIy may bo lirod, vlicl is vago-paymonl. Hicks, 1|ccr c| |ccncmic
Hisicr, p. 123. A !rsl oIaboralion of llis viov can bo found in Rolvor, KapilaIismus
und 'froio Iolnarboil. Soo aIso Banaji, Iiclions of Iroo Iabour, Blandari, SIavory
and Wago Iabor in Hislory.
/"+ #'& %"& *+'0&'12 . 4,
consisling of smaII-scaIo commodily producors and dislribulors ompIoying
a smaII numbor of vorkors, llo sc||-cmp|cc!, vlo ovn lloir Iabor povor
and moans of produclion and soII lloir ovn Iabor producls or sorvicos (llo
soIf-ompIoying Iabouror is lis ovn vago Iabouror, lis ovn moans of pro-
duclion appoar lo lim as capilaI. As lis ovn capilaIisl, lo ompIoys limsoIf
as lis ovn vago Iabouror),
8
llo s|.tcs, vlo noillor ovn lloir Iabor povor
nor lloir looIs and .rc soId (in sIavory llo vorkor is nolling bul a Iiving
Iabour-maclino, vlicl lloroforo las a vaIuo for ollors, or rallor is a vaIuo),
9

and llo |umpcnprc|ci.ri.ns, vlo faII oulsido llo IogaIizod Iabor markol aIlo-
gollor. Tlo Iasl group usuaIIy romains oulsido llo anaIysis, and is mainIy
usod as a rosiduaI calogory. Tlo cIass slruggIo is soon lo bo vagod mainIy
bolvoon capilaIisls, Iandovnors and vago oarnors. Tlo ollor, inlormodialo
cIassos aro lisloricaIIy Ioss imporlanl and pIay no indopondonl poIilicaI roIo,
lloy docay and !naIIy disappoar in llo faco of modorn induslry.
10
In llis
inlorprolalion,
- SIavory is an anomaIy opposilo llo bourgoois syslom ilsoIf, vlicl is pos-
sibIo al individuaI poinls villin llo bourgoois syslom of produclion, bul
onIy bocauso il doos nol oxisl al ollor poinls.
11
- SoIf-ompIoyod vorkors roprosonl ombryonic forms of capilaIisl vago-
Iabor.
12

- Tlo polly bourgooisio, llo smaII lradospoopIo, slopkoopors, and rcniicrs,
llo landicraflsmon and poasanls aII lloso sink graduaIIy inlo llo proIo-
larial.
13
- Tlo IumponproIolarial is llo 'dangorous cIass, llo sociaI scum, llal pas-
sivoIy rolling mass llrovn off by llo Iovosl Iayors of oId socioly,
14
vlicl
incIudos vagabonds, criminaIs, proslilulos.
15
8
Marx, konomisclo Manuskriplo 18631867, p. 111.
9
Marx, Grun!rissc, p. 465.
10
Marx and IngoIs, Manifoslo of llo Communisl Iarly, p. 77.
11
Marx, Grun!rissc, p. 464.
12
Marx, 1|ccrics c| Surp|us V.|uc, III, pp. 4223.
13
14
Ibid., p. 77. On Marx concopluaIizalion of smaII commodily producors soo aIso
llo appondix in }aogor, Ariis.n.i ci c.pii.|ismc, pp. 297314, and Iopporl-Igon, Dic
!c||.ssicric K|.ssc, passim.
15
Marx, C.pii.|, I, p. 797. Comparo CIass SlruggIos in Iranco, p. 62: a mass
slarpIy difforonlialod from llo induslriaI proIolarial, a rocruiling ground for lliovos
and criminaIs of aII kinds, Iiving on llo crumbs of socioly, poopIo villoul a do!nilo
44 . !"#$%&' )*+
Tlis Marxian sclomo posluIalos a sociaI dislanco bolvoon llo froo vago
Iaborors and llo ollor subaIlorn groups. Bul doos llis sclomo al aII malcl
lisloricaI roaIily` Do Marx froo vago Iaborors in facl oxisl` In roaIily,
lloro is an aImosl ondIoss varioly of producors in capilaIism, and llo inlor-
modialo forms bolvoon llo difforonl calogorios aro "uid rallor llan slarpIy
do!nod.
Iroo vago Iabor SoIf-ompIoymonl
SIavory IumponproIolarial
Ior llal roason, vo ougll lo oxamino somo of lloso inlormodialo forms
moro cIosoIy bolvoon vago Iabor and sIavory, bolvoon vago Iabor and
soIf-ompIoymonl, bolvoon sIavory and soIf-ompIoymonl, and bolvoon vago
Iabor, sIavory and soIf-ompIoymonl on llo ono land, and llo IumponproIo-
larial on llo ollor.
|nicrmc!i.ic |crms ociuccn u.gc |.ocr .n! s|.tcr
Tloro aro various Iabor roIalions in vlicl llo vago oarnor is plysicaIIy forcod
lo do lis or lor vork, vloroas llo vagos aro paid, or lavo lo bo landod ovor,
lo a llird porson. CliId Iabor, in vlicl caso llo paronls or guardians of llo
lrado, vagabonds, gcns s.ns |cu ci s.ns .tcu. Soo aIso Drapor, Concopl of llo
'IumponproIolarial, Bovonkork, RolabiIilalion of llo RabbIo, Hayos, Uicpi. and
llo IumponproIolarial.
Difforonl viovs on llo posilion of proslilulos in llo cIass syslom can bo found
in Marx vrilings. Wlon lo discussos llo roIalivo surpIus popuIalion in C.pii.|, lo
rogards proslilulos as an imporlanl parl of llo acluaI IumponproIolarial (C.pii.|, I,
p. 797) IIsovloro, ospociaIIy in llo 1|ccrics c| Surp|us V.|uc, I, pp. 166 and 186, Marx
says llal proslilulos, if lloy vork for a brolloI koopor, porform (unproduclivo) vago
Iabor, Iiko aclors or musicians, and llus aro, by impIicalion, parl of llo proIolarial in
llo narrov sonso of llo vord. Tlis slovs onco again lov llo vays in vlicl sociaI
cIass is do!nod can bo fuII of faIso considoralions, vlicl oflon romain impIicil, pro-
cisoIy bocauso lloy aro moraIislic, and claraclorislic of lloir limo. Tlis is probabIy
vlal Rosnick and WoIff rofor lo as llo discursivo dovico inspirod by an urgonl
poIomicaI inlonl. Rosnick and WoIff, Kncu|c!gc .n! C|.ss, pp. 1612.
/"+ #'& %"& *+'0&'12 . 46
cliId rocoivo llo vagos, is a good oxampIo. Young }apanoso girIs lirod oul
as gcis|.s in oxclango for a sum of monoy voro an oxampIo of llis.
16

Many inslancos aro knovn of sIavos vlo porformod vago Iabor for lloir
maslors. In Buonos Airos al llo ond of llo oiglloonll conlury, for oxampIo,
llis plonomonon vas so common, llal many sIavo ovnors voro compIoloIy
dopondonl on llo vagos of lloir sIavos. Tlo nolarys accounls of llal limo
suggosl llal in Iong Iabor conlracls, vagos, minus oslimalod Iiving oxponsos,
voro commonIy paid diroclIy lo sIavo ovnors by ompIoyors of lirod sIavo
Iabor.
17
Tlroo main variolios can bo dislinguislod:
- Tlo sIavo ovnor compoIs llo sIavo lo porform vago Iabor for anollor
ompIoyor, and coIIocls aII or parl of llo vagos. Oflon, llo sIavo-ovnors
and sIavo ompIoyors arrangod llo ralo of liro ovor llo sIavos load, bul
llo silualion of a sIavo aclivoIy sooking and nogolialing lis or lor ovn
liro occurrod as voII.
18
- Tlo sIavo ovnor pays lis or lor sIavos in casl for an oxlra offorl, oillor by
moans of bonusos, oillor as gifls or as inconlivos, or as a paymonl mado
for oxlra vork in lask sysloms or for vorking ovorlimo.
19
- Tlo sIavo vorks voIunlariIy for lis vagos, oillor for an ompIoyor or for
a foIIov sIavo. Tlo BIuo Mounlain oslalo in }amaica in llo Ialo oiglloonll
conlury is an oxampIo of llo Iallor caso: Tlo sIavos paid oacl ollor vagos.
Sunday vork on llo provision grounds, for oxampIo, couId oarn 1s.8d por
day pIus broakfasl.
20
ConvorsoIy, vago Iaborors aro oflon Ioss froo llan llo cIassicaI viov sug-
gosls. ImpIoyors lavo oflon roslriclod lloir ompIoyoos froodom lo Ioavo
in silualions of Iabor scarcily. An ompIoyoo can bo liod lo an ompIoyor in
many vays:
16
Ramsoyor, Indonlurod Iroslilulion in ImporiaI }apan, p. 101.
17
}olnson, Compolilion of SIavo and Iroo Iabor, p. 273.
18
BoIIand, Irolo-IroIolarians`, p. 128.
19
Ibid., p. 127.
20
Turnor, ClalloI SIavos inlo Wago SIavos, p. 39.
47 . !"#$%&' )*+
- Dcoi ocn!.gc is a mollod llal occurrod on aII conlinonls, from llo Scollisl
coaI minos in llo oiglloonll conlury lo conlomporary agricuIluro in Ialin
Amorica and Soull Asia.
21
- |n!cniurc! |.ocr is of courso cIosoIy roIalod lo dobl bondago. Tlo Indian,
Indonosian, and Clinoso cooIios vlo voro ompIoyod in Soull Africa, Ialin
Amorica of ollor parls of Asia aro a voII-knovn oxampIo of llis.
22
- Tlo mobiIily of vorkors couId aIso bo Iimilod by ccrii!c.ics c| |c.tc. Willoul
lloso moans of idonli!calion, vorkors couId nol bo lirod by any ompIoyor.
Il vas a claraclorislic foaluro of llis praclico llal llo ompIoyor look possos-
sion of llo corli!calo al llo slarl of llo ompIoymonl and gavo il back lo llo
vorkor onIy vlon lo or slo lad, in llo ompIoyors viov, salis!od aII lis or
lor obIigalions.
23
- P|sic.| ccmpu|sicn vas anollor oplion for ompIoyors. Somolimos ompIoy-
ors vonl as far as plysicaIIy Iocking up lloir vago-oarning ompIoyoos, lo
provonl llom from boing lomplod by lloir businoss rivaIs. In llo }apanoso
loxliIo induslry of llo 1920s, fomaIo vorkors voro Iockod up in dormilorios
for llal roason. Somolimos, lloy voro nol pormillod lo Ioavo llo promisos
al aII for moro llan four monlls al a limo.
24
- Scci.| sccurii prctisicns .n! ci|cr spcci.| ocnc!is offorod a Ioss aggrossivo vay
of binding ompIoyoos. Around 1900, Argonlinoan companios, for oxampIo,
croalod muluaI aid and friondIy sociolios adminislorod by llo company,
and dosignod lo mako llo vorkors dopondonl on llo !rm.
25
Gardon pIols
providod by llo company couId lavo llo samo offocl, bocauso lloy mado
21
Asllon, CoaI-Minors of llo Iiglloonll Conlury, p. 308, Broman, I.ocur Bcn!-
.gc in Wcsi |n!i..
22
Soo llo survoys in Tinkor, Ncu Ssicm c| S|.tcr, Iolls, Wcr|! I.ocur M.r|ci,
Hoordor, Cu|iurcs in Ccni.ci, pp. 366404.
23
Soo llo oxampIo of Cuban cigar makors in llo 1850s in Casanovas, Brc.!, cr
Bu||cis!, p. 60, or llo casos of pIanlalion vorkors in Harrios, IIanlalions, Iassos and
IroIolarians, pp. 38990, and IoobIos, P|.ni.iicn 1.mi|s, p. 60.
24
Orclard, j.p.ns |ccncmic Pcsiiicn, p. 343. A somovlal difforonl varianl oxislod
in llo pro-rovoIulionary Ironcl gIass induslry, vloro gIassmakors somolimos voro
forbiddon lo vandor moro llan a Ioaguos dislanco from llo faclory villoul vril-
lon pormission from lloir ompIoyors, and undor no circumslancos couId lloy rosign
from lloir posilion villoul laving !rsl domandod iuc c.rs in .!t.ncc a vrillon
disclargo! ScoviIIo, Iabor and Iabor Condilions, p. 290.
25
Tlompson, Trado Union Organisalion, p. 161.
/"+ #'& %"& *+'0&'12 . 48
a suppIomonl lo llo vagos possibIo, oillor bocauso llo lomo-mado vog-
olabIos, pouIlry, olc. roducod llo Iiving oxponsos, or bocauso llis gardon
produco vas bougll up by llo ompIoyor.
26
- IinaIIy, llo scci.| cr cccncmic ccnncciicns bolvoon an ompIoyor and an
ompIoyoo oulsido llo immodialo ompIoymonl roIalionslip couId lavo a
binding offocl. (I oxpand on llis boIov.)
|nicrmc!i.ic |crms ociuccn u.gc |.ocr .n! sc||-cmp|cmcni
In llo cIassicaI viov, llo vorkor onIy disposos of lis (or lor) ovn Iabor
povor, and nol of any ollor moans of produclion. Bul in roaIily lloro voro
many oxcoplions lo llis ruIo. Ono oxampIo is llal of llo vorkor vlo lakos lis
or lor ovn looIs lo llo vorkslop, as vas and sliII is cuslomary in many
pIacos. AIroady in llo 1880s, llo Gorman oconomisl Augusl Sarlorius von
WaIlorslauson obsorvod in llo Unilod Slalos llal |ujnIiko lloir Iuropoan
counlorparls, Amorican faclory vorkors commonIy ovn lloir ovn looIs. |. . .j
TooIs oflon conslilulo a sizabIo proporlion of a vorkors voaIll.
27

A socond possibiIily is llal vorkors ocrrcu lloir moans of produclion from
llo ompIoyor. In llal caso, lloy pay a doposil, and aro formaIIy indopondonl.
Tlo rickslav puIIors in Clangsla, Hunan Irovinco, Clina, around 1918 aro
an oxampIo of llis praclico. Tloir rickslavs voro llo proporly of garagos
(c|c-z|.n), and lad lo bo lirod ovory day. Tlo garago ovnor paid llo rick-
slav lax, and llo puIIor lad lo mako a doposil of lon Moxican (siIvor) doIIars.
Iacl carl lad a numbor and vas assignod lo a corlain puIIor vlo vas aIvays
rosponsibIo for il. If llo rickslav vas brokon and Iaid up for ropairs, llo daiIy
ronl sliII lad lo bo paid.
28
Tlo puIIors incomo consislod of llo difforonco
bolvoon lis oarnings and lis paymonls lo llo garago ovnor.
26
Tlo buying up of produco by llo ompIoyor occurrod according lo Iarparl, I.ocr
.n! C.pii.| cn i|c A|ric.n Ccppcroc|i, p. 42, in llo coppor minos of Norllorn Rlodosia
in llo 1930s.
27
Sarlorius von WaIlorslauson, Wcr|crs Mctcmcni in i|c Uniic! Si.ics, p. 216.
28
McDonaId, Uro.n Origins c| Rur.| Rctc|uiicn, p. 147. Novadays, a vory simiIar
arrangomonl sliII oxisls in llo caso of jccpnc drivors and laxi drivors in ManiIa. Soo
Iinclos, 'AII llal vo lavo is our muscIo and svoal, p. 118.
49 . !"#$%&' )*+
Il aIso lapponod llal an ompIoyoo vas aIIovod lo koop parl of lis Iabor
producl (oulpul), and soII il indopondonlIy. SiIvor minors in Iacluca (Moxico)
in llo mid-oiglloonll conlury rocoivod a sum of monoy (vagos) for a spoci!od
basic amounl of siIvor oro, and ovorylling lloy producod in oxcoss of llal
amounl vas dividod in lvo parls: from lis laIf, llo pickman gavo a corlain
proporlion lo llo porlors, limbor-mon and lo llo ollor mino vorkors vlo lad
loIpod lim.
29
SimiIar arrangomonls oxislod in farming, in }ava as voII as in
many ollor pIacos.
30
|nicrmc!i.ic |crms ociuccn s|.tcr .n! sc||-cmp|cmcni
Tlo slory of Simon Gray is of inlorosl loro, bocauso il iIIuslralos jusl lov
compIicalod capilaIisl roaIily can bo. Gray vas a sIavo from llo soull of
llo Unilod Slalos, vlo sorvod as llo cliof boalman of llo Nalcloz Iumbor
company from 1845 unliI 1862. His crovs usuaIIy numborod bolvoon lon and
lvonly mon, and incIudod boll African-Amorican sIavos and vlilo rivormon.
Somo of llo sIavos voro llo proporly of llo company, vliIo ollors, Iiko Gray
limsoIf, voro lirod from lloir ovnors by llo !rm. Tlo vlilo crovmon, on llo
ollor land, voro ompIoyod by llo Nogro, vlo kopl lloir rocords, paid lloir
oxponsos, Ionl llom monoy, and somolimos paid lloir vagos. ConsoquonlIy,
lloy Iookod upon Gray as lloir ompIoyor. Gray and lis mon voro oflon
avay from lomo for lvo lo llroo vooks. During lloso lrips, Gray porformod
a groal many managoriaI lasks. In addilion lo making doIivorios lo aIso
soIicilod ordors for llo miII, quolod pricos, oxlondod crodil lo cuslomors, and
coIIoclod monoy ovod lo llo Iumbor company.
31
So loro vo lavo a s|.tc
vlo funclionod as a m.n.gcr, |rcc u.gc |.ocrcrs vlo voro ompIoyod o . s|.tc,
and ci|cr s|.tcs vlo lad lo oboy an ompIoyor vlo vas limsoIf a sIavo! Nol
aII of llo sIavos voro ovnod by llo Nalcloz Co., bul somo, incIuding Gray,
voro lirod from ollor sIavo ovnors. Tlis silualion is, no doubl, unusuaI in
Iabor lislory, bul il aIorls us lo llo varioly of possibIo pormulalions in Iabor
roIalions. SIavos lavo aIso boon knovn lo vork as slaro-croppors. Indood, in
Ialo oiglloonll-conlury }amaica, llo silualion somolimos occurrod llal llo
29
VoIasco AviIa, Iabour RoIalions in Mining, p. 57.
30
Soo for inslanco Harl, Pcucr, I.ocr, .n! Iitc|i|cc!, pp. 1802, Huskon, IandIords,
Slarocroppors and AgricuIluraI Iabourors.
31
Mooro, Simon Gray, Rivorman, pp. 1589.
/"+ #'& %"& *+'0&'12 . 4:
'bollor sorl of sIavos lad oslabIislod grounds and voro using llo 'pooror
sorl lo vork llom in rolurn for llo slaro of llo produco.
32
|nicrmc!i.ic |crms ociuccn u.gc |.ocr/s|.tcr/sc||-cmp|cmcni .n!
|umpcnprc|ci.ri.i
Tlo lransilion from vago Iabor, sIavory and soIf-ompIoymonl lo llo non-
cIass of llo IumponproIolarial aIso slovs many gradalions. V.I. AIIon
cIaims llal |inj sociolios in vlicl baro subsislonco is llo norm for a ligl
proporlion of aII llo vorking cIass, and vloro mon, vomon, and cliIdron
aro compoIIod lo sook aIlornalivo moans of subsislonco, as dislincl from lloir
lradilionaI onos, llo |umpcnprc|ci.ri.i is baroIy dislinguislabIo from mucl of
llo rosl of llo vorking cIass.
33

- Wlon drivon lo doslilulion, rospoclabIo vorkors aIso foIl compoIIod lo
sloaI. Organizod Iooling of food by vorkors vas a nalion-vido plonom-
onon in llo Unilod Slalos by 1932.
34
Sucl Iooling roappoarod in IlaIy in llo
oarIy 1970s.
35

- Scavonging occurrod froquonlIy in lard limos, and couId ovon bocomo an
accoplod cuslom. Iouis Adamic nolod in 1935 llal |ojvor sinco anyono in
llo IonnsyIvania anllracilo !oId can romombor, il las boon cuslomary for
minors and lloir famiIios lo go vill sacks or paiIs lo llo cuIm dumps sur-
rounding lloir bIoak lovns and pick coaI from among llo rock and sIalo
llrovn oul in llo broaking and cIoaning procossos al llo big coIIiorios. Tlo
pickors usuaIIy voro llo pooror famiIios.
36
- Tlofl, ombozzIomonl and piIforing lavo lradilionaIIy boon normaI acliv-
ilios for somo groups of vorkors. Il is common among dockors in many
counlrios lo sloaI parl of a slipmonl, bul in faclorios and of!cos, sucl llofls
by Iovor ompIoyoos aIso occur froquonlIy.
37
32
Turnor, ClalloI SIavos inlo Wago SIavos, p. 34.
33
AIIon, Moaning of llo Working CIass in Africa, p. 188.
34
Bornsloin, Ic.n Yc.rs, p. 422.
35
CoIIongos and RandaI, .uicrc!uciicns, Claplor 4.
36
Adamic, Groal 'BoolIog CoaI Induslry. A doscriplion of concurronl dovoIop-
monls in Uppor SiIosia appoars in: Macllan, 'IIondssclcllo in OborsclIosion.
37
ImbozzIomonl, il musl bo slrossod, vas noarIy univorsaI aboard slip. Rodikor,
Bciuccn i|c Dcti| .n! i|c Dccp B|uc Sc., p. 129. Soo aIso Dillon, Iorks, IiIforago, and
llo IiddIo. Caso sludios incIudo: Mars, Dock IiIforago, Nair, Mincrs .n! Mi|||.n!s,
4- . !"#$%&' )*+
=6&*+$+' )--(6&'+"#-
Tlo dominanl viov of llo idonlily of sociaI cIassos doosnl jusl mako slarp
dislinclions bolvoon plonomona vlicl aro in roaIily nol soparalo onlilios.
Tlo dislinclions i|cmsc|tcs rosl on imporlanl assumplions vlicl ougll lo
bo crilicaIIy scrulinizod. A numbor of lloso assumplions ariso from llo idoa
llal vorkors oxclango lloir Iabor povor vill an ompIoyor for monoy, and
llon buy Iifos nocossarios vill llal monoy. Wlon lloy consumo llom, lloy
roproduco lloir Iabor povor, vlicl lloy can llon soII again lo llo ompIoyor.
Tlus, al llo IovoI of circuIalion, a cycIicaI procoss occurs, as slovn in llo
foIIoving diagram:
Iiguro 2.1
CircuIalion soon from llo posilion of vorkors lousoloIds
Labor Power Money Consumer Goods
Tlis circuIalion scloma is an abslraclion, suggosling a soIf-ovidonl, dislincl
procoss. Bul appoarancos aro docoplivo. IirslIy, il is assumod llal llo con-
sumplion of llo iloms purclasod vill llo ompIoyoos vago !ccs nci intc|tc
|.ocr. Tlo purclaso of consumor iloms, and llo offorl lo mako llom suil-
abIo for consumplion (for inslanco buying and proparing food, or liring and
cIoaning a Iiving spaco) aro ignorod. Iominisls lovovor lavo poinlod oul
for docados llal vago Iabor couId nol ovon oxisl villoul a Iargo amounl of
(oflon unpaid or voIunlary) subsislonco Iabor and cooporalion. SporadicaIIy,
lloro aro ompIoyoos vlo roproduco lloir Iabor povor villoul porforming
subsislonco Iabor llomsoIvos, bul lloso aro lypicaIIy poopIo vill a ligl
incomo.
38
In mosl casos, subsislonco Iabor is dono by ono or moro vomon in
llo lousoloId, llo vifo (or vivos) and somolimos llo daugllors of llo p.icr
Claplor 2, Grullnor, Working-CIass Crimo, dSona, Iorquisilos, RandaII, IocuIiar
Iorquisilos and Iornicious Iraclicos, Groon, SpoIIing, Go-SIovs, GIiding Avay and
Tlofl, Smyll and Grijns, Unju| R.s. or Conscious Irolosl`, p. 21. WiIIiam Iround
rovoaIs llo possibiIily of a smooll lransilion lo llofl as a coIIoclivo acl in Tlofl and
SociaI Irolosl.
38
Soo aIso Claplor 14 on llo BioIofoId SclooI in llo socioIogy of dovoIopmonl.
/"+ #'& %"& *+'0&'12 . 43
|.mi|i.s. Il is aIso possibIo llal llo vago oarnor limsoIf ompIoys ono or moro
vago oarnors vlo do domoslic vork. Many vlilo vorking-cIass famiIios in
Soull Africa in llo oarIy lvonlioll conlury, for inslanco, lad a bIack domoslic
sorvanl, vlo, among ollor llings, vas rosponsibIo for llo making of !ros,
cIoaning slovos, svooping, vasling dislos, proparing morning and aflornoon
loa, kooping llo yard cIoan, and doing sucl roulino gardon vork as vooding
and valoring.
39
SocondIy, llo abovo diagram suggosls llal llo roIalionslip bolvoon
ompIoyor and ompIoyoo is |imiic! ic i|c cxc|.ngc c| mcnc |cr |.ocr pcucr.
IossibIo lios bolvoon boll parlios oulsido llo circuIalion procoss aro disro-
gardod. Bul, of courso, sucl lios may and do oxisl. Tlo ompIoyor can bind llo
ompIoyoo oconomicaIIy lo lis businoss, for inslanco by providing accommo-
dalion ovnod by llo company, or by making il obIigalory for llo ompIoyoo
lo buy vill lis vago-incomo lloso consumor goods vlicl llo ompIoyor
offors for saIo (llo so-caIIod lruck syslom).
40
Bul llo roIalionslip bolvoon
llo ompIoyor and llo ompIoyoo nood nol bo oconomic, if for inslanco lloy aro
roIalod by kinslip, or boll boIong lo llo samo roIigious communily. Inslancos
of company lousing and ollor simiIar forms of maloriaI bonds can bo found
ospociaIIy, bul corlainIy nol oxcIusivoIy, in Iargo companios, for oxampIo llo
Unilod Iruil Company, vlicl lousod ils c.mpcsincs in ConlraI Amorica on
llo pIanlalions, or llo slooI !rm Krupp in Gormany.
41
Non-oconomic bonds
aro probabIy roIalivoIy moro common in smaII companios.
TlirdIy, llo cycIicaI diagram suggosls llal an ompIoyoo las onIy cnc
ompIoyor, and llal lo or slo is onIy invoIvod in cnc Iabor roIalion al any limo.
AdmillodIy llis sol-up oflon occurs, aIso among arlisans and skiIIod Iaborors.
39
Van OnsoIon, Siu!ics in i|c Scci.| .n! |ccncmic Hisicr c| i|c Wiiu.icrsr.n!, pp.
301.
40
Bocauso lloy voro Iockod in bolind faclory galos, llo fomaIo }apanoso loxliIo
vorkors monlionod proviousIy lad lo mako aII lloir purclasos al company sloros,
palronizo company lairdrossors, an imporlanl parl of llo }apanoso girIs loiIol, ballo
al llo company balls, bo allondod by llo company doclor, in facl, suppIy aII lloir
nocossilios and pIoasuros from llo company sourcos. Orclard, AnaIysis of }apans
Cloap Iabor, p. 231. Soo aIso HiIlon, 1ruc| Ssicm.
41
Sludios on company lousing incIudo: AggarvaI, |n!usiri.| Hcusing in |n!i., Bon-
nor and Slapiro,Company Tovn, Company Islalo, Crinson, Abadan, Honlarl,
Company Housing, MoIIing, ImpIoyors, InduslriaI Housing, TippIo, CoIoniaI
Housing IoIicy.
65 . !"#$%&' )*+
Bul il doos nol appIy lo a Iargo parl of llo vorIds vorking popuIalion dopon-
donl on vagos, noillor in llo pasl, nor al prosonl. IoopIo vill sctcr.| jobs
aro vory common in Asia, Africa, and Ialin Amorica. Tlo samo vas lruo for
Iuropo in llo days boforo llo omorgonco of llo voIfaro slalo. Il is again lruo in
conlomporary Russia, vloro al Ioasl around 15 lo 20 porconl of llo ompIoyod
popuIalion lad suppIomonlary ompIoymonl in llo mid-1990s.
42
Il is of courso
aIso porfoclIy possibIo llal llo ompIoyoo las difforonl kinds of incomo. Andr
Gundor Irank rigllIy spoko of "uidily in ovnor-vorkor roIalions. Ho givos
llo oxampIo of a singIo vorkor vlo is simuIlanoousIy (i) ovnor of lis ovn
Iand and louso, (ii) slaro-croppor on anollors Iand (somolimos for laIf,
somolimos for a llird of llo crop), (iii) lonanl on a llird porsons Iand, (iv)
vago Iaboror during larvosl limo on ono of lloso Iands, and (v) indopondonl
lrador of lis ovn lomo-mado commodilios.
43
Tlo roIalivo imporlanco of llo
difforonl sourcos of incomo can clango ropoalodIy in llo courso of limo, as
Adam Smill aIroady knov.
44
IourllIy, llo circuIalion diagram focusos on llo roIalionslip bolvoon cnc
ompIoyoo and lis or lor ompIoyor. Bul il is aIso possibIo llal Iaborors aro
ompIoyod .s . grcup by an ompIoyor. Somolimos llis is dono by moans of
a subconlraclor, vlo rocruils vorkors in llo surrounding aroa, and subso-
quonlIy lands llom ovor lo an ompIoyor. In llo Slanglai loxliIo induslry
of llo oarIy lvonlioll conlury, for oxampIo, lloro vas llo p.c-|ung syslom
in vlicl llo subconlraclor lirod girIs from noiglboring viIIagos for llroo
yoars from lloir paronls, and llon lirod llom oul lo Brilisl and }apanoso
collon miIIs in llo cily during llal poriod.
45
In anollor arrangomonl, llo sub-
conlraclor suporvisos llo vorkors rocruilod by lim, and is llus vorking for
lis cIionl as voII. Tlis vas, for oxampIo, llo caso in many Indian and Clinoso
coaI minos.
46
Il couId aIso lappon llal a group of Iaborors lirod llomsoIvos
oul lo an ompIoyor, villoul llo modialion of a subconlraclor, as in llo caso
42
Hussoy, Iov Iay, KIopov, Socondary ImpIoymonl.
43
Irank, C.pii.|ism .n! Un!cr!ctc|cpmcni, pp. 2712.
44
In yoars of pIonly, sorvanls froquonlIy Ioavo lloir maslors, and lrusl lloir
subsislonco lo vlal lloy can mako by lloir ovn induslry. |. . .j In yoars of scarcily,
llo dif!cuIly and uncorlainly of subsislonco mako aII sucl poopIo oagor lo rolurn lo
sorvico. Smill, Wc.|i| c| N.iicns, p. 74.
45
Closnoaux, C|incsc I.ocr Mctcmcni, p. 57.
46
Simoon, Pc|iiics c| I.ocur, pp. 256, Wrigll, 'A Mollod of Ivading Manago-
monl.
/"+ #'& %"& *+'0&'12 . 6,
of larvosl vorkors oporaling in llo Iuropoan parl of Russia in llo ninoloonll
conlury, vlo voro organizod in .ric|s (cooporalivos).
47
IaslIy, according lo llo diagram, llo cycIo is brokon if a Iaboror no Iongor
offors lis or lor Iabor povor for saIo, and slops vorking. In lurn, llis suggosls
llal slrikos aro a form of coIIoclivo aclion associalod ospociaIIy vill |rcc vago
Iaborors, and aIso, llal llis is llo cn| possibIo form of prolosl aclion. Bul if
vo oxamino ompiricaIIy llo vays in vlicl prolosl is oxprossod and prossuro
is oxorlod by llo difforonl groups of subaIlorn vorkors (i.o. llo sIavos, llo soIf-
ompIoyod, llo IumponproIolarians, and llo froo vago Iaborors), lloso lurn
oul lo ovorIap considorabIy. In llo pasl, aII kinds of subaIlorn vorkors vonl
on slriko. Tlo slaro-cropping siIvor minors in Clilualua, for inslanco, pro-
loslod as oarIy as llo 1730s againsl llo lorminalion of lloir vork conlacls by
llo ovnors of llo mino, by onlroncling llomsoIvos in llo noarby liIIs. Tloro
lloy buiIl a makoslifl slono parapol, unfurIod a bannor procIaiming lloir do!-
anco, and vovod lo slorm llo viIIa of San IoIipo, kiII San }uan y Sanla Cruz,
and burn lis louso lo llo ground. Ior llo noxl sovoraI vooks lloy rofusod lo
budgo from lloir mounlain rodoubl, vloro lloy passod limo by composing
and singing songs of prolosl.
48
Tlo minors rolurnod onIy aflor modialion by a
priosl sonl by llo bislop. Sorfs in Russia roguIarIy rofusod lo rocognizo lloir
ovnorss aullorily ovor llom, lloy sloppod vorking for lim, and docidod
lo go on slriko.
49
SIavos somolimos dovnod looIs as voII. On pIanlalions in
llo Brilisl Caribboan in llo oarIy ninoloonll conlury, for oxampIo, lloro voro
ono-sidod vaIkouls. Tlo sIavo roboIIion in }amaica of 1831 appoars lo lavo
boon inlondod as a simpIo slriko aclion backod up by moroIy llo llroal of
forco, llal llo pIan did nol succood, vas duo lo llo facl llal absoIulo conlroI
and rigid discipIino voro Iacking and bocauso lloro vas a vioIonl rogimo
vlicl vas roady lo dio rallor llan concodo.
50
ConvorsoIy, froo vago Iabor-
ors usod mollods of aclion vlicl aro usuaIIy associalod vill ollor groups of
subaIlorn vorkors, sucl as Iyncling, rioling, arson, and bombing.
51
47
Mixlor, Hiring Markol as Workors Turf.
48
IngIisl Marlin, Gctcrn.ncc .n! Sccici in Cc|cni.| Mcxicc, p. 51.
49
KoIclin, Un|rcc I.ocr, p. 258.
50
Cralon, 1csiing i|c C|.ins, p. 301, ScluIor, Akan SIavo RoboIIions, pp. 3823.
51
CIovard and Iox Iivon rigllIy romark: |Somoj forms of prolosl aro moro or
Ioss univorsaIIy avaiIabIo. Arson, vlollor in llo !oIds of llo proinduslriaI vorId or
in llo slrools of llo urbanizod vorId, roquiros loclnoIogicaI rallor llan organizalion
rosourcos, and nol mucl of llo formor, oillor. Riols roquiro IillIo moro by vay of
64 . !"#$%&' )*+
Moroovor, difforonl sogmonls of llo subaIlorn cIassos oflon porformod
approximaloIy llo samo kind of vork, and lloroforo slarod ossonliaI inlor-
osls. Al llo valorfronl of mid-oiglloonll conlury Nov York, SIavos loiIod
aIongsido unskiIIod vlilo vorkors as loamslors, vagonors, dockors, slock-
mon, ropovaIkors, and carlmon.
52
In llis compIox mosaic, llo conspiracy of
1741 omorgod, organizod by soIdiors, saiIors, and sIavos from IroIand, llo
Caribboan, and Africa, vill llo goaI of urban insurroclion.
53
5"2)1; #%2 $"#$%&'-
Tlo anaIysis so far indicalos llal llo boundarios bolvoon froo vago Iabor-
ors and ollor kinds of subaIlorn vorkors in capilaIisl socioly aro in roaIily
rallor !noIy gradod or vaguo. IirslIy, lloro aro oxlonsivo and compIicalod
groy aroas ropIolo vill lransilionaI Iocalions bolvoon llo froo vago
Iaborors and llo sIavos, llo soIf-ompIoyod and llo IumponproIolarians.
SocondIy, aImosl aII subaIlorn vorkors boIong lo lousoloIds llal combino
sctcr.| modos of Iabor.
54
TlirdIy, in!iti!u.| subaIlorn vorkors can aIso com-
bino difforonl modos of Iabor, boll synclronicaIIy and diaclronicaIIy. And
!naIIy, llo dislinclion bolvoon llo difforonl kinds of subaIlorn vorkors is
nol cIoar-cul.
Tlo impIicalions aro far-roacling, if ono llinks il llrougl. In lrull, lloro is a
Iargo cIass of poopIo villin capilaIisl socioly, vloso Iabor povor is commodi-
!od in many !i||crcni vays. Tlal is vly I rofor lo llo cIass as a vloIo as llo
suo.|icrn ucr|crs. Tloy mako up a variogalod group, incIuding clalloI sIavos,
slaro-croppors, smaII arlisans and vago oarnors. Il is llo lisloricaI dynamics
of llis muIliludo llal I llink Iabor lislorians slouId lry lo undorsland.
Bul in llal caso llo quoslion arisos of vlal aII lloso difforonl subaIlorn
vorkors acluaIIy lavo in ccmmcn. Wloro is llo dividing Iino, llo |un!.mcnium
organizalion llan numbors, propinquily, and somo communicalion. Mosl pallorns
of luman sollIomonl, vlollor llo proinduslriaI viIIago or modorn molropoIis, sup-
pIy lloso slrucluraI roquiromonls. Iox Iivon and CIovard, CoIIoclivo Irolosl, p.
148.
52
Rodikor, Bciuccn i|c Dcti| .n! i|c Dccp B|uc Sc., p. 68.
53
Iinobaugl and Rodikor, M.n-Hc.!c! H!r., pp. 174210, quolo on p. 176.
54
Ior a fuII argumonlalion soo my Inlroduclion and ConcIusion in Kok,
Rcoc||icus I.mi|ics.
/"+ #'& %"& *+'0&'12 . 66
!itisicnis, bolvoon llom and llo ollor parly, of lloso vlo lavo moro povor`
Using CornoIius Casloriadis concopls as a !rsl guido, vo couId say llal aII
subaIlorn vorkors oxisl in a slalo of inslilulod loloronomy. Ior Casloriadis,
insiiiuic! |cicrcncm is llo opposilo of scci.| .uicncm, il manifosls ilsoIf as a
mass of condilions of privalion and opprossion, as a soIidi!od gIobaI, malo-
riaI and inslilulionaI slrucluro of llo oconomy, of povor and of idooIogy, as
induclion, mysli!calion, manipuIalion and vioIonco. Inslilulod loloronomy
oxprossos and sanclions an anlagonislic division of socioly and, concurronl
vill llis, llo povor of ono dolorminod sociaI calogory ovor llo vloIo. | . . .j In
llis vay, llo capilaIisl oconomy produclion, dislribulion, markol, olc. is
aIionaling inasmucl as il goos aIong vill llo division of socioly inlo proIo-
larial and capilaIisls.
55

Wo can mako llo do!nilion moro spoci!c vill llo aid of an insigll by llo
pliIosoplor GoraId Colon. Ho arguos llal Iack of moans of produclion is nol
as ossonliaI lo proIolarian slalus as is lradilionaIIy mainlainod. Il is bollor lo
say llal . prc|ci.ri.n musi sc|| |is |.ocur pcucr in cr!cr ic coi.in |is mc.ns c| |i|c.
Ho may ovn moans of produclion, bul lo cannol uso llom lo supporl limsoIf
savo by conlracling vill a capilaIisl.
56
IoIIoving Marx, Colon undorslands
llo plraso musl soII lis Iabor povor in llis conloxl as an oconomic compuI-
sion, bul if vo add plysicaI coorcion, vo como cIosor lo a cIoar domarcalion cri-
lorion. |tcr c.rricr c| |.ocr pcucr u|csc |.ocr pcucr is sc|! (cr |irc! cui ic .nci|cr
pcrscn un!cr cccncmic (cr ncn-cccncmic ccmpu|sicn oc|cngs ic i|c c|.ss c| suo.|icrn
ucr|crs, rcg.r!|css c| u|ci|cr i|c c.rricr c| |.ocr pcucr is |im- cr |crsc|| sc||ing cr
|iring ii cui .n!, rcg.r!|css c| u|ci|cr i|c c.rricr |im- cr |crsc|| cuns mc.ns c| prc-
!uciicn. Iacl oIomonl in llis provisionaI do!nilion roquiros furllor ro"oclion.
57

55
Casloriadis, |m.gin.r |nsiiiuiicn c| Sccici, p. 109.
56
Colon, K.r| M.rxs 1|ccr c| Hisicr, p. 72.
57
Tloso vloso Iabor povor is nol commodi!od, aIllougl lloy possoss no ollor
moans of IivoIilood llan Iabor povor (aII jobIoss in llo broad sonso), aro obviousIy
aIso parl of llo subaIlorn vorking cIass, as voII as famiIy mombors of subaIlorn
vorkors vlo porform subsislonco Iabor (soo Claplor 14) or vlo bocauso of ago or
slalo of loaIll cannol vork. Tlo concopl of oconomic compuIsion lo vork for pay
dosorvos furllor allonlion, bocauso il invoIvos an imporlanl coIIoclivo dimonsion. Ivon
if ovory individuaI froo Iaboror can, in lloory, oscapo lor falo by upvard mobiIily,
lloro can sliII bo coIIoclivo compuIsion and Iack of froodom, bocauso oacl |Iabororj
is froo onIy on condilion llal llo ollors do nol oxorcizo lloir simiIarIy condilionaI
froodom. Colon, Hisicr, I.ocur, .n! Ircc!cm, p. 263.
67 . !"#$%&' )*+
NovorlloIoss llis domarcalion indicalos llo common cIass-basis of aII subaI-
lorn vorkors: llo cccrcc! commodi!calion of lloir Iabor povor.
58

Tlo noxl quoslion is: lov can vo concopluaIizo llo inlornaI difforonlia-
lion of llo subaIlorn cIass` As is voII-knovn, llo cIassicaI Marxian anaIysis
focusod on povor in llo produclion procoss. Tlal procoss of produclion is of
courso claraclorizod by a combinalion of llroo oIomonls: purposofuI acliv-
ily, llal is vork ilsoIf, llo objocl on vlicl llal vork is porformod, and llo
inslrumonls of llal vork.
59
Tlo producl of Iabor is llo fourll oIomonl of llis
anaIysis. Togollor lloy do!no llo mosl imporlanl dimonsions of llo cIassicaI
anaIysos vlicl slouId bo rolainod in a modi!od approacl:
- Tlo roIalionslip bolvoon llo subaIlorn vorkor and lis or lor |.ocr pcucr (is
llo subaIlorn vorkor in conlroI of lis or lor body, or is llo conlroIIor llo
ompIoyor or a llird parly`),
- Tlo roIalionslip bolvoon llo subaIlorn vorkor and lis or lor mc.ns c| prc-
!uciicn (lo vlal oxlonl doos llo subaIlorn vorkor ovn lis or lor objocls and
inslrumonls of vork, and lo vlal oxlonl aro lloso objocls and inslrumonls
ovnod by llo ompIoyor or by a llird parly`),
- Tlo roIalionslip bolvoon llo subaIlorn vorkor and lis or lor |.ocr prc!uci
(lo vlal oxlonl doos llo oulpul of lis or lor offorl boIong lo llo subaIlorn
vorkor, and lo vlal oxlonl doos il boIong lo llo ompIoyor or lo a llird
parly`).
My procoding obsorvalions suggosl lovovor llal, addod lo lloso cIassicaI
dimonsions, llroo ollor dimonsions aro aIso roIovanl:
- Tlo roIalionslip bolvoon llo subaIlorn vorkor and llo ollor mombors of
lis or lor |cusc|c|! (vlal kind of sociaI and oconomic dopondoncios oxisl
bolvoon llo subaIlorn vorkor and llo ollor lousoloId mombors`),
58
In ro!ning llo anaIysis, vo slouId boar in mind llal lloro aro posilions in llo
sociaI division of Iabour vlicl aro cojcciitc| ccnir.!icicr. Wrigll, CIass Boundarios,
p. 25. Simon Gray, llo sIavo-ompIoyor, couId bo said lo occupy sucl a conlradiclory
cIass Iocalion, jusl Iiko soIf-ompIoyod vorkors vill various cuslomors.
59
Marx, C.pii.|, I, p. 284. Soo aIso WillfogoI, GoopoIilik, pp. 50622, and BaIibar,
Sur Ios concopls fondamonlaux, p. 98.
/"+ #'& %"& *+'0&'12 . 68
- Tlo roIalionslip bolvoon llo subaIlorn vorkor and lis or lor cmp|ccr cui-
si!c i|c immc!i.ic prc!uciicn prcccss (lo vlal oxlonl is llo subaIlorn vorkor
llrougl dobls, lousing, praclicaI nocossily, obIigalions olc. liod lo llo
ompIoyor`),
- Tlo roIalionslip bolvoon llo subaIlorn vorkor and ci|cr suo.|icrn ucr|crs
villin llo Iabor roIalionslip (vlal kind of sociaI and oconomic dopon-
doncios do oxisl bolvoon llo subaIlorn vorkor and lis or lor immodialo
coIIoaguos`).
60
Tloso six dimonsions aIIov us lo dovoIop a moro sublIo rango of varialions
vill vlicl vo can doscribo llo cIass posilion of an individuaI subaIlorn
vorkor tis-.-tis ono ompIoyor. Iooking al subaIlorn vorkors as inslilulod lol-
oronomy, vo can spocify llal i|c !cgrcc c| |cicrcncm is |.rgcr (or: llo dogroo
of aulonomy is smaIIor) ic i|c cxicni i|.i i|c suo.|icrn ucr|cr |.s |css pcucr ctcr
(i |is cr |cr cun |.ocr c.p.cii, (ii mc.ns c| |.ocr, (iii |.ocr prc!uci, (it |c||cu
mcmocrs c| |is cr |cr cun |cusc|c|!, (t i|c rc|.iicns|ip uii| i|c cmp|ccr cuisi!c
i|c immc!i.ic |.ocr prcccss, .n! (ti pcssio|c |c||cu ucr|crs in i|c |.ocr prcccss. In
llis sonso vomon gonoraIIy lavo Ioss aulonomy llan mon, and llo aulonomy
of vago oarnors is Iargor llan llo aulonomy of sIavos, bul smaIIor llan llo
aulonomy of soIf-ompIoyod vorkors.
If a subaIlorn vorkor combinos sovoraI jobs, llon vo lavo lo carry oul
sovoraI of lloso cIass spoci!calions. Moroovor, bocauso a subaIlorn vorkor
usuaIIy boIongs lo a Iargor unil (lousoloId), il sooms advisabIo lo oxlond llo
anaIysis furllor, and incIudo llo cIass posilions of llo ollor lousoloId mom-
bors. Tlis may Ioad lo inlorosling incongruoncios, if ono lousoloId unilos
divorging cIass posilions.
61
IinaIIy, lloso anaIysos slouId bo carriod oul Ion-
giludinaIIy as mucl as possibIo, bocauso aII lousoloId mombors can clango
lloir jobs during llo courso of lloir Iivos llal is, if lloy lavo a corlain
60
NaluraIIy, dimonsions may ovorIap. In llo sorvicos soclor, for inslanco, llo moans
of Iabor and llo Iabor producl can bo idonlicaI, and in sub-conlracling llo vork loam
may consisl of lousoloId mombors.
61
Ior a discussion of llo probIom of cross-cIass famiIios soo: Graolz, CIass
Iocalion of IamiIios. Graolz proposos a gonoric modoI for llo joinl cIassi!calion
of famiIy cIass Iocalions.
69 . !"#$%&' )*+
dogroo of froodom.
62
A nov lypoIogy couId furllor difforonlialo llo variolios
dislinguislod in TabIo 2.1. Wo couId, for oxampIo, dislinguisl llroo kinds of
soIIing/liring lransaclions of Iabor povor, according lo vlollor lloy oxcIu-
sivoIy concorn Iabor povor, or aIso parl of llo moans of produclion or aII
moans of produclion.
63

Hovovor vo lackIo lloso probIoms, sovoraI mollodoIogicaI principIos soom
porlinonl. IirslIy, vo slouId rosisl llo lomplalion of an ompiricaIIy omply
Grand Tloory (lo borrov C. Wrigll MiIIss oxprossion), insload, vo nood lo
dorivo moro accuralo lypoIogios from carofuI ompiricaI sludy of Iabor roIa-
lions. SocondIy, vo slouId nol sludy llo difforonl kinds of subaIlorn vorkors
soparaloIy, bul considor llo connoclions bolvoon llom as mucl as possibIo.
Sidnoy Minlz, for oxampIo, las caulionod us nol lo do!no sIavo and pro-
Iolarian in isoIalion: |Tlosoj lvo vasl calogorios of loiIor voro acluaIIy inli-
maloIy Iinkod by llo vorId oconomy llal lad, as il voro, givon birll lo llom
boll, in lloir modorn form. Wo slouId lako inlo accounl sucl Iinks, sinco a
puroIy do!nilionaI approacl Ioavos somolling lo bo dosirod.
64
TlirdIy, vo
slouId nol rogard subaIlorns as isoIalod individuaI ompIoyoos in llo anaIysis,
bocauso, in roaIily, lloy aro luman boings vlo parlicipalo in famiIios, kin-
slip sysloms, and many ollor sociaI and cuIluraI nolvorks. And !naIIy, vo
62
Ior subjoclivo roasons, nol ovorybody clangos lis or lor lypo of Iabor roIalionslip
oasiIy. Wlon llo US-Amorican sociaI scionlisl I. Wigll Bakko Iivod in llo vorking-cIass
noiglborlood of Groonvicl (Iondon) in llo oarIy 1930s, lo obsorvod an unviIIing-
noss lo Iauncl oul inlo somo sorl of indopondonl onlorpriso. Ho oxpIainod llis by
llo inabiIily of ono vlo las boon born and brod in llo lradilion of a vago-oarnor lo
visuaIizo limsoIf as an indopondonl vorkor, lis ovn boss. Tlis Iack of imaginalion
rosuIlod from llo vago oarnors vork sociaIizalion: Tlo vork roulino, llo roguIarily
and simpIicily of llo roulino oulsido vorking lours, llo pIodding nocossilios of llo
lousoloId oconomy aII of lloso onforco a discipIino vlicl lrains for slabiIily as a
vago-oarnor bul nol for llo indopondonco and adaplabiIily and porsonaIily nocossary
for succoss in an indopondonl onlorpriso. Bakko, Uncmp|cc! M.n, pp. 1267.
63
Tlo vork of poIilicaI oconomisls Roborl W. Cox and }offroy Harrod migll aIso
provo slimuIaling. Soo Coxs programmalic arlicIo, Approaclos lo a IuluroIogy of
InduslriaI RoIalions, and llo oIaboralion of lloir vork in lvo books: Cox, Prc!uciicn,
Pcucr .n! Wcr|! Or!cr, and Harrod, Pcucr, Prc!uciicn, .n! i|c Unprciccic! Wcr|cr.
Ro"ocling llis porspoclivo is: Davios and Rynor, Pctcri .n! i|c Prc!uciicn c| Wcr|!
Pc|iiics.
64
Minlz, Was llo IIanlalion SIavo a IroIolarian`, pp. 978.
/"+ #'& %"& *+'0&'12 . 6:
slouId nol cIassify subaIlorns primariIy from llo poinl of viov of llo nalion
slalo (as in llo Indian vorking cIass, olc.), il is bollor lo rogard llo moaning
of llo nalionaI aspocl as somolling vlicl las lo bo pul inlo conloxl, and
oxpIainod in ilsoIf.
!"#$%&' )"'&&
!"# %&'(() *+,( -+./'0
Human Iabor povor can bo lransformod inlo a com-
modily in difforonl vays. Tvo of llo mosl imporlanl
forms aro clalloI sIavory and vago Iabor. As I arguod
in llo provious claplor, !"#$ modos of oxpIoilalion
aro fundamonlaIIy compalibIo vill capilaIism. In
somo casos, capilaI profors sIavory, in ollor casos
vago Iabor. Tloro is no good lloorolicaI roason for
lroaling llo ono modo of oxpIoilalion as llo 'lruo
capilaIisl form, and llo ollor as jusl an anomaIous
(llougl porlaps lisloricaIIy nocossary) varialion.
1

Tlo roaI quoslion is rallor vly in somo opocls and
in somo goograplic aroas, vago Iabor bocamo pro-
dominanl, vliIo in ollor opocls and aroas il vas
1
MiIos, %&'(#&)(*+ &-. /-0122 3&!"41. Tlo rosislanco of orllodox Marxism againsl
llo idoa llal sIavory is a 'normaI form of commodi!calion is a dirocl consoquonco
of llo prosumplion llal llo conlradiclion bolvoon capilaI and vago Iabor is llo mosl
ossonliaI claraclorislic of capilaIism. Conlrary lo llis viovpoinl, I foIIov lloso aullors
vlo givo llo 5&)42 0"1+, and nol cIass conlradiclions, conlraI pIaco in lloir anaIysis
of capilaIism. Tlo conlradiclion bolvoon capilaI and froo vago oarnors is in llal
porspoclivo nolling ollor llan a con"icl bolvoon difforonl groups of commodily ovn-
ors. Soo Kurz and Ioloff, Dor KIassonkampf-Ioliscl, Ioslono, 6(+27 3&!"17 &-. 8"9(&)
:"+(-&#("-. Tlo orllodox cIass-anaIysis approacl londs lo bocomo lauloIogicaI rallor
quickIy, i.o. il makos lruo by do!nilion procisoIy llal vlicl noods lo bo invosligalod
and oxpIainod. A slriking oxampIo is offorod by W.G. Runciman, vlo slalos llo foI-
Ioving do!nilion: By 'capilaIism I moan a modo of produclion in vlicl formaIIy
froo Iabour is rocruilod for roguIar ompIoymonl by ongoing onlorprisos compoling in
llo markol for pro!l. So far, so good. Bul llon lo aIso arguos: Hovovor dif!cuIl il
may bo lo say procisoIy vlon llo lransilion lo a capilaIisl modo of produclion occurs
in any givon socioly, il is onIy compIolo vlon il can bo agrood by obsorvors of aII
lloorolicaI porsuasions llal formaIIy froo vago Iabour is dominanl in llo oconomy
as a vloIo. Runciman, 'Triumpl of CapilaIism, pp. 334.
*+ , !"#$%&' )"'&&
nol. To !nd an ansvor llis quoslion, lovovor, vo lavo lo roacl back inlo llo
doplls of lisloricaI limo.
1'2,234
Mosos IinIoy, a voIIknovn lislorian of Anliquily, las dofondod llo llosis
llal llo inslilulion of vago Iabor vas a soplislicalod Ialocomor, bocauso
il invoIvod lvo dif!cuIl concopluaI slops:
Iirsl il roquiros llo abslraclion of a mans Iabour from boll lis porson and
llo producl of lis vork. Wlon ono purclasos an objocl from an indopondonl
craflsman, vlollor lo is froo or a sIavo vill a '294)(4+, ono las nol bougll
lis Iabour bul llo objocl, vlicl lo lad producod in lis ovn limo and undor
lis ovn condilions of vork. Bul vlon ono liros Iabour, ono purclasos an
abslraclion, Iabour povor, vlicl llo purclasor llon usos al a limo and
undor condilions vlicl lo, llo purclasor, nol llo 'ovnor of llo Iabour
povor, dolorminos (and for vlicl lo normaIIy pays aflor lo las consumod
il). Socond, llo vago Iabour syslom roquiros llo oslabIislmonl of a mollod
of moasuring llo Iabour ono las purclasod, for purposos of paymonl,
commonIy by inlroducing a socond abslraclion, Iabour-limo.
Wo slouId nol undoroslimalo llo magniludo, spoaking sociaIIy rallor
llan inloIIocluaIIy, of lloso lvo concopluaI slops, ovon llo Roman jurisls
found llom dif!cuIl.
2
Tlis inlorprolalion is ompiricaIIy dif!cuIl lo suslain among ollor llings
bocauso, in llo Anliquo poriod, llo vago Iaboror vas rogardod as a liro-
Iing vlo did nol so mucl liro oul (or, if ono profors, lomporariIy soII)
lis Iabor povor, bul vlo pIacod limsoIf lomporariIy vill lis vloIo porson
in a dopondonl posilion.
3
Tlo idoa of vago Iabor as a form of '21*"-&) $(12
is improssod upon us by llo ancionl sourcos. Tako, for oxampIo, llo Grook
+(*#$;* (vago, soIdiors pay)
4
llal via ils Indo-Iuropoan rool +(<.$"= is roIalod
2
IinIoy, >-9(2-# ?9"-"+@, pp. 656.
3
Droizolnlor, Inlslolung dor Iolnarboil, pp. 2723.
4
A(*#$;* can aIso lavo ollor moanings, bul vago is llo mosl imporlanl, soo llo
roIovanl soclion in B&4)@* C2&)2-9@9)"'D.(2, coIs 20782095. Idouard WiII las slrossod
llal +(*#$;* can onIy bo lransIalod IiloraIIy as vago vlon il is a quoslion of paying
-". /0'&&1 2#3& 4#56'7 , *8
lo llo Norllorn Higl Gorman A(2#2 (ronl, liro).
5
A(*#$;* vas nol a vago in
llo modorn sonso of llo vord, bul a porsonaI liro vlicl vas !noIy lunod
lo llo rogonoralion of Iabor povor, and vlicl lonco couId bo considorod
oquivaIonl lo #1"'$E (mainlonanco). Iabor as sucl vas undorslood by llo
ancionl Grooks nol as abslracl Iabor, lo borrov KarI Marxs lorm, bul as
concrolo Iabor.
6
Wago Iabor vas lloroforo concopluaIizod difforonlIy llan
vo do loday: nol as llo liro of Iabor povor, bul as soIf-liro of a vorkor pIus
lis or lor Iabor porformanco. Tlo porson and Iabor porformanco voro, lo bo
suro, dislinguislod
7
bul llo liro vas simuIlanoousIy appIiod lo boll aspocls.
Tlo prociso lorminoIogicaI dovoIopmonl las nol boon compIoloIy cIari!od,
bul llo mosl imporlanl concIusion is llal vago Iabor oxislod !20"12 il vas
concopluaIizod in llo 'modorn vay.
8

llo Iaboror +(*#$"#"*. Soo lis Nolos sur !"#$%#, for addilionaI commonlary soo
GarIan, Io lravaiI Iibro, pp. 135.
5
Bonvonislo rofors lo llo difforonco vill llo ollor Indo-Iuropoan vord vlicl is
roIovanl in llis connoclion, namoIy )&4-F"+G, from vlicl llo Gorman 3"$- and llo
Dulcl )""- aro dorivod. 3&4- is aIvays somolling difforonl from a saIary, il is an acl
of favour or an advanlago oblainod by an aclivily vlicl is nol vork in llo ordinary
sonso (in vlicl caso +(<." vouId bo llo approprialo lorm), ossonliaIIy an 'lonorarium
granlod or a prizo llal is von. Bonvonislo, 32 5"9&!4)&(12, voIumo 1, p. 168. Mauss,
Issai sur Io don, p. 155: Our ovn vord gago is dorivod from llo samo sourco,
from H&.(4+ (cf. llo IngIisl 'vago, saIary). HuvoIin las aIroady domonslralod llal
llo Gorman H&.(4+ providos a vay lo undorsland llo naluro of llo conlracls mado,
vlicl comos cIoso lo llo Roman noxus.
6
RIor, Handvork und Iolnarboil, p. 76. A moro oxlonsivo lroalmonl is pro-
sonlod by Vornanl, A@#$2 2# '2-*I2 9$2< )2* J129*, pp. 183247. In BabyIonia, Tlo
froo lirod Iaboror is dosignalod by llo lorm agru, dorivod from llo vorb agaru, 'lo
liro. Dandamaov, 8)&521@ (- K&!@)"-(&, pp. 1212. In }udoa, llo connoclion bolvoon
liro and vago is ovidonl: llo Hobrov lorm for vago Iabor is !"L"1, dorivod from !L1
(liro, vorking for vagos). Irom llis rool llo lorm !&L#1 (vago Iaboror) aIso is
dorivod. Kroiig, 8"<(&)ML"-"+(*9$2 8(#4&#("- (- N4.&, p. 91, Bon-David, 6&)+4.(*9$2
OL"-"+(2, voIumo 1, pp. 656. Tlo Hillilo L4PP&-(@&= moans lo liro, lo lako as a
day Iaboror and is roIalod lo L4PP&-=, vlicl moans vago, pay, prico. Haaso,
DionslIoislungsvorlrgo.
7
Tlo dislinclion bolvoon llo vorking porson and lis or lor aclivilios dovoIopod
al an oarIy slago. Kaufmann suggosls llal llo dislinclion vas aIroady prosonl in llo
Indo-Iuropoan rool "'= (comparo Ialin "'4*). Kaufmann, :&* &)#1M+(*9$2 A(2#129$#,
p. 200.
8
Irancino Miclaud, Appronlissago ol saIarial, p. 8, poinls oul llal, as Ialo as
llo boginning of llo fourloonll conlury A.D., conlracls voro mado in MarsoiIIo in
vlicl vago vorkors lirod oul llomsoIvos and lloir Iabor ()"9" +2 2# "'21&* +2&*).
Dosclamps, Sur Ioxprossion 'Iocaro oporas, las arguod llal llo oxprossion )"9&#("
"'21&14+ (Iabor liro) couId onIy bo invonlod, bocauso sIavory dominalod in Romo,
and vago Iabor vas viovod IogaIIy as a paraIIoI vorking arrangomonl: nol llo sIavo-
loIdor lirod oul a sIavo lo a cIionl, bul llo sIavo lirod limsoIf oul. A simiIar argu-
monl is advancod by Wobor, AgrarvorlIlnisso im AIlorlum, pp. 12, 56. Kaufmann,
*9 , !"#$%&' )"'&&
Tlo uIlimalo lisloricaI origin of vago Iabor is slroudod in obscurily. Wo
can imagino llal vago Iabor vas aIroady porformod on a casuaI basis among
lunlor-gallorors, sucl as among llo Inuil (oskimos) doscribod by SiogoI
vloro a man vill a slrong loam of dogs can mako a somovlal Iargor calcl,
|. . .j and aIIol somo vork lo a Ioss forlunalo noiglbor.
9
Tlo !rsl documonlod
indicalions of vago Iabor aro providod by lislorians in llo ancionl poriod.
Irom lloir vork, il can bo oslabIislod llal lloro voro, in facl, al Ioasl four
basic varianls.
Tlo !rsl varianl is 9&*4&) )&!"1, ospociaIIy in agricuIluro, bul aIso in buiIding,
Iumboring, olc. Tlo forms in vlicl llis casuaI Iabor vas organizod variod a
groal doaI. In oId BabyIonic scripls vo oncounlor, for oxampIo, llo foIIoving
formuIa: Q slokoIs of siIvor for R larvosl Iaborors lavo boon rocoivod by llo
liroIing from llo liror. |. . .j In llo larvosl soason R larvosl Iaborors viII como.
If lloy do nol como, llon llo royaI docroos |appIyj. Al issuo loro, lovovor, is
a vago paid in advanco lo larvosl Iaborors, vlo aro domandod soasonaIIy,
nocossilaling llis salisfaclion boforoland. As a ruIo il vouId bo llo caso llal
Iargor onlorprisos aro invoIvod loro, vlo couId nol bo conquorod vill lloir
roIalivos and famiIy |. . .j. Tloso larvosl Iaborors voro organizod in groups
undor suporvisors, Ioading lands (H&L)4+), vill vlom llo conlracls voro
sollIod.
10
In ollor casos, Iaborors voro aIIocalod llrougl a daiIy markol. In Allons, a
spaco oxislod knovn as L")"-"* &S"1&("* (or 21S&#(L"* or +(*#$("*), probabIy on
llo Wosl ond of llo agora, vloro lloso vlo vanlod lo liro llomsoIvos oul
as Iand Iaboror offorod lloir sorvicos daiIy.
11
Tlo Nov Toslamonl providos a
good oxampIo of sucl a daiIy markol:
:&* &)#1M+(*9$2 A(2#129$#, p. 155, slrongIy crilicizos llis viovpoinl, and lrios lo slov
llal llo lorm +2192-&1(4* (lirod vorkor) vas !1*# appIiod lo froo Iaborors and onIy
&0#21H&1.* vas gonoraIizod lo lirod sIavos.
9
SiogoI, MollodoIogicaI Considoralions, pp. 3601.
10
Kosclakor, Roviov arlicIo, pp. 3889. Tlo slandard vork on llis maloriaI romains
Iaulnor, >)#!&!@)"-(*9$2 B21*"-2-+(2#2. Soo aIso KIongoI, SoziaIo Aspoklo dor aIlbaby-
Ionisclon Dionslmiolo, p. 41: Tlo soasonaIIy oxpanding Iabor domand, as voII as
urgonl aclivilios in ollor branclos of induslry, couId oflon nol bo salis!od vill llo
roguIar suppIy. Sinco il vas nol possibIo lo rosorl lo foroign Iabor on llo ground of
oxlornaI oconomic prossuros |. . .j |an imporlanl insigll! MvdIj, nol onIy llo Iabor
porformod by lloso in dobl bul aIso lirod sorvicos bocamo signi!canl.
11
Iuks, &'()*'+ ,-./-'+.
-". /0'&&1 2#3& 4#56'7 , *:
Ior llo kingdom of loavon is Iiko a lousoloIdor vlo vonl oul oarIy in llo
morning lo liro Iaborors for lis vinoyard. Aflor agrooing vill llo Iaborors
for a donarius a day, lo sonl llom inlo lis vinoyard. And going oul aboul
llo llird lour lo sav ollors slanding idIo in llo markol pIaco, and llon lo
said, 'You go inlo llo vinoyard loo, and vlalovor is rigll I viII givo you.
So lloy vonl. Going oul again aboul llo sixll lour and llo ninll lour, lo
did llo samo. And aboul llo oIovonll lour lo vonl oul and found ollors
slanding, and lo said lo llom, 'Wly do you sland loro idIo aII day` Tloy
said lo lim, 'Bocauso no ono las lirod us. Ho said lo llom, 'You go inlo
llo vinoyard loo. And vlon ovoning camo, llo ovnor of llo vinoyard said
lo lis slovard, 'CaII llo Iaborors and pay llom lloir vagos, boginning vill
llo Iasl, up lo llo !rsl.
12
Nol aIvays vouId sucl casuaI Iabor bo offorod voIunlariIy. Tloro aro many
oxampIos in Asian and Iuropoan lislory of IandIords obIiging lloir sorvanls
lo vork for a proviousIy dolorminod vago.
Tlo sociaI groups from vlicl casuaI Iaborors voro rocruilod couId vary
groalIy. In lis sludy of llo noo-BabyIonic ago, Mulammod Dandamaov nolos
llal Somolimos ovon porsons vlo ovnod ono or lvo sIavos vorkod as
lirod Iaborors.
13
In llo Roman poriod, llo agricuIluraI lirod Iaborors in IlaIy
incIudod boll cuIlivalors of smaII farms |. . .j laking vork lo suppIomonl a
moagro incomo as voII as unompIoyod and undor-ompIoyod rosidonls of
cilios and lovns.
14
And for Igypl in Ialo Anliquily (llo fourll and !fll con-
lury A.D.) Rogor BagnaII concIudos: Al larvosl limo |. . .j aII lands lurnod
oul. Il is IikoIy llal Iargo numbors of mon vlo did somolling oIso normaIIy
oarnl sparo casl by loIping oul al llo poak soason. Monks pourod oul of lloir
dosorl monaslorios inlo llo DoIla !oIds lo vork for a daiIy vago.
15

A socond form of oarIy vago Iabor consisls of &1#(*&-&) Iabor, i.o. skiIIod
vork carriod oul nov and llon, bul nol conlinuousIy (molaIvork, carpon-
lry). In llo caso of anliquo Grooco, AIois Droizolnlor suggosls llal bocauso
of llo smaII oxlonl of urbanizalion, llo arlisans voro for oconomic roasons
iniliaIIy forcod lo migralo from farm lo farm. Ialor, vlon llo cilios lad grovn
12
TR0"1. >--"#&#2. K(!)2, p. 1197 (Malllov 20). Soo aIso do Clurruca, Dor gorocllo
Ioln.
13
Dandamaov, 8)&521@ (- K&!@)"-(&, p. 121, nolo.
14
Garnsoy, Non-SIavo Iabour in llo Roman WorId, p. 42.
15
BagnaII, ?S@'# (- 3&#2 >-#(U4(#@, p. 123.
** , !"#$%&' )"'&&
somovlal, llo arlisans couId sollIo pormanonlIy somovloro and bogin lloir
ovn vorkpIaco.
16
Tlo boundary bolvoon arlisanaI and casuaI Iabor vas
lloroforo iniliaIIy nol slarpIy dravn, aII llo moro so bocauso corlain aclivilios
of o.g. larvosl Iabor voro aIso considorod skiIIod Iabor.
17
In modiovaI Iuropo
llis appIiod, for oxampIo, lo llo movors:
Tloy voro llo !rsl and mosl imporlanl aclivily of vagod Iand Iaborors,
vlicl is oxpIainod by llo signi!canco of larvosl Iabor, primariIy grain and
lay-culling, for llo agricuIluraI oconomy. Ivon for moving and culling, llo
Iand Iaboror roquirod a do!nilo abiIily and vork oxporionco. A vork loam
lad lo bo spociaIizod oxcIusivoIy in llis aroa. |. . .j Tlo vagos of movors and
cullors voro gonoraIIy liglor llan lloso of ollor vago vorkors.
18
A llird form of oarIy vago Iabor is found among llo ancionl armod forcos,
in llo slapo of +()(#&1@ *215(92V AIroady in llo Ialo Ancionl Impiro (around
2290 B.C.) liroIings voro draflod from Nubia and Iibya. In llo Nov Impiro
(15511080 B.C.) lloro oxislod sollIomonls of liroIings and forcibIy sollIod
foroignors, vlo Iikoviso voro ongagod as morconarios. In llo nov Syrian
Iogion (in !rsl laIf of llo lonll conlury B.C.) liroIings parlIy dravn from llo
agricuIluraI sploro pIayod a groving roIo. In aclaimonidic Iran, liroIings
aro in ovidonco from llo boginning of llo !fll conlury B.C. Grook morconarios
pIayod a docisivo miIilary roIo from llo Kyros RovoIl of 401 B.C. (rolroal of
llo lon llousand) onvards and, subsoquonlIy, in llo RovoIl of llo Salraps, llo
Socossion of Igypl and llo var againsl IliIip II of Macodonia and AIoxandor
llo Groal. Tlo sorvicos of liroIings voro aIso usod in llo Ialor Iranian dynas-
lios. In Clina, llo ompIoymonl of liroIings probabIy dalos back lo llo poriod
16
Droizolnlor, Inlslolung dor Iolnarboil.
17
Hoinz Kroiig givos llo oxampIo of llo brickmakors in Trans-}ordan in llo HoI-
Ionislic Ago: Tloy carry oul any vork offorod by anyono vlo can pay, vlollor a
magislralo, or a privalo cuslomor, or a vorkslop-ovnor vlo rocoivos ordors from
a llird parly. Tloso brickmakors may vork as lirod Iabourors for a conlraclor ono
day, on anollor day porform sorvicos as day-Iabourors for a privalo louso ovnor.
Tlo conlracls migll bo vrillon or vorbaI and run for ono day, for days, for vooks or
unliI a spoci!c projocl is compIolo. Tlo conlracl migll or migll nol lio llo vorkor lo
llo vorkslop. Tlus llo difforonco bolvoon a paid vorkman and a ono-man conlrac-
lor or onlropronour can bo iIIusory. Kroiig, Iroo Iabour in llo HoIIonislic Ago,
p. 31. A moro oxlonsivo anaIysis is prosonlod in Kroiigs Vorsucl ubor don Slalus
dor Iolnarboilor.
18
Hon-Iirnborg, 3"$-&1!2(#21 4-. 012(2 3"$-&1!2(# (+ A(##2)&)#21, pp. 678.
-". /0'&&1 2#3& 4#56'7 , *;
of llo Han dynasly (206 B.C. lo 220 A.D.).
19
Morconarios formod llo !rsl )&1S2
group of vago oarnors, as G.I.M. Do Sainlo Croix las corroclIy poinlod oul.
20

Tlo vago normaIIy consislod of a basic packago of foodsluffs and suclIiko,
monoy, or a porlion of llo var booly.
21
In llo Igyplian Nov Impiro, llo
lroops in parl consislod of profossionaI soIdiors (novadays oflon bul incor-
roclIy roforrod lo as liroIings) and rosorvisls dopIoyod lomporariIy.
22
Arlisans &''12-#(92*$('* roprosonl a fourll, probabIy Ialor, form of vago
Iabor. Appronlicoslip conlracls difforod from ollor lypos of conlracls bocauso,
boyond llo ompIoymonl roIalionslip, a lraining courso vas aIso invoIvod in
vlicl llo ompIoyor look on llo obIigalion lo lrain, and llo vago Iaboror lad
llo duly lo Ioarn spoci!c skiIIs.
23
If vo considor lloso four varianls logollor, ono common claraclorislic
slands oul: froo vago Iabor vas ongagod ospociaIIy vloro llo aclivilios voro
of a #2+'"1&1@ naluro: lomporary oillor in llo sonso of boing carriod oul dur-
ing parl of llo yoar onIy, or during a parl of llo vorkors Iifo (in llo caso of
appronlicos). Il is vorll noling in llis rogard llal, on dairy farms, nol vago
Iabor bul sIavory vas llo ruIo, bocauso llo aclivilios lad a conlinuous clarac-
lor. Tlis norm is nolod o.g. for ancionl Grooco by Zimmormann: Ior soasonaI
Iabor on llo Iand, sucl as llo larvosling of oIivos, froo vorkors voro oflon
lirod as voII. Ior sucl slorl-lorm aclivilios, buying sIavos vas nol a commor-
ciaI proposilion. |. . .j Tlo sloplords lovovor voro moslIy sIavos.
24
19
Anon., SIdnor, p. 269.
20
Tlo !rsl appoaranco in anliquily of lirod Iabour on a Iargo scaIo vas in llo
miIilary !oId, in llo slapo of morconary sorvico. Slo. Croix, %)&** 8#14SS)2 (- #$2
>-9(2-# J122L W"1)., p. 182.
21
Soo among ollors Corbior, SaIairos ol saIarial, pp. 68, 8485.
22
Anon., Kriog, coI. 776. Vory inlorosling aro llo origins of llo Nubian divisions.
IniliaIIy prisonors of var voro simpIy pul lo doall on a mass scaIo (in ono sucl opisodo
of sIaugllor, llis moanl llo Ioss of 49,000 Iivos). OnIy vlon aculo Iabor slorlagos
occurrod in Igypl (during llo poriod of llo OId Impiro) llo poIicy clangod. Tlon
razzias voro organizod in Nubia (Iasling unliI llo ond of llo OId Impiro). A counlor-
lrond lovovor omorgod in llo Nubian nalions, vill vlicl lroalios voro apparonlIy
mado roquiring llom lo suppIy inlabilanls as soIdiors, vlo voro organizod in spociaI
ollnicaIIy soparalod unils. Ialor, in llo Nov Impiro, prodominanlIy prisonors of
var voro draflod inlo llo army. Anon., Iromdarboil.
23
OnIy in roconl yoars las llo oarIy lislory of appronlicoslip rocoivod moro allon-
lion. An ovorviov is givon by Ipsloin, W&S2 3&!"1 &-. J4().*.
24
Zimmormann, Dio froio Arboil in GrioclonIand, p. 341. Comparo Audring, Zur
soziaIon SloIIung dor Hirlon, p. 16: |Sloplord sIavoryj indood can bo considorod,
dospilo ils probabIy Iimilod occuronco, as llo !rsl form of oconomicaIIy signi!canl
sIavory in Grooco. |. . .j In conlrasl lo arabIo farming and lorlicuIluro, |Iivoslock
*< , !"#$%&' )"'&&
Bul llo rovorso silualion did nol loId: by no moans aII lomporary Iabor
vas carriod oul for vagos. In llirloonll conlury IngIand, soasonaI oporalions
voro mosl oflon porformod by moans of Iabor duos of cuslomary lonanls.
25

Of imporlanco lloroforo, is aIso llo oxlonl lo vlicl lloro voro ollor, porlaps
cloapor, aIlornalivos lo vago Iabor, sucl as faliguo-Iabor.
26
56'(+7
Iroo vago Iabor in pro-capilaIisl sociolios gonoraIIy romainod a spasmodic,
casuaI, marginaI plonomonon.
27
Iroo vago Iabor oflon (bul nol aIvays) vas
an adjuncl lo ollor forms of Iabor and surpIus approprialion, oflon as a
moans of suppIomonling llo incomos of smaIIloIdors vloso Iand vlollor
ovnod or loId condilionaIIy las boon insuf!cionl for subsislonco.
28
Ior a Iong limo, froo vago Iabor occurrod onIy sporadicaIIy. Bul in al Ioasl
ono aroa of llo vorId il bocamo imporlanl aIroady !20"12 llo riso of capilaIism.
farmingj vas an aroa of oconomic aclivily in vlicl llo amounl of Iabor roquirod
romainod roIalivoIy conslanl. Tlis croalod llo domand, and favorod llo dopIoymonl
of, a conslanl numbor of vorkors. 'Sorfs, bul aIso sIavos corlainIy !llod bollor inlo llis
rogimo llan impovorislod froo migranls, vlo in aII probabiIily vouId onIy consonl
lo conlracl oul lloir sorvicos for a Iimilod poriod. }oln Morris (SIavos and Sorfs,
p. 49) obsorvos: Tlo groal dravback of sIavo produclion is llal llo sIavo musl bo
mainlainod aII llo yoar round, vlalovor lis produclivily.
25
Ioslan, X&+4)4*, p. 2.
26
Ior aII llal, il is llirloonll conlury IngIand vlicl domonslralos llal froo vago
Iabor vas vory mucl roIalod lo soasonaIily. Bocauso aparl from sorfs vlo aIroady
rocoivod a vago (llo so-caIIod 0&+4)( and 0&+4)&2) lloro oxislod al llal limo lvo
groups of 'roaI vago Iaborors: skiIIod arlisans (masons, carponlors) and day Iaborors.
Soo MiddIolon, IamiIiar Ialo of llo X&+4)&2, pp. 289. Soo aIso Ioslan, X&+4)4*,
p. 18, HiIlon, K"-. A2- A&.2 X122, pp. 378, Kosminsky, 8#4.(2* (- #$2 >S1&1(&- Y(*#"1@
"0 ?-S)&-., pp. 3056. Ollor Iuropoan caso sludios incIudo Iorroy, Wago Iabour,
and van BavoI, RuraI Wago Iabour in llo 16ll Conlury. AcluaIIy, vlollor llo
day Iaborors voro bollor or vorso off llon porsonnoI ompIoyod on a Iong-lorm basis
dopondod loaviIy on llo slalo of llo Iabor markol. Aflor llo IIaguo, vlicl causod
major Iabor slorlagos and slarpIy rising food pricos, many IngIisl Iaborors vouId
rojocl llo rospoclabIo slalus of a pIouglman, a carlor, or a sloplord ompIoyod al a
yoarIy vago, for llal of a common Iabouror vorking by llo day, in viov of llo facl
llal by sucl casuaI Iabour lloy couId oarn far Iargor sums and yol vork onliroIy vloro
and vlon lloy pIoasod. Konyon, Iabour Condilions in Issox, p. 431.
27
IinIoy, >-9(2-# 8)&521@, p. 68. Tlis doos nol oxcIudo llo possibiIily llal somolimos
smaII nucIoi of pormanonl vago Iaborors appoarod, bul lloso voro usuaIIy found
among a Iargor group of soasonaI or casuaI Iaborors. Soo for oxampIo llo anaIysis of
Iargo Byzanlino oslalos in Ialo anliquily, in Banaji, Agrarian Hislory, pp. 198202.
28
Wood, B2&*&-#=%(#(<2- &-. 8)&52, p. 65.
-". /0'&&1 2#3& 4#56'7 , *=
I rofor loro lo llo manoriaI vago Iaborors, vlo voro ossonliaIIy nolling bul
sorf|sj lo vlom Iav doniod llal froodom of conlracl and movomonl vlicl
il aIIovs lo llo lvonlioll-conlury Iaboror|sj.
29
ClarIos TiIIy oslimalos llal, in
1500, aboul 94 porconl of aII Iuropoan proIolarians voro ruraI, ovon in 1800,
il sliII amounlod lo 90 porconl.
30
Tlo groal majorily of llis group probabIy
consislod iniliaIIy of unfroo vago Iaborors, and nol of moro or Ioss 'modorn
vorkors.
31
Tloir oxislonco signaIs llo rapid oxpansion of llo casl oconomy in
Iuropo sinco llo ligl MiddIo Agos
32
a procoss vlicl !rsl bocamo cIoarIy
visibIo in IngIand.
33
Tlo quoslion llon arisos lov and vly oxlonsivo, moro or Ioss froo vago
Iabor omorgod oul of llis opisodic froo vago Iabor and oxlonsivo unfroo vago
Iabor. Tlo !rsl group of vago vorkors vill sloady ompIoymonl probabIy
oxislod in ancionl Igypl. AIroady oarIy on, a smaII group of arlisans omorgod
lloro vlo porformod vago Iabor on a pormanonl basis for llo slalo: llo
vorkors al llo nocropoIis. Tloy Iivod in smaII, purposo-buiIl lovns (Kalun,
Doir-oI-Modina, ToII oI-Amarna), vloro lloy vorkod, oflon gonoralion aflor
gonoralion, on llo conslruclion of llo lombs of succossivo plaraos. Aboul
llo vorkors in Doir-oI-Modina (from llo oiglloonll lo llo lvonlioll dynasly)
mucl informalion is avaiIabIo, llanks lo arclooIogicaI rosoarcl, papyri and
oslraka. So vo knov nol onIy many dolaiIs aboul lloir daiIy Iivos, bul aro aIso
voII-informod aboul lloir vagos:
Tlo paymonls voro mado on llo 28ll day of llo monll, for llo foIIoving
monll. Tlo basic paymonl vas in grain |. . .j. Tlo grain incIudod ommor
vloal vlicl vas ground inlo "our, and barIoy vlicl vas mado inlo boor.
29
Ioslan, X&+4)4*, p. 23.
30
TiIIy, Domograplic Origins.
31
AIan MacfarIano suggosls llis vas llo caso in IngIand. Soo T1(S(-* "0 ?-S)(*$
Z-.(5(.4&)(*+, pp. 14850.
32
Ricardo Duclosno allompls lo oxpIain llis monolarizalion procoss in Ironcl
RovoIulion as a Bourgoois RovoIulion. Soo aIso Maylov, ModoIIing ModiovaI
Monolisalion.
33
Ioslan oslimalos llal in llirloonll conlury IngIand porlaps as mucl as a llird
of llo lolaI ruraI popuIalion vas avaiIabIo for vloIo or parl-limo ompIoymonl as vago
Iabour. Ioslan, IngIand, p. 568. Somo scloIars inlorprol llis as a roason for slifling
llo boginning of capilaIism in IngIand bacl lo llo llirloonll conlury. Gorslonbor-
gor, Z+'21*"-&) B"H21, pp. 501. Soo furllor: Wobor, Sludio zur splmilloIaIlorIiclon
Arboilsmarkl- und Wirlsclaflsordnung, Iulgo, :(2 +(##2).24#*9$2 J14-.$211*9$&0#, pp.
21638, idom, Das 14./15. }alrlundorl, osp. pp. 31423, and Brovn, Inlroduclion:
Wago-Iabour: 15001800, in lis ?-S)(*$ 3&!"41 A"52+2-#, pp. 127.
*> , !"#$%&' )"'&&
Ollor paymonls suppIiod by llo govornmonl incIudod !sl, vogolabIos
and valor, and, for domoslic uso, vood for fuoI and pollory. Ioss roguIar
doIivorios voro aIso mado of cakos, roady-mado boor and dalos, and on
foslivaI days or ollor spociaI occasions, llo vorkforco rocoivod bonusos
vlicl incIudod saIl, nalron, sosamo oiI and moal.
34
In llo lvonly-ninll yoar of llo roign of Ramosos III (aboul 1158 B.C.), lloso
vorkors slagod llo !rsl rocordod slriko in vorId lislory, llo occasion boing
llal lloir vagos voro nol paid on limo.
35

So vly voro lloso arlisans ompIoyod as H&S2 )&!"121*, rallor llan sIavos`
Wo can onIy guoss al llo ansvor. Ono possibiIily is llal llo aclivilios of lloso
oarIy arlisans voro originaIIy onIy of a lomporary naluro (in an lisloricaIIy
sliII oarIior slago) and llal, vlon lloir ompIoymonl bocamo pormanonl, llo
lradilionaI vago conlracl conlinuod. Wlollor llis is llo corrocl oxpIanalion
cannol bo provod from llo avaiIabIo sourcos lovovor. NovorlloIoss llis
oxampIo doos aIroady domonslralo llal, boyond oconomic causos in llo slricl
sonso, aII kinds of non-oconomic (cuIluraI, poIilicaI) faclors musl bo lakon inlo
accounl.
Tlo oxpIanalion of llo lrond lovards pormanonl vago Iabor is, lo an impor-
lanl oxlonl, bound up vill llo quoslion of lov vago Iabor couId oslabIisl
ilsoIf graduaIIy in incroasingIy Iargor oconomic soclors. Bocauso llal oxpan-
sion lad as ils inoxorabIo consoquonco llal vago Iabor no Iongor comprisod
mainIy lomporary aclivilios. In llo Iiloraluro, various causaI faclors aro pro-
posod. I viII brio"y discuss llroo of llom: loclnoIogicaI innovalion, conlraI-
izalion of slalos and llo groving suppIy of Iabor. Nono of lloso faclors, in my
viov, aro suf!cionl lo ansvor llo quoslion salisfacloriIy.
As rogards #29$-")"S(9&) (--"5&#("-, an argumonl froquonlIy cilod is llal
modorn loclnoIogy vas no Iongor compalibIo vill unfroo Iabor. Tlis inlor-
prolalion dalos back al Ioasl lo llo ninoloonll-conlury poIilicaI oconomisl }.I.
Cairnos, vlo, in lis in"uonliaI book 8)&52 B"H217 conlondod llal sIavo Iabor
vas aIvays nocossariIy 4-*L())2. Iabor. Tlo sIavo, Cairnos vrolo, is unsuilod
for aII branclos of induslry vlicl roquiro llo sIigllosl caro, forollougll, or
34
Davis, B@1&+(. K4().21*, pp. 7273. AIso soo AIIam, [210&$12-*129$#, !orny, %"+=
+4-(#@ "0 W"1L+2-, DoIIa Monica, 3& 9)&**2 "451(E12 *"4* )2* '$&1&"-*, AIIam, IamiIio
und BosilzvorlIlnisso, GulgosoII, >1!2(#21 4-. B$&1&"-2-.
35
Idgorlon, Slrikos, }ansson, Background Informalion.
-". /0'&&1 2#3& 4#56'7 , *?
doxlorily. Ho cannol bo mado lo co-oporalo vill maclinory, lo can onIy bo
lruslod vill llo coarsosl impIomonls, lo is incapabIo of aII bul llo rudosl
forms of Iabour.
36
Ollor aullors, incIuding Marx, adoplod llis inlorprolalion,
and accordingIy advancod a #29$-")"S(9&) oxpIanalion of llo docIino of sIav-
ory: llo incroasingIy compIox and sublIo Iabor procossos supposodIy couId
nol bo combinod vill sIavo Iabor.
37
Iurllor rosoarcl lovovor las moanvliIo
rovoaIod llal llis argumonl cannol bo suslainod noillor for Anliquily, nor
for modorn capilaIism.
38
In llo Amorican Soull boforo llo CiviI War, skiIIod Iabor vas mosl dof-
iniloIy porformod by sIavos, bo il vill a groalor dogroo of aulonomy llan
sIavos lad o.g. on collon pIanlalions. Iugono Gonovoso quolos a Soull Caro-
Iina pIanlor from 1849 as foIIovs: Wlonovor a sIavo is mado a moclanic, lo is
moro llan laIf frood, and soon bocomos, as vo loo voII knov, and aII lislory
allosls, vill raro oxcoplions, llo mosl corrupl and lurbuIonl of lis cIass.
39

Tlo undorIying Iogic is mado cIoar by ClarIos Dovs sludy of an iron foundry
in llo VaIIoy of Virginia, al llo boginning of llo CiviI War. Dov doscribos in
dolaiI llo roasons vly llo ovnor (Woavor) granlod lis sIavo-arlisans a con-
sidorabIo amounl of froodom in lloir vork. Bocauso of llo cIarily of Dovs
doscriplion, I viII quolo lim al Iongll:
Woavor, of courso, lad considorabIo coorcivo povor al lis disposaI. Ho
couId punisl any rocaIcilranl or lroubIosomo sIavo, bul if lo lad roIiod
on llo vlip lo acliovo salisfaclory IovoIs of produclion, lis caroor as a
Virginia ironmakor vouId lavo boon vory slorl-Iivod indood. Ixcossivo
uso of forco corlainIy vouId lavo back!rod, and a vlipping adminislorod
lo a skiIIod sIavo vouId, al minimum, Ioavo llo man soro and incapabIo
of vork. Il vouId probabIy Ioavo lim soolling vill angor as voII and
Iooking for vays lo gol back al llo maslor. Acls of induslriaI sabolago
couId bo accompIislod vill roIalivo oaso around a forgo. To cilo onIy ono
oxampIo, llo lugo voodon boams llal supporlod llo 500 lo 600pound
casl-iron lammorloads in llo forgo 'loIvos vas llo namo givon lo lloso
boams occasionaIIy broko in llo normaI courso of oporalions and lad lo
36
Cairnos, 8)&52 B"H21, p. 46.
37
Marx, %&'(#&), 1, pp. 3034.
38
KioclIo, 8L)&52-&1!2(#.
39
Gonovoso, SIavo Iabor or Iroo, p. 225.
;+ , !"#$%&' )"'&&
bo ropIacod. Tlo forgo vouId slul dovn for al Ioasl a day, somolimos moro,
vliIo llo forgo carponlor inslaIIod a nov loIvo. Woavors foromon couId
broak lloso loIvos inlonlionaIIy vlonovor lloy vislod, and vlo couId say
vlollor il vas or vas nol doIiboralo` Anollor aIlornalivo vouId bo for llo
sIavo lo burn llo forgo dovn. On any vorking day, Iivo clarcoaI vas lloro
lo do llo job. Tlo sIavos, in slorl, voro in a posilion lo do considorabIo
plysicaI and !nanciaI damago lo Woavors inlorosls, ovon if lloy Iimilod lloir
aclivilios lo passivo forms of rosislanco Iiko vork sIovdovns or sIipslod
porformanco of lloir dulios. Nol surprisingIy, lloro is no indicalion llal
Woavor ovor vlippod ono of lis sIavo forgo vorkors al any limo during
lis forly yoars in llo VaIIoy.
A far groalor llroal lo llo sIavos vas llo possibiIily of saIo. Ivon skiIIod
sIavos vlo lriod lo run avay or vlo carriod lloir rosislanco boyond
Woavors IovoI of loIoralion couId bo lurnod ovor lo sIavo lradors and
roadiIy soId. Yol no ironmaslor vouId vanl lo parl vill a lrainod sIavo
ironvorkor |. . .j. Buying or lraining an immodialo ropIacomonl vouId bo
dif!cuIl, if nol impossibIo, and lrying lo liro skiIIod sIavo forgo vorkors
vas, as Woavor voII knov, boll uncorlain and oxponsivo. Il vas far bollor,
from Woavors poinl of viov, lo avoid llo uso of plysicaI coorcion lo llo
fuIIosl oxlonl possibIo and lo lurn lo a voapon Iiko llo saIo of a sIavo onIy
in llo mosl oxlromo circumslancos.
Tlo aIlornalivo lo forco vas posilivo inconlivo. Irom lis oarIiosl days in
Virginia, Woavor paid sIavos vlo did oxlra vork. Woavors arlisans lad
a daiIy or vookIy lask lo porform, bul lo componsalod llom, oillor in
casl or in goods from lis sloro al BuffaIo Iorgo, for anylling lloy lurnod
oul ovor and abovo llo roquirod amounl. Iaymonl of 'ovorvork, as llis
syslom vas caIIod, vas a common praclico al sIavo-mannod manufacluring
oslabIislmonls llrougloul llo anloboIIum Soull, and il vas a foaluro of
llo Iabor rogimo al soullorn ironvorks as oarIy as llo mid-oiglloonll
conlury.
40
Tlis commonlary cIari!os llal sIavo Iabor is quilo compalibIo vill mod-
orn Iabor procossos, if llo moclanism for oxlracling Iabor offorl is modi!od.
ToclnoIogicaI innovalions, vliIo impIying llo nood lo offor unfroo vorkors
40
Dov, K"-. "0 Z1"-, pp. 1078.
-". /0'&&1 2#3& 4#56'7 , ;8
a dogroo of indopondonco in lloir vork, do -"# IogicaIIy or praclicaIIy onlaiI
llo aboIilion of llo unfroo Iabor roIalion as sucl.
A socond faclor monlionod in llo Iiloraluro is llo omorgonco of +".21- 92-=
#1&)(<2. *#&#2*, lo bogin vill in IngIand, and aflorvards in parls of Woslorn
Iuropo. Robin BIackburn oIoquonlIy oxprossos llo roIovanl poinl: In Ing-
Iand and Iranco sIavory lad villorod avay villoul ovor bocoming iIIogaI
|. . .j. Il is dif!cuIl lo boIiovo llal llo povorfuI voro naluraIIy moro gonlIo and
lumano in IngIand and Iranco llan in ollor parls of Clrislondom, in llo
IngIisl caso llo forocious Slalulo of Iabourors of 134951 corlainIy suggosls
ollorviso. Tloroforo il is llo possossion of ollor 'moans lo llo samo ond (pro-
sumabIy, Iabour conlroI) llal musl boar llo main voigll in oxpIaining llo
ocIipso of sorfdom and sIavory.
41
A simiIar viov is aIso advancod by Roborl
Bronnor.
42
WliIo undoublodIy conlaining a kornoI of lrull, llo baso of ompiri-
caI ovidonco for llis inlorprolalion romains rallor voak. A conlraIizod slalo
croalod onIy llo '"**(!()(#@ of froo vago Iabor on a mass scaIo, bul no moro.
In IogicaI lorms, il is a caso of a nocossary, bul nol a suf!cionl condilion.
A llird faclor oflon inlroducod in llo oxpIanalion is llo prosonco of & *40=
!9(2-# *4'')@ "0 )&!"1. AIong lloso Iinos, Maurico Dobb for oxampIo vrolo llal
llo lransilion from coorcivo oxlraclion of surpIus Iabour by oslalo-ovnors
lo llo uso of froo lirod Iabour musl lavo dopondod upon llo oxislonco of
cloap Iabour for liro (i.o., of proIolarian or somi-proIolarian oIomonls).
43

ImpIiod loro is llal apparonlIy llo prosonco of cloap Iabour for liro is
suf!cionl lo mako llo lransilion from coorcod Iabor lo froo Iabor possibIo.
Bul sucl an inforonco is far loo simpIislic. Bocauso llo polonliaI ompIoyors of
llis cloap Iabor musl, from lloir sido, bo proparod lo ompIoy llo avaiIabIo
Iabor forco &* H&S2 )&!"121*. In principIo al Ioasl, lovovor, lloy couId dopIoy
41
BIackburn, T521#$1"H "0 %")"-(&) 8)&521@, pp. 3940.
42
An incroasingIy conlraIizod slalo, roolod ovor moro !rmIy in broad Iandod Iayors,
couId |. . .j moro offoclivoIy undormino llo disruplivo bolaviour of lloso docroasing
numbors of Iandod oIomonls vloso oconomios sliII dopondod upon llo appIicalion
of oxlra-oconomic mollods |. . .j. Tlo slalo vlicl omorgod during llo Tudor poriod
vas, lovovor, no absoIulism. AbIo lo pro!l from rising Iand ronls, llrougl prosiding
ovor a novIy omorging lriparlilo capilaIisl liorarcly of commorciaI IandIord, capilaI-
isl lonanl and lirod vago Iabouror, llo IngIisl Iandod cIassos lad no nood lo rovorl
lo dirocl, oxlra-oconomic compuIsion lo oxlracl a surpIus. Nor did lloy roquiro llo
slalo lo sorvo llom indiroclIy as an ongino of surpIus approprialion by poIilicaI moans
(lax/of!co and var). Bronnor, Agrarian Rools, pp. 2978.
43
Dobb, RopIy, p. 61.
;9 , !"#$%&' )"'&&
cloap Iabor jusl as voII in a difforonl vay, for oxampIo, lloy couId conlracl
inlo o.g. slaro-cropping arrangomonls, or inlroduco a form of sIavory (o.g.
dobl-sIavory). Tlal lloso oplions aro ovorIookod, rallor llan syslomalicaIIy
rosoarclod, indicalos an unaccoplabIo funclionaIism. Will juslico, }ooI Kaln
romarks llal CIoarIy llo bono!ls lo capilaIism of parlicuIar oconomic forms
aro on lloir ovn no oxpIanalion for lloir oxislonco. Ono ougll lo ask insload
vlollor ollor forms of oconomic organizalion vouId bo oquaIIy bono!ciaI
lo capilaIism, vlollor parlicuIar forms bono!l capilaIism as a vloIo, or onIy
fraclions of llo dominanl cIass, and, !naIIy, vlollor lloro is a possibiIily of
con"icl and conlradiclion villin capilaIism.
44
Again, an abundanco of vork-
ors sooking ompIoymonl IogicaIIy onIy makos froo Iabor on a mass scaIo
possibIo, bul nol a nocossary, inovilabIo dovoIopmonl.
If vo nov considor lloso llroo causaI faclors as oporaling in concorl, llon
vo lavo ono faclor vlicl in MiclaoI Buravoys lorminoIogy promolos
groalor froodom in roIalions (- produclion (loclnoIogicaI innovalion) and lvo
faclors vlicl mako groalor froodom in roIalions "0 produclion possibIo (con-
lraIizod slalo povor, and an abundanl Iabor suppIy).
45
Bul llal sliII doos nol
loII us vory mucl aboul llo spoci!c faclors vlicl Iod lo llo sproad of froo
vago Iabor. Major Iacunao in llo anaIysis romain.
46
Wloro llon slouId llo ansvor bo sougll` Undor vlal circumslancos is
llo '"**(!()(#@ of 'froo vago Iabor lransformod inlo a 12&)(#@` In my viov, any
allompl lo addross llis quoslion musl lako accounl of llo inlorosls and cloicos
of boll llo ompIoyors and subaIlorn vorkors. On boll sidos of llo Iabor
roIalion, oconomic and non-oconomic faclors pIay a roIo. Quilo IikoIy il viII
bo usofuI lo dislinguisl bolvoon lvo kinds of cognilivo moclanisms. IirslIy,
lloro aro *#1&#2S(9 9"-*(.21&#("-*, i.o. cosl-bono!l assossmonls by individuaIs
(or lousoloIds) of llo IikoIy consoquoncos of aIlornalivo cloicos. SocondIy,
lloro aro aIso !2$&5("1&) -"1+*, i.o. llo appIicalion of normalivo principIos lo
onos ovn bolavior, and lo llo bolavior of ollors.
47
Tloso lvo moclanisms
can oporalo in concorl, and in facl lloy oflon do. If an ompIoyor docidos nol lo
44
Kaln, MorcanliIism, p. 202.
45
Buravoy, B")(#(9* "0 B1".49#("-, pp. 1314.
46
Tloro lavo boon somo caulious allompls in llis diroclion in roconl limos. Soo for
oxampIo llo micro-lisloricaI anaIysis in Iox, Sorvanls.
47
Tloso lvo molivalions aro doscribod in a somovlal difforonl conloxl in: Buravoy
and Wrigll, Coorcion and Consonl.
-". /0'&&1 2#3& 4#56'7 , ;:
uso llo sorvicos of sIavos, bul of vago Iaborors, llon lo or slo is concoivabIy
molivalod boll by slralogic considoralions (il is cloapor) and normalivo
considoralions (il is moro civiIizod, olc.).
Tlo crilicaI poinl is llal llo combinalion of lloso cognilivo moclanisms
doos nol simpIy aulomalicaIIy as il voro lavo llo samo offocl in ovory
silualion. Tlo samo norms and cosl-bono!l assossmonls can, in difforonl lis-
loricaI conloxls, produco difforonl oulcomos. So if vo vanlod lo oxpIain vly,
in a givon pIaco and limo, froo vago Iabor bocamo dominanl, vo viII lavo lo
sludy llo silualion in dolaiI, and unravoI llo spoci!c molivos of ompIoyors
and subaIlorn vorkors.
48
48
In llo Iiloraluro, llo quoslion of vly a spoci!c modo of oxpIoilalion is closon in a
givon limo and pIaco las boon doaIl vill moslIy vill an 29"-"+(*#(9 approacl, focusing
aImosl oxcIusivoIy on ompIoyors molivos and inlorosls. Tako, for oxampIo, llo inci-
donlaIIy vory inlorosling discussion aboul llo oxislonco and lomporaI-spaliaI varialion
of various lypos of agricuIluraI !rms: slaro-lonancy, 'lirod-managor arrangomonls,
olc. Solling oul from llo impIicil assumplion llal Iandovnors cannol rosorl lo unfroo
Iabor, agricuIluraI oconomisls lavo dovoIopod various modoIs vlicl aro supposod
lo oxpIain llo cloico for a spoci!c Iabor rogimo. An imporlanl roIo is assignod lo llo
'moraI lazard probIom of slirking (vlicl is Ioss provaIonl vill slaro-cropping llan
vill vago Iabor) and llo corrosponding cosls of Iabor suporvision. Soo Isvaran and
KolvaI, Tloory of ConlracluaI Slrucluro, p. 361. Koijiro Olsuka, Hiroyuki Cluma
and Yujiro Hayami lavo dovoIopod a modoI in vlicl pormanonl vago Iabor in llo
agricuIluraI soclor is, bocauso of llo moniloring probIom (llo dif!cuIly of suporvising
porsonnoI and provonl slirking), a sorl of 'Iasl rosorl vlon ollor oplions (sucl as
Iand lonancy) aro impossibIo for IogaI or sociaI roasons. In Iino vill llis lypollosis,
llo aullors oxpIain llo froquonl occurronco of pormanonl vago Iabor in conlomporary
India, Iakislan and NopaI vill roforonco lo llo caslo syslom: llo Iovor caslos aro
provonlod from ovning or Ioasing Iand, and vago Iabor vas llo Iasl oplion for llis
roason. Tlo rovorso vouId appIy lo Indonosia, MaIaysia, llo IliIippinos and TlaiIand.
Horo lloro aro no cIass barriors lo bocoming lonanl or ovnor cuIlivalors. In sucl an
onvironmonl, llo Iand lonancy conlracl prodominalos and pormanonl Iabor conlracls
aro soIdom obsorvod, ovon llougl lloro aro many Iargo Iandovnors vlo couId opor-
alo suf!cionlIy Iargo farms vill pormanonl vorkors. (Olsuka, Cluma and Hayami,
Iand and Iabor Conlracls, pp. 20034.) Tlis conlrasl bolvoon Soull and Soulloasl
Asia las, according lo Olsuka 2# &). ils counlorparl in llo lislory of }apans agricuIluro:
In }apan, pormanonl |vagoj Iabor vas propondoranl in llo oarIy Tokugava poriod
(llo 16ll and 17ll conlurios) undor agrarian Iavs llal commandod dirocl allaclmonl
of aII liIIors lo foudaI Iords and, lonco, prolibilod IandIord-lonanl roIalions lo dovoIop
boIov IogaI poasanls (lonbyakuslo) vlo voro granlod usufrucl riglls on Iand. Tlis
ruIo vas graduaIIy broaclod by do faclo lonancy conlracls bolvoon llo IogaI poas-
anls and lloir pormanonl Iaborors. Tlo convorsion of pormanonl Iaborors lo lonanls
vas accoIoralod in llo Ialor Tokugava poriod (llo 18ll lo 19ll conlurios) vlon llo
foudaI Iords bocamo Ioss oagor lo onforco llo lonancy roguIalions as Iand laxalion
sliflod from llo syslom of variabIo Iovy basod on crop yioId (komi) lo llo !xod Iovy
in kind (jomon). Tlo convorsion progrossod furllor in llo modorn ora as llo Moiji
govornmonl (18681912) granlod modorn proporly riglls on Iand, incIuding llo rigll
of ronling il oul, lo lloso vlo usod lo lavo foudaI usufrucl riglls on llo Iand. Tlis
;* , !"#$%&' )"'&&
I viII Iimil mysoIf loro lo a fov possibIo roIovanl molivos villoul pro-
londing lo givo an oxlauslivo Iisl. Ior llo 2+')"@21* llroo slralogic consid-
oralions vouId appoar lo bo of koy imporlanco: llo immodialo cosls of llo
subaIlorn vorkor vlicl aro anaIyzod in moro dolaiI in llo noxl claplor ,
llo "oxibiIily of llo suppIy of Iabor,
49
and llo (offoclivonoss of) roIovanl Iogis-
Ialion.
50
Tlo bolavioraI norms probabIy roIalo ospociaIIy lo considoralions of
lumanily and doconcy, vlicl I viII oIaboralo on boIov.
Ior llo *4!&)#21- H"1L21* in so far as lloy lavo a gonuino cloico in llo mal-
lor, and aro nol forcod vill vioIonco lo sIavory lvo slralogic considoralions
aro ossonliaI: on llo ono land, llo slabiIily and quaIily of lloir Iiving slandard,
in ollor vords, maloriaI socurily, and on llo ollor sido (in llo caso of a voak
slalo) llo dogroo of plysicaI proloclion vlicl an ompIoyor can offor. Norma-
livo considoralions roIalo ospociaIIy lo quoslions of porsonaI dignily (vlollor
llo proposod ompIoymonl roIalion is lonorabIo, or an affronl lo onos slalus)
and dislribulionaI juslico.
51
procoss vas supporlod by llo dovoIopmonl of moro inlonsivo cropping sysloms llal
roquirod moro inlonsivo caro and judgmonl of farm vorkors and, lloroforo, couId
bo oporalod moro of!cionlIy by smaII lonanl cuIlivalors vlo couId cIaim rosiduaI
pro!ls. (Ibid., p. 2005.) Iconomislic approaclos of llis kind corlainIy mako sonso,
vlon llo oxislonco or absonco of a spoci!c modo of oxpIoilalion is al issuo. AcluaIIy,
llo modoI of Olsuka 2# &)\ makos il cIoar llal ovon an oconomislic oxpIanalion can-
nol do villoul roforonco lo normalivo (cuIluraI) faclors: llo oxislonco or absonco of
caslo-norms among llo subaIlorn popuIalion is, aflor aII, an imporlanl considoralion
in llo do!nilion of llo possibIo oplions opon lo llo ompIoyor. Bul a comprolonsivo
oxpIanalion musl go furllor, and aIso oxpIicilIy inlogralo llo -"1+&#(52 aspocls.
49
IIoxibiIily is of imporlanco in casos of unprodiclabIo aclivilios. Tlis is vory cIoar
in llo caso of pIoving and larvosling: as soon as llo voallor (nol oasiIy prodiclabIo)
givos causo for il, rosoIulo aclion is caIIod for. Tloro is llon no limo anymoro for
compIicalod nogolialions vill polonliaI ompIoyoos. Honco procaulionary moasuros aro
roquirod. AIroady in Mosopolamia, allompls al sucl advanco arrangomonls oxislod, as
proviousIy nolod in llo caso of larvosl Iabor conlracls. Soo on llis issuo aIso Konyon,
Iabour Condilions in Issox, p. 438.
50
A faclor vlicl roIalos boll lo dirocl cosls and "oxibiIily, and vlicl in mosl
oconomic anaIysos onIy appoars in disguiso (as llo slirking probIom), is llo dogroo
of organizalion of polonliaI ompIoyoos. If llo vorkforco in a givon brancl boIongs lo
a povorfuI and miIilanl lrado union, il bocomos allraclivo for a capilaIisl lo Iook for
aIlornalivos lo vago Iabor, incIuding unfroo Iabor.
51
van dor Iindon, Connocling HousoloId Hislory and Iabour Hislory. Noillor
slralogic considoralions, nor bolavioraI norms impIy aulomalicaIIy llal unfroo vorkors
vanl lo bocomo froo vago Iaborors. A sludy of sorfs in Russian ninoloonll-conlury
molaIIurgicaI induslry slalos: Tloro is no ovidonco llal llo sorf vorkors yoarnod for
somo condilion of 'froodom or voro ovon avaro of llo Woslorn concopl of froodom.
On llo conlrary, vliIo lloy al limos compIainod of larsl discipIino, lloy considorod
llo assuranco of lloir basic socurily lo lavo boon an inaIionabIo rigll, an inloronl
-". /0'&&1 2#3& 4#56'7 , ;;
Iiguro 3.1
Somo molivos dolormining llo cloico of ompIoymonl roIalions
Slralogic considoralions BolavioraI norms
ImpIoyor - dirocl cosl
- "oxibiIily
- offoclivo Iav
- lumanily
- doconcy
SubaIlorn vorkor - slabiIily and quaIily of slandard of
Iiving
- proloclion
- dignily
- juslico
8/'9+-2:+;2/3
Ivon if vo succoodod in dovoIoping a coloronl gonoraI lloory vlicl doscribos
vly ompIoyors somolimos do and somolimos do nol ompIoy froo vago Iabor,
llo quoslion sliII romains as lo vly vago Iabor las bocomo llo normaI form
of dopondonl Iabor in advancod capilaIisl sociolios (Ioaving domoslic subsis-
lonco Iabor oul of considoralion for llo momonl). Will llo lorm normaI, I
moan in llis conloxl boll llal froo vago Iabor las bocomo llo dominanl
form of Iabor commodi!calion, and llal aII forms of unfroo Iabor aro rogardod
as objoclionabIo and iIIogaI, ovon if lloy sliII occur. Onco again a puroIy
oconomic oxpIanalion sooms insuf!cionl, boyond llo immodialo maloriaIis-
lic aspocls roIalod lo caIcuIalions of oconomic advanlago, considoralions of
moraIily and IogaIily aIso pIay a roIo.
aspocl of llo sociaI-oconomic syslom in vlicl lloy Iivod. |. . .j Tlo vorkors so vaIuod
llis socurily llal somo of llom rocoivod lloir omancipalion in 1861 vill dismay al
llo Ioss of lloir 'riglls. Ispor, Condilion of llo Sorf Workors, p. 671. A somovlal
difforonl varianl appoars lo lavo occurrod in Wosl-Africa, vloro, in llo ninoloonll
conlury, sIavos voro ronlod oul by lloir ovnors lo vork for ollors. Tlo vagos oarnl
by llo sIavos voro parlIy approprialod by lloir ovnor and parlIy rolainod by llo
sIavo. In llo !rsl laIf of llo ninoloonll conlury llo sIavo kopl for limsoIf 10 francs
por monll abovo and boyond llo cosl of food and Iodging. Tlo froo vorkor of 1903
rocoivod 0.45 francs por day vill ralions of 1 lo 1.5 francs por day villoul ralions,
llus 11.25 francs a monll abovo and boyond llo cosl of food. Tlougl vo musl bo
caulious aboul lloso !guros, llo sIavo ovnors soom lo lavo boon moro succossfuI in
nogolialing for lloir sIavos, llan llo froo vorkors of a lriumplanl capilaIism voro in
nogolialing for llomsoIvos. In addilion, llo Iallor voro nol aIvays suro of vorking,
and llus of oaling, unIiko llo sIavos. Tlo Iiboralion of llo sIavos lloroforo did nol
Ioad lo llo omorgonco of a froo Iabor markol basod on vago Iabor. Mbodj, AboIilion
of SIavory in SonogaI, p. 208.
;< , !"#$%&' )"'&&
Irom an oconomic poinl of viov, lvo faclors dosorvo allonlion. Tlo !rsl
(micro-oconomic) faclor vas idonli!od aIroady sovoraI docados ago by }oln
Hicks: llo moro llal froo vago Iabor bocomos a gonoraI plonomonon, unfroo
Iabor bocomos moro oxponsivo, bocauso lloy aro compoling sourcos: vlon
boll aro usod llo avaiIabiIily of ono affocls llo vaIuo (vago or capilaI vaIuo)
of llo ollor.
52
Aflor aII, llo mainlonanco cosl of a sIavo incroasos as llo sup-
pIy of sIavos docIinos, vliIo convorsoIy an incroasing numbor of vago Iabor-
ors makos llis form of Iabor cloapor.
53
Tlo socond faclor is macro-oconomic. As is knovn, capilaIism las ils rools
in llo produclion of Iuxury goods (loxliIos, olc.) for llo nobiIily and ollor
voaIlly cIionls. InduslriaI capilaIism look off on llis basis, boginning vill llo
loxliIo induslry in llo oiglloonll conlury, subsoquonlIy il sproad in llo courso
of llo ninoloonll conlury lo a varioly of ollor soclors, in llo procoss +&-4fac-
luro gavo vay lo +&9$(-"0&9#412: Tlo focus of accumuIalion sliflod slarpIy
lovard induslry, and parlicuIarIy lo llo buiId-up of Doparlmonl I, incIuding
nol onIy faclorios bul aIso a vasl infraslrucluro of lransporlalion and com-
municalions (lurnpikos, canaIs, porls, sloamslips, raiIroads, loIograpls).
54

GraduaIIy, lovovor, Doparlmonl II aIso bogan lo grov, and an incroasingIy
Iargor parl of llo oulpul of llis soclor vas purclasod by a groving cIass of
vago oarnors. Tlus, a dynamic inloraclion dovoIopod bolvoon soclors I and
II, vlicl somolimos las boon unjusli!abIy lloorizod as a Iordisl rogimo
of accumuIalion.
55

52
Hicks, 6$2"1@ "0 ?9"-"+(9 Y(*#"1@, p. 132.
53
Wlon sIavos aro cloap and oasiIy oblainabIo, il viII pay lo koop llo sums invoslod
in lloir mainlonanco lo a minimum, bul vlon sIavos aro lardor lo gol and moro oxpon-
sivo, so llal llo Ioss of a sIavo, or lis inabiIily lo vork, is a sorious mallor, il viII bo
pro!labIo lo undorlako oxpondiluro lo diminisl llo risk of ils occurronco. |. . . Ifj Iabour
is abundanl |llo vagoj can faII vory Iov, lo somolling vlicl corrosponds lo no moro
llan llo mainlonanco of llo sIavo ovon lo llo slorl-poriod, or noarIy slorl-poriod
mainlonanco of llo sIavo. Hicks, 6$2"1@ "0 ?9"-"+(9 Y(*#"1@, pp. 127, 132.
54
Svoozy, Conlradiclions of CapilaIism, p. 37. Doparlmonl I is Marxs lorm for
llo oconomic soclor producing moans of produclion (oquipmonl goods or capilaI
goods). Doparlmonl II is llo soclor producing consumor goods. Soo Marx, %&'(#&), II,
claplor 20. Tlo roador may bo romindod of Hoffmanns lloory of induslriaIizalion
slagos: Slago Ono is claraclorizod by llo dominalion of consumor-goods induslrios,
during Slago Tvo capilaI goods induslrios bocomo incroasingIy imporlanl, and during
Slago Tlroo lloro is a baIanco bolvoon consumor-goods induslrios and capilaI-goods
induslrios vill a londoncy for llo capilaI-goods induslrios lo oxpand moro rapidIy
llan llo consumor-goods induslrios. Soo Hoffmann, J1"H#$ "0 Z-.4*#1(&) ?9"-"+(2*.
55
AgIiolla, 6$2"1@ "0 %&'(#&)(*# C2S4)&#("-. Soo aIso Ioslor, Iolisl of Iordism, and
CIarko, OvoraccumuIalion.
-". /0'&&1 2#3& 4#56'7 , ;=
Tlis dovoIopmonl is liglIy imporlanl in llo conloxl of llis anaIysis,
bocauso llo groving sizo of vago oarnors consumplion slovod ovon in llo
mosl abslracl and 'lloorolicaI sonso llo boundarios of mass sIavory in llo
'coro counlrios. Marx claraclorizod llo difforonco bolvoon sIavo and vago
vorkor as foIIovs:
Tlo sIavo rocoivos llo moans of subsislonco lo roquiros in llo form of
-&#41&)(& vlicl aro fixod boll in kind and quanlily i.o. lo rocoivos
4*2=5&)42*. Tlo froo vorkor rocoivos llom in llo slapo of +"-2@, 2R9$&-S2=
5&)42, llo abslracl sociaI form of voaIll. |. . .j Il is llo vorkor limsoIf vlo
convorls llo monoy inlo vlalovor uso-vaIuos lo dosiros, il is lo vlo buys
commodilios as lo vislos and, as llo "H-21 "0 +"-2@, as llo buyor of goods,
lo slands in procisoIy llo samo roIalionslip lo llo soIIors of goods as any
ollor buyor.
56
Roborl Iadgug rigllIy poinls oul llal sIavos aro lo a Iargo dogroo llomsoIvos
oulsido of llo commodily syslom as consumors, and lloroforo do nol por-
mil llo fuII dovoIopmonl of an inlornaI markol.
57
Wago oarnors by conlrasl
couId bo inlogralod in an upvard spiraI of rising vagos and incroasing mass
consumplion.
58
In ollor vords: lvonlioll conlury capilaIism basod on mass
consumplion vas onIy possibIo llanks lo llo groving buying povor of vago
and saIary oarnors in llo molropoIos. In facl, vago Iabor in llo molropoIos
56
Marx, RosuIls of llo Immodialo Irocoss of Iroduclion, p. 1033.
57
Iadgug, IrobIoms in llo Tloory of SIavory, p. 20. Tlo samo poinl is mado in
Gonovoso, Signi!canco of llo SIavo IIanlalion, and WaIIorsloin, A".21- W"1).=8@*#2+,
II, p. 103. Comparo aIso Marx, J14-.1(**2, p. 419: In produclion basod on sIavory, as
voII as in palriarclaI agricuIluraI-induslriaI produclion, vloro llo groalosl parl of
llo popuIalion diroclIy salis!os llo groalosl parl of ils noods diroclIy by ils Iabour,
llo sploro of circuIalion and oxclango is sliII vory narrov, and moro parlicuIarIy in
llo formor, llo sIavo doos nol como inlo considoralion as 2-S&S2. (- 2R9$&-S2 al aII.
Sigrid MouscloI, ]&'(#&)(*+4* ".21 8L)&5212(, p. 50, las arguod llal aIso pIanlalion
oconomios basod on sIavo Iabor couId bo ro-orionlod lo producls llal couId bo soId
on llo IocaI markol. Bul slo assumos llal lloro oxisls a cIass of ruraI and urban
polly commodily producors oulsido of llo pIanlalions as llo driving forco of sucl
a dovoIopmonl.
58
To oacl capilaIisl, llo lolaI mass of aII vorkors, vill llo oxcoplion of lis ovn
vorkors, appoar nol as vorkors, bul as consumors, possossors of oxclango vaIuos
(vagos), monoy, vlicl lloy oxclango for lis commodily. Marx, J14-.1(**2, p. 419.
Soo aIso SuIkunon, IndividuaI Consumplion.
;> , !"#$%&' )"'&&
vas, from llis poinl of viov, a 9"-.(#(" *(-2 U4& -"- for advancod capilaIisl
prosporily.
59
Tloso considoralions nolvillslanding, sIavo Iabor romains an oconomi-
caIIy 9"-92(5&!)2 oplion in llo molropoIos as voII, if onIy as a rallor marginaI
plonomonon. Tlal sIavory vas acluaIIy bannod in modorn capilaIisl soci-
oly lo a Iargo oxlonl, ovon vloro llis did nol mako oconomic sonso from llo
slandpoinl of capilaI accumuIalion, las Ioss lo do vill oconomic conlradic-
lions llan vill llo inloronlIy univorsaIislic londoncy of bourgoois norms.
Tlis brings mo lo a socond, moraI aspocl of llo normaIizalion. In a pallbroak-
ing ossay, Tlomas HaskoII domonslralos an inlimalo roIalionslip bolvoon llo
riso of modorn capilaIism and llo omorgonco of a lumanilarian sonsibiIily:
llo markol vrougll clangos in porcoplion or cognilivo slyIo llal undorIay
llo nov consloIIalion of alliludos and aclivilios llal vo caII lumanilarian-
ism.
60
According lo HaskoII, an oxpansion of llo markol across moro and
moro aroas of llo gIobo lad lvo major consoquoncos. IirslIy, a markol can
onIy funclion offoclivoIy if markol aclors koop lloir promisos, i.o. if lloy lonor
lloir conlracluaI obIigalions:
HisloricaIIy spoaking, capilaIism roquiros conscionco and can ovon bo said lo
bo idonlicaI vill llo ascondancy of conscionco. Tlis 'lromondous Iabor of
59
OslonsibIy llis is a 04-9#("-&) oxpIanalion: advancod capilaIism domands mass
consumplion of llo vorking cIass. Bul in facl a 9&4*&) argumonl is invoIvod: lloso
oIomonls of capilaIism dominalod by vago Iabor couId roaIizo a liglor ralo of capilaI
accumuIalion llan lloso parls vloro non-oconomicaIIy coorcod Iabor dominalod,
and llus il acquirod llo Ioad in llo muluaI compolilion. Tlo imporlanco of llis con-
cIusion musl nol bo undoroslimalod. Tlo dominanco of vago Iabor doos nol impIy
llal il is ossonliaIIy a quoslion of 0122 vago Iabor. To llo conlrary: lloro aIso oxisls a
londoncy in llo advancod capilaIisl counlrios for a nov form of bonding of Iabor lo
onlorprisos. Tom Brass corroclIy obsorvos llal vlon Iabour bogins lo acl individu-
aIIy or lo organizo coIIoclivoIy in dofonco of ils ovn inlorosls, by oxorcising froodom
of movomonl lo socuro liglor vagos, bollor vorking condilions, slorlor vorking
lours, olc., capilaIisl ompIoyors inlroduco or roinlroduco roslriclions on llo formalion
or oxlonsion of a Iabour markol vill llo objocl of slifling llo baIanco of vorkpIaco
povor in lloir ovn diroclion. Brass, Somo Obsorvalions on Unfroo Iabour, p. 74.
ImpIoyors aro conlinuaIIy in soarcl of moans lo lio slaff lo llo onlorpriso. Ono of llo
oId vays vas llo lruck syslom. Bul ovon loday allompls al bondago occur. Compa-
nios possoss aII sorls of dovicos vill vlicl lo ponaIizo oxil, or vlal amounls lo llo
samo lling, rovard conlinualion: doforrod paymonl of promium vagos, non-vago
componsalion (ponsions, loaIll insuranco, company-providod lousing, olc.) and inlor-
naI promolion Iaddors. GoIdborg, Bridgos ovor Conloslod Torrain, pp. 2634, soo
aIso by llo samo aullor Iav and Iconomics of VorlicaI Roslriclions, and Dovring,
Bondago, Tonuro, and Irogross, p. 309.
60
HaskoII, CapilaIism and llo Origins of llo Humanilarian SonsibiIily, p. 342.
-". /0'&&1 2#3& 4#56'7 , ;?
inslincluaI ronuncialion on vlicl promiso kooping rosls |. . .j is an absoIulo
proroquisilo for llo omorgonco of possossivo individuaIism and markol
socioly. |. . .j Conscionco and promiso kooping omorgod in luman lislory,
of courso, Iong boforo capilaIism. |. . .j Bul il vas nol unliI llo oiglloonll
conlury, in Woslorn Iuropo, IngIand, and Norll Amorica, llal sociolios !rsl
appoarod vloso oconomic sysloms dopondod on llo oxpoclalion llal mosl
poopIo, mosl of llo limo, voro suf!cionlIy conscionco-riddon (and corlain
of rolribulion) llal lloy couId bo lruslod lo koop lloir promisos. In ollor
vords, onIy llon did promiso kooping bocomo so vidosproad llal il couId
bo oIovalod inlo a gonoraI sociaI norm.
61
Tlo socond cruciaI clango accompanying llo riso of llo markol oconomy
vas llal poopIo Ioarnl lo lako inlo accounl llo moro romolo consoquoncos
of lloir aclions. As llo primo movor of a promiso-kooping form of Iifo, llo
markol oslabIislod a domain villin vlicl luman bolavior vas cul Iooso
from llo anclor of lradilion, and yol simuIlanoousIy rondorod as slabIo and
prodiclabIo as 'Iong clains of viII couId mako il. Tlo combinalion of clango-
abiIily and forosooabiIily croalod povorfuI inconlivos for llo dovoIopmonl of
a manipuIalivo, probIom-soIving sorl of inloIIigonco.
62
Tlo combinalion of lloso lvo groal cuIluraI clangos (promiso-kooping
and rocipo knovIodgo) puslod an iniliaIIy smaII, bul aflorvards graduaIIy
groving group from llo middIo cIassos ovor a moraI llrosloId, and aIIovod
llom llo oxlonsion lo slrangors of IovoIs of caro and concorn llal voro provi-
ousIy con!nod lo famiIy, frionds, and noiglbors.
63
Il onabIod llom lo pIaco
sIavory (and mucl oIso) on llo agonda of romodiabIo oviIs, making possibIo
llo coIIoclivo aclion lislorians caII 'lumanilarianism.
64
61
Ibid., pp. 5523.
62
Ibid., p. 558.
63
HaskoII, Convonlion and Hogomonic Inlorosl, p. 864. Tlis is a ropIy lo: Davis,
Ro"oclions on AboIilionism, and Aslvorll, RoIalionslip bolvoon CapilaIism and
Humanilarianism. Tlo imporlanco of promiso kooping and a ligl limo-lorizon las
boon slrossod boforo by Gorsclonkron in lis Modornizalion of Inlropronourslip,
pp. 12930.
64
HaskoII, Convonlion and Hogomonic Inlorosl, p. 851. Connoclod vill llis
probIomalic is llo quoslion vly llo aboIilion of sIavory occurrod in lvo slagos: il
bogun IillIo by IillIo in foudaI Iuropo, bul subsoquonlIy sIavory vas inlroducod again
and on an lisloricaIIy unprocodonlod scaIo in llo coIoniaI rogions and aboIislod onco
moro in llo courso of llo ninoloonll conlury. Ior llis aboIilionism in lvo slagos, no
mono-causaI oxpIanalion oxisls oillor. Boll for llo !rsl plaso and for llo socond plaso,
a combinalion of slralogic considoralions and bolavioraI norms oporalod. Soo for llo
<+ , !"#$%&' )"'&&
Tlo moraI, lumanilarian impuIso vas slrongllonod by a llird faclor: llo
facl llal capilaIism larbors a povorfuI londoncy lovards llo gonoraIizalion
of formaI principIos of juslico. Tlo causo is lo bo found in llo oxclango pro-
coss, vlicl ponolralos incroasingIy broador soclors of socioly. Tlo oxclango
procoss is a groal oquaIizor. If porson A and porson B vanl lo do businoss,
bocauso A offors a commodily for vlicl B is proparod lo pay monoy, llon A
and B musl rocognizo oacl ollor as conlracling parlios vill oquaI nogolialing
riglls, as ovnors of privalo proporly, oacl vill lloir ovn indopondonl viII.
Iroodom and oquaIily of nogolialing slalus aro lloroforo slrucluraI oIomonls
in llo oxclango procoss bolvoon commodily ovnors. Indood, lloso idoas lavo
lloir maloriaI basis in llo oxclango procoss: llo oxclango of oxclango vaIuos
is llo produclivo, roaI basis of aII 2U4&)(#@ and 0122."+. As puro idoas lloy aro
moroIy llo idoaIizod oxprossions of llis basis.
65

Tlo oxpansion of oxclango roIalions carrios llo gonoraIizalion of lloso
nolions in ils vako. Tlo concopl of luman 2U4&)(#@ couId onIy acquiro llo
pormanonco of a !xod popuIar opinion in a socioly vloro llo commod-
ily-form is llo univorsaI form of llo producl of Iabour, lonco llo dominanl
sociaI roIalion is llo roIalion bolvoon mon as possossors of commodilios.
66

HisloricaIIy, llo idoa of oquaIily oslabIislod ilsoIf !rsl among llo ovnors of
capilaI and Iand, and subsoquonlIy aIso among llo ovnors of Iabor povor,
llo vorkors. Togollor vill llis gonoraIizalion aIso omorgos llo londoncy lo
rogard aII roIalions in vlicl producors couId -"# assorl an indopondonl viII
(sIavory in parlicuIar, of courso) as unjusl.
Ivon in ils plaso of gonoraIizalion, lovovor, froo vago Iabor romains
lrappod in ils conlraI conlradiclion: unIimilod froodom conlinuos lo moan
for vorkors nol jusl froodom from cIionlslip, bondago and sorviludo, bul aIso
dopondonco on llo vagarios of an unprodiclabIo Iabor markol. On llo ono land,
!rsl plaso: Bonnassio, Survio ol oxlinclion du rgimo oscIavagislo, Samson, Ind of
IarIy ModiovaI SIavory. Ior llo socond plaso: Drosclor, %&'(#&)(*+ &-. >-#(*)&521@,
BIackburn, T521#$1"H "0 %")"-(&) 8)&521@.
65
Marx, J14-.1(**2, p. 245.
66
Marx, %&'(#&), I, p. 152. A furllor oIaboralion of llis idoa can bo found in llo
cIassicaI loxl of Iaslukanis, GonoraI Tloory of Iav, soo aIso Sloyanovilcl, Ia
llorio du conlral soIon I.B. Iacloukanis, IdoIman, 32 .1"(# *&(*( '&1 )& '$"#"S1&'$(2,
TusclIing, C29$#*0"1+ 4-. B1".4L#("-*521$D)#-(**2, and BaIbus, Commodily Iorm
and IogaI Iorm. IrololypicaI for llo londoncy lovards gonoraIizalion is of courso
llo Ironcl DocIaralion of Riglls of 1789, soo Van KIoy, Irom llo Iossons of Ironcl
Hislory.
-". /0'&&1 2#3& 4#56'7 , <8
llis Ioads limo and again lo allompls lo rovivo bondod roIalionslips, vlicl
in oxlromo casos aro aIso jusli!od vill anli-lumanilarian and anli-ogaIilarian
argumonls (llo cIoarosl oxampIo boing Gorman NalionaI SociaIism),
67
on llo
ollor sido, llo lruIy froo vago oarnors romain vory avaro of llo facl of lloir
Iack of riglls, and of llo uncorlainly vlicl lloir silualion brings vill il.
67
Roll, Unfroo Iabour.
!"#$%&' )*+'
!"# %"&''() *)&+(,#-
WliIo froo vago Iabor grov quanlilalivoIy moro
and moro imporlanl in llo courso of limo, llo roIa-
livo proporlion of sIavory vas roducod vorIdvido.
So far, Marxs diagnosis of llo fuluro of capilaIism
sooms corrocl. Bul llal roduclion doos nol mako any
Ioss imporlanl llo lisloricaI quoslion of vly sIavory
oxislod villin capilaIism anyvay, and vly il sliII
porsisls in mosl counlrios lo somo or ollor oxlonl.
}usl as vo askod vlicl faclors brako or promolo llo
grovll of froo vago Iabor, vo slouId aIso ask vly
sIavory !ourislod undor capilaIisl condilions al par-
licuIar limos and pIacos, and vly il vas absonl al
ollor limos and pIacos.
Tlis is corlainIy nol an originaI quoslion of mino,
poIilicaI oconomisls aIroady ro!oclod on il in llo
oiglloonll conlury. Adam Smill, for oxampIo, in !"#
%#&'(" )* +&(,)-. (Book 3, Claplor 2), cIaimod llal
lloro vasnl a moro inof"cionl Iaboror llan llo sIavo:
Tlo oxporionco of aII agos and nalions, I boIiovo,
domonslralos llal llo vork dono by sIavos, llougl
il appoars lo cosl onIy lloir mainlonanco, is in llo
ond llo doarosl of any.
1
SIavos, aflor aII, do nol lavo
lloir ovn posilivo inconlivo lo Iabor: A porson vlo
can acquiro no proporly can lavo no ollor inlorosl
1
Smill, /-01,23, p. 345, soo aIso SaIlor, Adam Smill on SIavory, and Iapidus,
Io pro"l ou Ia dominalion.
,- . !"#$%&' )*+'
bul lo oal as mucl and lo Iabour as IillIo as possibIo. Wlalovor vork lo doos
boyond vlal is suf"cionl lo purclaso lis ovn mainlonanco, can bo squoozod
oul of lim by vioIonco onIy, and nol by an inlorosl of lis ovn.
2
In aII circumslancos, lloroforo Smill opinod il vouId bo moro ralio-
naI for llo Iandovnor lo ompIoy slaro-croppors or, ovon bollor, simpIo lon-
anls vlo pay a "xod ronl. Irom llis foIIovod immodialoIy llo quoslion of
vly sIavory vas novorlloIoss oconomicaIIy so signi"canl in llo Nov WorId
omorging during lis Iifolimo. Smill limsoIf couId onIy soIvo llis probIom by
appoaIing lo an anllropoIogicaI conslanl: llo prido of man makos lim Iovo
lo dominoor, and nolling morli"os lim so mucl as lo bo obIigod lo condo-
scond lo porsuado lis inforiors. Wlorovor llo Iav aIIovs il, and llo naluro
of llo vork can afford il, lloroforo, lo viII gonoraIIy profor llo sorvico of
sIavos lo llal of froomon.
3
In ollor vords, sIavory couId in llo "naI anaIysis
bo oxpIainod onIy psycloIogicaIIy by roforring lo ils opposilo, a dominoor-
ing incIinalion in luman naluro. Iul moro simpIy, lloro voro sIavos bocauso
lloro voro maslors.
Tlougl Smills ansvor may nol bo an inloIIocluaIIy salisfying oxpIanalion
of llo maslor-sIavo roIalionslip, I llink llo quoslion ilsoIf is sliII of llo liglosl
roIovanco. Ovor llo yoars, many aspocls of llo probIom lavo boon lloorizod
and dobalod, by oconomisls, socioIogisls, anllropoIogisls and lislorians
villoul lovovor roacling any unambiguous rosuIl. Noillor is il possibIo for
mo lo givo a compIolo and do"nilo ansvor lo llis compIicalod quoslion loro.
I viII novorlloIoss commonl on oacl of llo mosl imporlanl concIusions from
oarIior discussions in lurn, as a slopping slono lo fuluro rosoarcl.
Boforo coming diroclIy lo llo poinl, I slouId omplasizo lovovor llal llo
concopl of sIavo ilsoIf musl bo quaIi"od. Among llo gonoraI pubIic, and
aIso oflon among Ioss voII-informod lislorians, sIavory is diroclIy associalod
vill brulaI plysicaI opprossion. Or, as Max Wobor arguod: Iroduclion for
llo markol vill unfroo Iabor las novor boon possibIo for a Iong limo villoul
llo vlip.
4
HisloricaI rosoarcl slovs llal llis gonoraIizalion is misIoading.
AcluaIIy, il is an imporlanl anaIylicaI quoslion in ilsoIf, undor vlicl condi-
2
Smill, /-01,23, p. 345.
3
Ibid.
4
Wobor, Dio soziaIon Grundo, p. 298.
/"0 1"#%%&2 32#4&'05 . ,6
lions in capilaIism llo vlip pIayod an imporlanl roIo as Iabor inconlivo,
and undor vlicl condilions )("#2 inconlivos voro moro imporlanl.
I llink il is approprialo lo dislinguisl bolvoon al Ioasl llroo main lypos of
sIavory. Tlus, lloro lavo boon sIavos vlo porformod simpIo and unskiIIod
Iabors undor llo suporvision of llo maslor (o.g., sIavos vlo larvoslod sugar
cano on a pIanlalion), lloro lavo boon sIavos vlo porformod skiIIod Iabors
undor llo suporvision of llo maslor (o.g., sIavos vlo oporalod llo sugar
cano pross on llo pIanlalion), and lloro lavo boon sIavos-for-liro vlo oarnl
monoy villoul dirocl suporvision from llo maslor (oillor as vago vorkor or
as onlropronour). Tlis Iasl group, dospilo ils anaIylicaI signi"canco, is oflon
ovorIookod.
5

.()(%'/01 %,/'(,/&
Wlicl inslrumonlaI considoralions aro of parlicuIar signi"canco for a busi-
noss ovnor in llo soIoclion of a Iabor roIalion` Al llo boginning, llo oxpoclod
cosls aro of groal signi"canco. Tloso cosls incIudo difforonl oIomonls:
5
In Norll Amorica in llo ninoloonll conlury lloro voro roguIarIy lloso lypos of
sIavos. Roborl Ivans, Iconomics of Amorican Nogro SIavory, p. 192, spoaks of a
roasonabIy common claraclorislic of llo sIavo syslom vill condilions of liro llal
voro gonoraIIy quilo slandard. Ho namos llroo lypos of Ioasing of sIavos: (1) by
porsonaI conlacl bolvoon llo ovnor and llo Iossoo or lis agonl, (2) by porsonaI conlacl
bolvoon an agonl in a major cily lo vlom llo ovnor lad consignod lis sIavos and
llo Iossoo or lis agonl, and (3) by pubIic auclion. (p. 194). Wo couId add, foIIoving
llo BraziIian modoI (4&-"&5)2#.), a fourll varianl: sIavos vlo llomsoIvos look up
conlacl vill an ompIoyor. In ninoloonll-conlury Rio do }anoiro, SIavos-for-liro voro
sonl oul lo "nd vork llal vouId onabIo llom lo provido for llomsoIvos and lloir
maslors. To do so, lloy voro givon aulonomy and froodom of movomonl nocossary
lo "nd, nogolialo, and carry oul llo vork llal camo lloir vay. Many did nol ovon
Iivo in lloir maslors lomos and onIy vonl lloro lo surrondor llo monoy roquirod
por day or vook. VoIasco o Cruz, IuzzIing Oul SIavo Origins, p. 218, soo aIso Rois,
`RovoIulion of llo Ganladoros. OrdinariIy, llo roIovanl sIavos lad lo givo up a vory
Iargo parl of lloir incomos lo lloir ovnors: SIavos vlo lirod lloir ovn limo couId
oxpocl a vago of 50 lo $1.00 or moro por day doponding on lloir parlicuIar skiII or
IovoI of induslriousnoss. AIIoving sIavos lo liro lloir ovn limo, lovovor, vas nol
jusl a lumanilarian or palornaIislic gosluro on llo parl of llo sIavo ovnors. SIavos
lad lo pay doarIy for llis priviIogo. If a sIavo mado "fly conls a day for 365 days, lis
minimaI oarnings vouId como lo $182.50, and, llo ovnor migll roquiro llo sIavo lo
pay $150 of lis annuaI oarnings. Tlis Iofl onIy $32.50 for llo sIavo. Hovovor, if a sIavo
mado a doIIar a day and vorkod onIy 300 days a yoar, ovon aflor paying lis ovnor
$150, llo sIavo vouId sliII lavo llo samo amounl for limsoIf. WaIkor, Iionoor SIavo
Inlropronourslip, p. 293. Soo aIso Slarobin, /-51.(2,&' 6'&7#23, pp. 12837.
,, . !"#$%&' )*+'
8901,.,(,)- 9).(.
Boforo a businoss ovnor can roaIIy ompIoy a subaIlorn vorkor, lo musl "rsl
lavo lim or lor al lis disposaI. Cosls aro associalod vill llis, vlicl diffor
groalIy according lo llo lypo of Iabor roIalion. If llo vorkor is a sIavo, llo
businoss ovnor viII probabIy lavo lo pay a purclaso prico. Ior oxampIo,
AIborl Houso oslimalod llal, in llo 1840s, a pIanlor in Goorgia (USA) noodod
moro llan $100,000 in ordor lo purclaso a pIanlalion of 400 acros (approxi-
maloIy 1.6 km
2
) and maclinos for ils dovoIopmonl, llo barns and lousos.
IncIudod in llis prico voro llo cosls for 110 lo 130 maIo and fomaIo sIavos.
Tlo prico of a maIo or fomaIo sIavo vas bolvoon $300 and $500, llo purclaso
of sIavos aIlogollor llus dovourod al Ioasl a llird of llo lolaI invoslmonl.
6
Tlo acquisilion of ollor lypos of subaIlorn vorkors, lovovor, aIso cosls
monoy. WiIIiam CIaronco-Smill roporls llal, al llo ond of llo ninoloonll
conlury, llo ovnors of llo cacao pIanlalions on So Tom and Irncipo lad
lo pay nol onIy llo nolarys conlracluaI cosls for indonlurod Iaborors vlicl
lloy oblainod from llo African mainIand, bul aIso llo cIolling, vaccinalion,
lransporl lo llo isIand, and llo pIacomonl of"cors.
7
Of courso, llo rocruilmonl
of froo vago Iabor aIso cosls llo businoss ovnor addilionaI monoy, bocauso
lo musl gallor informalion aboul polonliaI vorkors, and induco llom lo
accopl a Iabor roIalion. Bul il appoars llal lloso rocruilmonl cosls aro '):#2
for froo Iabor, llan llo rocruilmonl cosls for sIavos or indonlurod Iaborors.
Appoarancos can bo docoplivo, lovovor. Clrisloplor Hanos poinlod oul llal
froo vago Iabor as llo adjoclivo froo aIroady says can, in principIo, quil
lloir posilion al any limo, in conlrasl lo sIavos and indonlurod Iaborors. Il is
lloroforo obvious llal a businoss ovnor musl boar acquisilion cosls for froo
vago Iabor moro oflon llan in ollor casos a probIom vlicl bocomos ovon
groalor if vorkors vlo dosorl offoclivoIy bring produclion lo a laIl, causing
big "nanciaI Iossos.
8
6
Houso, Iabor Managomonl IrobIoms, p. 150.
7
CIaronco-Smill, Hiddon Cosls of Iabour, p. 155.
8
Hanos, Turnovor Cosls, pp. 309, 311. Coaso, Naluro of llo Iirm, p. 38, lad
aIroady slovn vlal signi"canco rocruilmonl cosls can lavo for ompIoymonl poIicy
of businoss ovnors. Tlo lurnovor cosls of froo vago Iabor aro probabIy liglor lo llo
oxlonl llal 1.) llo businoss ovnor ompIoys Ioss porsonnoI: lloso Iooking for vork viII
9#(#2,. ;&2,<1. "rsl lry vill Iargo ompIoyors sinco llo clanco of gaining vork lloro is
llo bosl SligIor, Informalion in llo Iabor Markol, 2) llo IocaI Iabor markol is llin-
nor, o.g. bocauso llo company of llo ompIoyor is furllor avay from urban popuIalion
/"0 1"#%%&2 32#4&'05 . ,7
In any caso, il is pIausibIo llal lloro aro acquisilion or rocruilmonl cosls for
&'' lypos of Iabor roIalions. Tlo roIalivo magniludos of lloso cosls can onIy bo
oslabIislod by ompiricaI rosoarcl.
9
!2&,-,-4 9).(.
Ior many Iabor lasks, llo vorkor musl "rsl bo laugll or lrainod. Tlis is so
ospociaIIy for lumans plysicaIIy coorcod lo vork (nolabIy sIavos), and vlo
musl "nd lloir vay in an onvironmonl llal is for llom nol onIy sociaIIy and
cuIluraIIy, bul aIso loclnoIogicaIIy, compIoloIy aIion. Tlo Ioarning poriod can
Iasl for a Iong limo, as, for oxampIo, in agricuIluro, bocauso llo farm vorkor
musl fuI"II a muIlipIicily of difforonl lasks in llo courso of llo soasonaI
cycIo. And lloso lasks aro nol slandardizod, bocauso onvironmonlaI condi-
lions clango from yoar lo yoar. Il can llus bo a Iong limo boforo llo vorkor
knovs oxaclIy vlal musl bo dono, vlon and vloro.
10
61;#27,.,)- 9).(.
Onco llo vorkors aro pul lo vork, llo businoss ovnor musl bo corlain llal
lis inforiors produco onougl, llal llo Iabor producls aro of suf"cionl quaIily,
and llal llo vorkors aro carofuI vill llo moans of Iabor.
11
Tlis suporvision
conconlralions, as in llo conslruclion of canaIs, raiIvays olc and many minos Hanos,
Turnovor Cosls, pp. 3189, 3) llo ompIoymonl of vorkforcos al parlicuIar limos,
as in agricuIluro, is moro imporlanl Hanos, Turnovor Cosls, p. 321, SlIomovilz,
IIanlalions and SmaIIloIdings, p. 4, Roid, Slarocropping, p. 125.
9
Comparo Cloung, !"#)23 )* 6"&2# !#-&-93, pp. 678. According lo IonoaIloa,
Aullorily, If"cioncy, and AgricuIluraI Organizalion, p. 696, nogolialion cosls,
unIiko onforcomonl cosls, can bo incurrod vlon limo is cloap, and amorlizod ovor
llo Iifo of llo agroomonl, lloy aro llus IikoIy lo bo dolormining onIy if llo agroomonl
is lo Iasl onIy a vory slorl limo (vlicl is vly vo lavo 'casuaI Iabor bul nol 'casuaI
lonanls). In an oarIior arlicIo (Riso and IaII of a TloorolicaI ModoI, pp. 3923),
IonoaIloa lad aIroady conloslod: Nov llo cosls of nogolialion may bo incurrod in llo
sIack soason, und lour for lour, nogolialion cosls vouId appoar cIosor lo nogIigibIo
llan oquivaIonl lo suporvision cosls.
10
IonoaIloa, Aullorily, If"cioncy, and AgricuIluraI Organizalion, p. 700.
11
Tlo paraIIoIs bolvoon froo vago Iabor and sIavory aro groalor loro llan is
commonIy assumod. Auflausor, SIavory and Scionli"c Managomonl, las aIroady
poinlod lo ossonliaI agroomonls vill managomonl mollods. BIackburn, =7#2("2): )*
>)')-,&' 6'&7#23, p. 335 las domonslralod llal llo sIavo pIanlalions in llo nov vorId,
donying llo individuaI producor conlroI ovor mucl of llo Iabour procoss, anlicipalod
somo of llo foaluros of capilaIisl induslriaIism.
,8 . !"#$%&' )*+'
consisls mainIy in ovorsooing as voII as "nos and rovards discipIining llo
vorkors.
Tlo Ioss vorkors aro inloroslod in llo quanlily and quaIily of llo rosuIls
of lloir Iabor, llo Ioss inlonsivoIy and carofuIIy lloy viII normaIIy procood.
Ovorsooing moans in gonoraI llal llo businoss ovnor appoinls ovorsoors
onsuring llal vorkors do lloir job voII. Suporvision cosls aro oflon dif"cuIl lo
oslimalo for lislorians. Codric Yoo, for oxampIo, domonslralod llal llo ovor-
sooing cosls for llo cuIlivalion of vloal aro vory ligl, bocauso il invoIvos an
oxlonsivo form of cuIlivalion in vlicl a sIavo can vork al Ioasl lon limos moro
Iand llan in llo groving of lobacco or collon.
12
Tlis impIios an oxpIosivoIy
groving numbor of ovorsoors, sinco lloir numbor doponds upon llo donsily
of llo sIavos in llo "oIds.
13
Slofano IonoaIloa arguos on llo ollor land llal
ovon on llo groal Ialifundia, groups of sIavos did nol nocossariIy nood lo bo
llinnod oul, il vas oquaIIy possibIo llal llo vorkloams cuIlivalod onIy a
smaII parl of llo Iand al any ono limo.
14
Bo llal as il may, in principIo lloro aro lvo mollods lo suporviso llo vork-
ors: ovorsooing llo #**)2(, or ovorsooing llo 2#.1'(. An oxampIo of ovorsooing
llo rosuIl is llo so-caIIod lask syslom on oarIy rico pIanlalions in llo Amori-
can Soull. Tlo normaI daiIy lask of a sIavo invoIvod vorking 1/4 acro (circa.
1000m
2
). If llo lask, according lo llo opinion of llo ovorsoor, lad boon ordorIy
fuI"IIod, llo vorking day vas ovor.
15
Ovorsooing llo rosuIls bocomos oasior, llo
moro difforonl vorkors vork indopondonlIy from oacl ollor. ConvorsoIy,
llo groalor llo inlordopondonco of llo lasks, llo moro dif"cuIl il bocomos for
llo ovorsoors lo judgo llo individuaI rosuIl. In ovorsooing llo offorl, llo ovor-
soor makos suro llal llo vorkor vorks lard onougl. Tlis lypo of ovorsooing
prosupposos pormanonl conlroI, and is aII llo oasior llo simpIor llo lasks lo
bo fuI"IIod aro. If addilionaI quaIi"calions and skiIIs aro nocossary, il bocomos
moro dif"cuIl for llo ovorsoor lo oslimalo llo inlonsily of Iabor.
16
12
Yoo, Iconomics of Roman and Amorican SIavory, pp. 46970.
13
Ibid., p. 470.
14
IonoaIloa, SIavory and Suporvision.
15
Ibid., pp. 1523.
16
Buravoy and Wrigll, Coorcion and Consonl, pp. 812. Yoram BarzoI, ?9)-)@,9
8-&'3.,. )* A2);#2(3 B,4"(., p. 80 says llal boll forms of ovorsooing inovilabIy aIIov llo
sIavos somo room for lloir ovn businoss: Assuming llal llo suporvision of offorl is
subjocl lo diminisling marginaI produclivily, ovnors vouId, in lloir suporvision offorl,
lavo sloppod slorl of oxlracling llo maximum oulpul of vlicl sIavos voro capabIo.
Tlo difforonco bolvoon sIavos maximum oulpul and lloir acluaI oulpul bocamo, in
/"0 1"#%%&2 32#4&'05 . ,9
Ovorsoors (or ollors conlraclod for llis vork) can punisl or rovard vorkors
for lloir offorls. In principIo, lloy lavo llroo moans al lloir disposaI: compuI-
sion, maloriaI and non-maloriaI rovards, and porsuasion.
17
Wlicl combina-
lion of lloso inconlivos lappons lo bo appIiod, is immodialoIy connoclod vill
llo lypo of Iabor roIalion. CompuIsion incIudos llroal vill or villoul llo
appIicalion of forco, incIuding incarcoralion, lormonling, muliIalion, saIo (of
sIavos), dismissaI (of vago vorkors) or ovon doall. Sucl nogalivo sanclions
may indood Ioad lo llo vorkors vorking lard, bul nol lo llom doing lloir
vork voII. And nogalivo sanclions oncourago rosislanco and sabolago (vlicl,
in lurn, aro moro offoclivo llo moro compIicalod and skiIIod llo Iabor procoss
is). CompuIsion is lloroforo mosl offoclivo for vory simpIo Iabor procossos
vlicl aro oasy lo ovorsoo.
18
Hoavy plysicaI punislmonls can, in addilion,
lavo llo oconomic disadvanlago llal vorkors bocomo lomporariIy or porma-
nonlIy unabIo lo vork.
Tloro aro aIso casos in vlicl il is lardIy possibIo or ovon nol al aII lo
ovorsoo llo vorkors. In lloso casos, llo businoss ovnor viII normaIIy lry lo
compoI llo vorkors lo vork voII vill porsuasion and rovards. An oxampIo
is llal of lordsmon vlo covor Iargo dislancos vill lloir lords, lloir ompIoy-
monl of Iabor can lardIy bo moasurod, vliIo, lovovor, lloir lask domands
allonlivonoss and a sonso of rosponsibiIily. Tlo businoss ovnor is in lloso
circumslancos roIianl on llo good viII of llo lordsmon, and llis good viII
is oflon croalod by making llo lordsman inlo a lypo of junior parlnor of llo
maslor by moans of a ;#91',1@.
19
Moro gonoraIIy, Arllur Slinclcombo slovs
llal an oplimaI Iabor conlracl (in llo oyos of llo businoss ovnor) villoul
praclico, llo sIavos proporly. On llo ollor land: SIavos oulpul suporvision aIso
roquirod oulpul quolas, sinco, Iofl lo lloir ovn dovicos, lloy vouId lavo producod
as IillIo as lloy couId. Moroovor, quolas couId nol lavo boon sol simpIy by obsorving
pasl porformanco, sinco sIavos inconlivo lo produco IillIo during llo domonslralion
poriod vouId lavo boon slrong indood. Sinco quolas voro subjocl lo orror, and sinco
loo ligl a quola vouId lavo rosuIlod in llo doslruclion of sIavos, llo quolas ovn-
ors vouId lavo soIoclod lo maximizo lloir ovn voaIll voro oxpoclod lo Ioavo lloir
sIavos vill llo difforonco bolvoon llo quola and llo maximum lloy couId produco,
a difforonco lloy couId lako advanlago of. Sinco ovnors con"scalion of sIavos accu-
muIalion vouId lavo boon oquivaIonl lo raising llo quola, con"scalion vouId lavo
dofoalod llo purposo for vlicl llo quola vas sol lo bogin vill. In pursuil of lloir
soIf-inlorosl, ovnors pormillod sIavos lo ovn and lo accumuIalo.
17
TiIIy and TiIIy, %)2C D-5#2 >&;,(&',.@, p. 74.
18
IonoaIloa, SIavory and Suporvision, pp. 63940.
19
Ibid., p. 656.
7: . !"#$%&' )*+'
ovorsooing consisls in Iaborors landing ovor a "xod sum lo llo maslor, and
boing abIo lo koop llo variabIo romaindor.
20
Tlis is in facl llo conslruclion vo
oncounlor vill llo sIavos-for-liro in BraziI in llo ninoloonll conlury.
21
E&,-(#-&-9# 9).(.
Tloso aro cosls nocossary lo guaranloo llo survivaI of individuaI vorkors
so llal lloy romain "l lo vork. An ossonliaI oIomonl of mainlonanco cosls
is llo subsislonco vago of llo vago-vorkor, or llo daiIy ralion for sIavos.
Tlo oxlonl of lloso cosls is parliaIIy cuIluraIIy dolorminod, and lloroforo
nol oxaclIy moasurabIo. Il is a caso of moro llan a moroIy plysioIogicaI oIo-
monl. Tloso cosls incIudo nol onIy food bul aIso cIolling, lousing olc. A
furllor ossonliaI compononl is llo cosls of missod produclivily in llo caso
of sicknoss, oId ago or prognancy. Iroo vago Iaborors normaIIy boar lloso
cosls llomsoIvos (diroclIy via insuranco, or indiroclIy via slalo supporl), vliIo
in llo caso of sIavos, llo cosls aro lakon ovor by llo businoss ovnor. Tlo
proporly roIalion is nol affoclod by vlollor or nol llo sIavos aro acluaIIy
abIo lo vork.
22
B#;'&9#@#-( 9).(.
An imporlanl difforonco bolvoon vago Iaborors and sIavos is llal llo formor
do nol boIong lo llo "xod capilaI of llo businoss ovnor, vliIo llo Iallor do.
Marc BIocl las poinlod oul in llis conloxl llal llo ompIoyor vlo Iosos a
vago vorkor duo lo sicknoss or doall doosnl oxporionco any Ioss, if lo can
immodialoIy liro a ropIacomonl vorkor. If llo maslor Iosos a sIavo, lovovor,
lo las lo buy a nov ono, and llus Iosos capilaI.
23
20
Slinclcombo, 614&2 /.'&-5 6'&7#23, p. 147.
21
Tloy couId koop any amounl in oxcoss of llo slipuIalod paymonl. (VoIasco o
Cruz, IuzzIing Oul SIavo Origins, p. 218.) A somovlal difforonl varianl vas found
al llo goId mining fronlior in Barbacoas (CoIombia) in llo sovonloonll conlury, vloro
llo onsIavod Afro-indigonous mino vorkors Iivod in vidoIy scallorod riparian camps,
virluaIIy indopondonl of lloir indopondonl of lloir ovnors. IoarfuI of disoaso, many
sIavo ovnors proforrod lo Iivo vill lloir famiIios in llo cooI liglIands. Iroduclion
quolas voro roguIarIy sol or nogolialod vill lloso absonloo maslors, vill surpIus
dusl (i.o., llal oxcooding quolas oflon coIIoclod indopondonlIy in uncIaimod aroas
on Sundays and foasl days) usod by llo sIavos lo purclaso markol goods and ovon
froodom. Iano, Africans and Nalivos, p. 169.
22
MoiIIassoux, E&,5#-.F E#&'F &-5 E)-#3.
23
BIocl, Commonl ol pourquoi "nil IoscIavago anliquo.
/"0 1"#%%&2 32#4&'05 . 7;
GH#&5&9"#.I
Boyond lloso oconomic considoralions pIaying a roIo in llo cloico bolvoon
sIavory and vago Iabor, lloro aro furllor faclors causing llo businoss ovnor
loadaclos. Ivory Iabor syslom causos llo businoss ovnor somo ordinary
and Ioss ordinary probIoms. Tlus, in principIo, froo vorkors can arbilrariIy
quil lloir posilion if somolling dispIoasos llom, or if lloy gol a bollor offor
somovloro oIso. Tlo businoss ovnor musl llon mako suro llal lo quickIy
"nds a skiIIod ropIacomonl.
24
Or, llo sIavos oscapo and somolimos lloso
fugilivos |@&22)-.j rolurn from lloir viIIagos in llo viIdornoss lo allack llo
pIanlalion lloy lad Iofl. Tloro aro furllor llroals and risks lo llo maslors
pro"labIo conducl of businoss. Boll vago-vorkors and sIavos can dovn looIs
and go on slriko. If friclions in Iabor roIalions incroaso, llo llroal of indi-
viduaI or coIIoclivo vioIonco incroasos (for oxampIo, many pIanlors on sIavo
pIanlalions Iivod in foar of boing poisonod by lloir domoslic slaff). IinaIIy,
oulsidors can aIso inlorforo in Iabor poIicy, for oxampIo slalo aullorilios vlo
IogaIIy Iimil llo room for manouvor of llo businoss ovnor, or lumanilarian
campaigns donouncing llo Iabor roIalions as dograding.
Tlo probIom of loadaclos Ioads us diroclIy lo llo non-oconomic consid-
oralions of llo businoss ovnor. NaluraIIy, businoss ovnors aro jusl as IillIo
puro ")@,-#. )#9)-)@,9, as vorkors. Tloy lavo a corlain picluro of llo vorId,
oflon basod upon a roIigion. Tloy aro guidod by moro or Ioss slringonl moraI
principIos. Tloso subjoclivo aspocls can in corlain condilions pIay a roIo in
llo cloico of Iabor roIalions. Tlal roIo can vary groalIy, Clrislian faill, for
oxampIo, las boll Iogilimalod sIavory, as voII as jusli"od rosislanco againsl
llis kind of oxpIoilalion.
25
IinaIIy, lloro aro aIso llo inslrumonlaI and normalivo considoralions of llo
vorkors. Tloir scopo for docision-making is gonoraIIy nol noarIy as Iargo as
llal of llo businoss ovnors. Bul vorkors can novorlloIoss oxorciso prossuro in
24
In lis sludy of a BaIlimoro clomicaI pIanl in llo Ialo 1820s, vloro boll sIavos
and non-sIavos vorkod, Sloplon Wlilman arrivos al llo concIusion llal porlaps
llo biggosl inconlivo for acquiring sIavos camo from llo lurnovor of froo Iaborors,
vlicl roulinoIy oxcoodod 100 porconl por yoar. (Wlilman, InduslriaI SIavory al
llo Margin, p. 38) Ho adds an inlorosling obsorvalion: To llo oxlonl llal Iongor
sorvico rondorod vorkors moro vaIuabIo, llo imporlanco of llo sIavos vas loigll-
onod. (Ibid., p. 39)
25
Soo o.g., Drosclor, >&;,(&',.@ &-5 8-(,.'&7#23, pp. 612.
7< . !"#$%&' )*+'
a do"nilo diroclion. Wo can usuaIIy assumo llal al Ioasl llroo aspocls pIay a
roIo: (i) bodiIy inlogrily, i.o. rosislanco againsl corporaI punislmonl, unloaIlly
Iabor roIalions olc., (ii) sociaI socurily, i.o. proloclion in llo caso of sicknoss,
oId ago olc., and (iii) aulonomy, i.o. llo possibiIily of dolormining onos ovn
falo.
26
Tloso llroo aspocls can sland in opposilion lo oacl ollor, and can bo
assossod vory difforonlIy. Il las aIso lapponod llal unfroo vorkors rogrollod
lloir Iiboralion, bocauso vliIo lloy corlainIy gainod moro aulonomy, al llo
samo limo lloy Iosl a Iargo parl of lloir socurily.
27
Tlis ovorviov indicalos llal llo vay in vlicl a givon Iabor roIalion comos
aboul undor capilaIisl condilions is in lrull a vory compIicalod affair, and nol
simpIo and slraigllforvard. Many difforonl in!uoncos pIay a roIo, and lloir
roIalivo signi"canco may nol bo cIoar al llo oulsol. NaluraIIy, businoss ovnors
vanl lo koop lloir cosls as Iov as possibIo, bul lloy aro confronlod vill groal
dif"cuIlios, llo roduclion of ono lypo of cosl can Ioad lo a riso of ollor cosls.
Ior oxampIo: a businoss ovnor may profor lo avoid lurnovor cosls, visling
vorkors lo slay on as Iong as possibIo, bul lo allain llis, lo oillor las lo buy
sIavos, or lo bind froo vago vorkors vill indirocl moans sucl as ponsions,
vago risos, promolions, or llo villloIding (of a parl) of llo vago unliI llo
ond of a dolorminalo poriod.
Docision-making in Iabor poIicy can bo dif"cuIl, bocauso llo risks aro
uncIoar and nocossary informalion is Iacking.
28
Tlis roaIily loIps oxpIain vly
businoss ovnors, in comparabIo condilions, clooso nov ono, nov anollor
Iabor roIalion. Roborl Slarobin slovs llal induslriaI onlropronours in llo
soull of llo Unilod Slalos voro in facl conlinuaIIy llrovn back and forll
bolvoon sIavory and froo vago Iabor.
29
Il is probabIo llal businoss managors
26
DoyaI and Gougl, !"#)23 )* H1@&- +##5, Dasgupla, /-01,23, pp. 75103.
27
Tlus for oxampIo somolimos in llo aboIilion of sorfdom in Russia in 1861. Soo
Ispor, Condilion of llo Sorf Workors, p. 671.
28
Hoffman, Iconomic Tloory of Slarocropping, p. 313.
29
Slarobin, /-51.(2,&' 6'&7#23, pp. 11728. Soo on llo so-caIIod conlracluaI mixos
(villoul considoralion of sIavory) SligIilz, Inconlivos and Risk-slaring, Novborry,
Risk Slaring, Novborry and SligIilz, Slarocropping. On lriaI and orror in llo
inlroduclion of sIavory inlo llo Caribboan, soo BIackburn, =7#2("2): )* >)')-,&' 6'&7#23,
p. 315. TriaI and orror in llo inlroduclion of indonlurod sorviludo by llo Virginia
Company is doscribod in GaIonson, Riso and IaII of Indonlurod Sorviludo, pp. 78.
Hislory aIso providos oxampIos of groups of onlropronours vlo aIIov oxporl oulsidors
lo judgo if lloir docision lo uso unfroo vorkors is oconomicaIIy oplimaI. Al llo bogin-
ning of llo 19ll conlury, lloro vas an oxlonsivo dobalo amongsl llo Iargo Iandovn-
/"0 1"#%%&2 32#4&'05 . 7=
ompIoy aIgorillms in llo docision for a corlain Iabor syslom, in llo sonso of
abbrovialod formuIas llal corrospond lo llo norms and bolavior llal ono
aIroady knovs.
30
.'&2/)/'# 3,02)(4*
Supposo llal businoss ovnors docido lo inlroduco sIavo Iabor inlo a corlain
oconomic soclor in a corlain rogion. Undor vlal condilions viII il bo a .(&<'#
Iabor syslom, abIo lo porsisl in llo Iong lorm` Numorous faclors musl bo
lakon inlo accounl:
6(&<,',(3 )* ("# .'&7# ;);1'&(,)-
To do"no llis faclor, a simpIo oqualion may bo usofuI:
I = (S
in
S
oul
) + (G S) + (M
in
M
oul
) + o
Tlo variabIos in llis oqualion aro llo foIIoving:
I = nol grovll (or nol nogalivo grovll) of llo numbor of sIavos in llo rogion
in llo inlorvaI of limo bolvoon momonl l
1
and momonl l
2
,
ors of Auslria and GaIicia ovor llo pros and cons of Robol, i.o. llo IogaIIy roguIalod
poasanl corvo-Iabor. Numorous caIcuIalions voro mado in vlicl porformancos in llo
conloxl of Robol voro comparod vill vago Iabor. Argumonls for vago Iabor, among
ollors, voro llal llo ompIoyor limsoIf couId pick oul lis subaIlorn vorkors, llal llo
limo of llo journoy lo vork is nol counlod in llo numbor of Iabor lours, and llal llo
produclivily of unfroo Iabor is Ioss. On baIanco, il vas oslimalod llal vago Iabor is al
Ioasl doubIy as pro"labIo as Robol. BIum, +)<'# J&-5):-#2., pp. 192202.
30
Sucl aIgorillms for sIavo-loIdors lavo nol yol boon, as far as I knov, domon-
slralod. In llo caso of slaro-cropping, lloro is a vory IogicaI argumonl for ils oslab-
Iislmonl. SligIilz, RalionaI Ioasanls, p. 22, corroclIy nolos: llo rango of conlracl
forms sooms far moro roslriclod llan lloory vouId suggosl: mosl conlracls lavo, for
inslanco, slaros of ono-laIf, ono-llird, or lvo-llirds. AIllougl lloro lavo boon sovoraI
allompls lo oxpIain llis uniformily, nono las gainod gonoraI accoplanco. I suspocl llal
il is loro llal a broador sociaI/lisloricaI lloory is roquirod. IndividuaIs aro concornod
llal in lloir doaIings lloy aro lroalod fairIy. Viovs of fairnoss aro lo a Iargo oxlonl
convonlionaIIy (lisloricaIIy) dolorminod. Il doos nol pay lo lroal vorkors unfairIy, for
llis viII roduco lloir vork offorl. Honco, if in somo socioly a slaring ruIo of 50 por
conl comos lo bo accoplod, il doos nol pay for a IandIord lo dovialo from llis sociaI
convonlion, ovon if, al llal ralo, lloro is an oxcoss suppIy of lonanls.
7- . !"#$%&' )*+'
S
in
S
oul
= llo nol rosuIl of sociaI mobiIily during llis inlorvaI of limo, i.o.
llo difforonco insido llo rogion bolvoon llo numbor of lumans vlo bocomo
sIavos, and llo numbor frood from sIavory (or vlo froo llomsoIvos),
G S = llo naluraI grovll (or naluraI nogalivo grovll) of llo sIavo popuIa-
lion in llis inlorvaI of limo, i.o. llo difforonco bolvoon llo birll and doall
ralo,
M
in
M
oul
= nol migralion in llo inlorvaI of limo, i.o. llo difforonco bolvoon
llo numbor of sIavos in llo rogion vlo immigralo (or voro inlroducod from
oulsido) and llo numbor of sIavos vlo omigralo (llal is, voro soId on llo
oxlornaI markol or oscapod),
o = orror in moasuromonl.
Tlis formuIa indicalos llal llo domograplic slabiIily of a sIavo popuIalion las
many dolorminanls, in parlicuIar a) sociaI mobiIily (manumission/onsIavo-
monl), b) domograply in a narrov sonso, and c) invoIunlary migralion. If,
for oxampIo, llo immigralion of sIavos (M
in
) roducos, bocauso llo sIavo lrado
is groalIy obslruclod (as in llo AlIanlic rogions, aflor llo Brilisl prolibilion
of llo sIavo lrado in 1807) or bocauso popuIalion donsily in llo rogions from
vlicl sIavos aro caplurod signi"canlIy docIinos (as in Wosl Africa), llon llis
vill llo samo IovoI of sociaI mobiIily musl bo componsalod for by a groalor
naluraI incroaso of llo sIavo popuIalion.
Hovovor, lloro is aIso anollor aspocl. }oln Moos advancos llo llosis llal
any syslom supporlod by sIavory disinlogralos in llo Iong lorm, if lloro is
no in!ux of nov sIavos from Iands oulsido llo rogion. Tlo roason is nol so
mucl domograplic (bocauso sIavo popuIalions can for aII inlonls and pur-
posos naluraIIy roproduco llomsoIvos), bul rallor llal llo Iabor producliv-
ily of sIavos vlo can buy lloir froodom is signi"canlIy liglor, llan llo Iabor
produclivily of sIavos vlo cannol improvo lloir posilion. SIavos vlo can buy
lloir froodom vork bollor and lardor llan ollors. Tlo maslor lloroforo las
a maloriaI inlorosl in onabIing lis sIavos lo bo abIo lo buy lloir froodom, and
indood, clargo a manumission prico liglor llan llo markol prico of sIavos,
in ordor lo mako a pro"l vlon lo granls llo sIavos lloir froodom. Iacking
suf"cionl immigralion of sIavos, llo sIavo syslom vouId lloroforo Ioad moro
/"0 1"#%%&2 32#4&'05 . 76
or Ioss aulomalicaIIy lo ils ovn domiso. Ivon in llo USA, sIavory vouId lavo
ondod of ils ovn accord, according lo Moos, if lloro lad nol boon a civiI var,
and if llo oconomy lad boon abIo lo unfoId ils ovn Iogic a dovoIopmonl
llal, in lis viov, aIso occurrod in llo Ialo Roman Impiro.
31
6)',5,!9&(,)-
Wlon businoss ovnors lavo oplod for sIavory, il can in somo condilions bo
oconomicaIIy ralionaI lo conlinuo llis poIicy, ovon if, duo lo llo proviousIy
monlionod considoralions, il las bocomo moro ralionaI lo clooso anollor
Iabor roIalion. Tlo maslor invosls a groal doaI (buying lis sIavos signi"os a
Iargo sum of "xod capilaI) and lo obviousIy vanls lo rocovor lis cosls. A
clango in llo Iabor syslom couId Ioad lo Iargo lransfor and lransaclion cosls.
SlanIoy Ingorman rigllIy slalos: AIllougl llo inauguralion of llo |sIavoj
syslom migll bo duo lo soomingIy minor and accidonlaI faclors, onco croalod
llo sIavo ovning cIass las an inconlivo lo avoid capilaI Iossos by porpolualing
llo syslom.
32
Moroovor, llo lransilion lo anollor syslom of Iabor roIalions
aIvays causos uncorlainlios. In llo vords of }osopl SligIilz: lislory ilsoIf cro-
alos an imporlanl asymmolry of informalion: individuaIs knov moro aboul
31
Moos, |Commonlj, p. 252. Il vas llo oxporionco of anliquily llal loIding
sIavos undor sucl condilions |vill llo possibiIily of manumission by soIf-purclasoj
vas moro pro"labIo llan vlon llo oulIook vas for a man lo romain in bondago for
Iifo. As a consoquonco, manumissions by soIf-purclaso voro aIvays numorous, and
vlon, bocauso of llo oslabIislmonl of llo Iax Romana by Imporor Auguslus, sIavos
coasod lo slroam inlo IlaIy in llo form of caplivos of var, vliIo piracy and bandilry,
llo ollor major sourcos of sIavo suppIy, voro vigorousIy supprossod, sIavory vas
doomod lo virluaI oxlinclion. Tlis lransilion vas accompIislod in ruraI aroas as voII
as in llo cilios. Il vas by no moans a plonomonon roslriclod lo an urban socioly or
lo sIavos llal voro parlicuIarIy laIonlod. On llo Iand, llo clainod sIavo gangs (vlicl
in llo limo of llo Roman RopubIic, vlon sIavo pricos voro Iov and llo lroalmonl of
sIavos accordingIy larsl, lad vorkod llo Ialifundia) disappoarod. Tlo oslalos camo
lo bo occupiod by froo lonanls, doscondanls of sIavos vlo againsl a considoralion lad
boon voIunlariIy omancipalod by lloir maslors. And sinco llo limos voro prospor-
ous, aII llis occurrod in a poriod in vlicl sIavo pricos voro ligl and rising Moos,
|Commonlj, p. 253. In an ompiricaI sludy of manumissions in Iouisiana during llo
oiglloonll and oarIy ninoloonll conlury, Slavn CoIo (CapilaIism and Iroodom,
p. 1025) roaclos llo concIusion lovovor llal manumission as an inconlivo sclomo
vouId probabIy nol lavo brougll an ond lo llo Amorican syslom of sIavory: manu-
mission vas nol common, and Iavs prolibiling il voro offoclivo.
32
Ingorman, Somo Considoralions, p. 60. SimiIar argumonls in Gorsclonkron,
Agrarian IoIicios, p. 141 and RudoIpl, AgricuIluraI Slrucluro, p. 56, aboul sorf-
dom in Tsarisl Russia.
7, . !"#$%&' )*+'
llo inslilulions and convonlions vill vlicl lloy lavo Iivod in llo roconl
pasl llan lloy knov of ollors by vlicl lloy migll Iivo. Tlo consoquoncos
of clango aro llus uncorlain, and risk avorsion ilsoIf providos somo impolus
lo llo prosorvalion of curronl inslilulions.
33
+)2@&(,7# >"&-4#.
SIavory slarls vill llo assumplion llal sIavos aro nol lruIy luman, bul rallor,
Iiving moans of Iabor. SIavo ovnors usuaIIy lry lo soparalo lloir sIavos
from llo rosl of llo popuIalion llis praclico succoods bollor vlon sIavos
aro imporlod from dislanl Iands, lavo foroign cusloms, and do nol spoak llo
IocaI Ianguago. Tlo Iongor sIavory oxisls, lovovor, llo moro IikoIy il bocomos
llal communicalion bolvoon sIavos and froomon incroasos, llo sIavos aro
naluraIizod, Ioarn llo IocaI Ianguago and cusloms, somolimos ovon lako
up llo faill of llo IocaI rosidonl popuIalion olc. In llal caso, llo sIavos aro
lo somo oxlonl lumanizod from lloir provious sub-luman slalus. Sucl
assimiIalion can, in llo Iong run, undormino llo Iogilimalion of sIavory.
34
A129"&.,-4 ;):#2
In llo provious claplor, I nolod llal sIavos roprosonl nogIigibIo offoclivo
domand (in llo sonso of indopondonl purclasing povor in capilaIisl mar-
kols). On llis ground, many aullors arguo llal llo ralo of oconomic grovll
vas <2&C#5 in rogions vloro sIavory vas dominanl (and in parlicuIar, llal
il brakod induslriaIizalion orionlod lo llo domoslic markol). Bocauso of llal
facl, llo compolilivo posilion of sIavo-loIding rogions vas voakonod in llo
Iong lorm.
!#9"-)')4,9&' 5#7#');@#-(
IroviousIy I concIudod llal loclnoIogicaI progross and sIavory aro quilo com-
palibIo. To bo suro, a rolardod dovoIopmonl in llo Iabor procossos porformod
by llo sIavos couId occur, bul mosl probabIy llo oconomic considoralions of
33
SligIilz, RalionaI Ioasanls, p. 26.
34
Bonnassio, Survio ol oxlinclion and Io Tomps dos Wisigolls.
/"0 1"#%%&2 32#4&'05 . 77
sIavoloIdors voro mucl moro rosponsibIo for sucl an ovonluaIily.
35
Bul vo
lavo aIso soon llal loclnoIogicaI dovoIopmonls incroasing llo vorkors scopo
for docision-making Ioad lo imporlanl clangos in llo Iabor roIalions. In llo
caso of sIavory, llo appIicalion of moro advancod loclnoIogy vas onIy ovor
possibIo, ,* llo sIavos gainod moro froodom in lloir vork.
B#.,.(&-9#
Tlo sociaI slruggIos of sIavos can nol onIy causo clangos villin llo sIavo
syslom. SIavo rovoIls can aIso bring aboul ils lolaI coIIapso, as slovn by llo
rovoIulion on Sanlo Domingo in 1791. Sucl a gonoraI uprising vas llo uIli-
malo nigllmaro of llo sIavoloIdors, vlorovor in llo vorId il migll occur.
36

Tlo Haili oxporionco sparkod off nol onIy llo roboIIion in Cuba in 1812,
in llo Unilod Slalos in 1820 and a IillIo Ialor in }amaica and BraziI, il aIso
inspirod llo aboIilionisl campaigns in Groal Brilain.
37
As a coroIIary, if sIavo
rovoIls voro oflon pul dovn vill oxlraordinary brulaIily and al groal cosl,
llo inlonlion vas lo sol a cIoar oxampIo llal vouId forocIoso llo possibiIily
llal any dangorous idoas migll ariso among ollor sIavos.
51 %01%)6*/01
AII llo monlionod facols can onIy bo corroclIy undorslood, if vo incIudo llo
lisloricaIIy clanging broador conloxls in llo anaIysis. Tloso conloxls rofor
boll lo llo ovorarcling sociaI roIalions llal in!uonco llo Iabor sysloms of a
socioly and vlicl, in lloir lurn, aro in!uoncod by llom and lo roIalions
bolvoon Iabor and llo plysicaI onvironmonl.
To iIIuslralo llo inloraclion bolvoon Iabor sysloms and broador sociaI roIa-
lions, considor llo conlrasl bolvoon llo Soull of llo USA and BraziI.
38
In
35
Auflausor, SIavory and ToclnoIogicaI Clango, slovs llis vill lvo oxampIos
of loclnoIogicaI ronovaI on sugar pIanlalions, llo pIougl and llo vacuum vossoI.
Gomory and Hogondorn, ToclnoIogicaI Clango, lavo furllor poinlod oul llal
morclandizing and llo lransporl of sIavos dovoIopod in ovory rospocl dynamicaIIy
in llo AlIanlic rogion bolvoon 1600 and 1800.
36
Cralon, ?@;,2#F ?-.'&7#@#-( &-5 K2##5)@, p. 186.
37
Soo o.g., Goggus, /@;&9( )* ("# H&,(,&- B#7)'1(,)-, Munro, Canl Sland Up for
IaIIing Dovn.
38
I baso my argumonl loro on discussions vill Roborl W. SIonos (Univorsily of
Campinas, BraziI).
78 . !"#$%&' )*+'
BraziI, as is voII knovn, racism vas novor as porvasivoIy inslilulionaIizod as
in llo USA. Wly` IssonliaIIy, bocauso llo sIavos in BraziI voro in a .(2)-4#2
;).,(,)- llan in llo USA: llo numbor of sIavos roIalivo lo llo lolaI popuIalion
vas mucl groalor in BraziI llan in llo USA, sIavos in BraziI couId oscapo
inlo llo forosls and organizo rosislanco lloro (@&22)-&4#L01,',@<)), sIavos in
BraziI parlicuIarIy vlon lloy camo from AngoIa couId aIroady spoak llo
Ianguago of lloir maslors (Iorluguoso) boforo lloir arrivaI in BraziI, and llo
BraziIian sIavos oflon originalod from ConlraI Africa, vloro llo Ianguagos
voro roIalod lo oacl ollor, and communicalion bolvoon difforonl groups vas
lloroforo oasior, vloroas in llo USA llo sIavos voro moro oflon ollnicaIIy
dividod.
Tlo signi"canco of llo plysicaI onvironmonl bocomos apparonl if vo con-
sidor llo sociaI offocls of cIimalo conslrainls. In Iargo parls of Russia, for
oxampIo, llo poriod during vlicl crops can bo sovn and larvoslod is Iimilod
lo jusl a fov monlls, vliIo llo rosl of llo yoar llo cIimalo is oxlromoIy coId.
Tlis co-dolorminod llo lypo of Iabor mobiIizalion, and lloroforo llo slrucluro
of Iabor roIalions.
39
39
Augusl von Haxllauson comparod a manor in Mainz vill a manor in YarosIav.
Ho poinlod oul llal llo mosl imporlanl parl of agricuIluro, llo ordoring and larvosl-
ing of llo "oId can, in Mainz , bo dislribulod ovor 7 monlls duo lo llo Iong summor,
vliIo llo samo vork in YarosIav musl bo Iimilod lo 4 monlls. Tlus for vlal I can
acliovo lloro on a "oId of simiIar quaIily and sizo vill 4 mon and 4 lorsos, I roquiro
loro 7 mon and 7 lorsos. Iurllormoro, vinlor in Mainz is Ioss lard, and lloroforo
ono can ompIoy llo avaiIabIo and moro oxponsivo lo food mon and animaIs for aII
lypos of vork, Iiko llo improvomonl of llo "oId, or oarllvorks. In YarosIav, on llo
ollor land, lloro is no ompIoymonl al aII for llo onliro vinlor. Tlis oxpIains vly
a manor in YarosIav can oxisl, nol vill vago-Iabor, bul onIy as a lonuro oconomy
or in combinalion vill faclory-Iiko businossos. Haxllauson, 6(15,#-, I, pp. 1727.
!"#$%&$%' )* +,&,"-$'+
!"#$%&' )*+&
./% +,&,"-$'& ,0$1%#'%
In divorso circumslancos vorkors lavo parlicipalod
in muluaIisl arrangomonls lo mako lloir Iivos moro
IivabIo and Ioss risky. MuluaIism rofors lo !"" $%"&
'()!*+ !**!(,-.-()/0 1( 23143 5-%5"- .!6- 4%()*17')1%(/
)% ! 4%""-4)1$- 8'(90 23143 1/ ,1$-(0 1( 23%"- %* 1( 5!*)0
)% %(- %* .%*- %8 )3- 4%()*17')%*/ !44%*91(, )% /5-41!4
*'"-/ %8 !""%4!)1%(.
1
Tlo ralionaIo of muluaIism can bo
cIari!od mosl oasiIy using llo lorminoIogy of Ralio-
naI Cloico Tloory villoul, lovovor, accopling
llis lloory as a vloIo.
2
Quilo simpIy, somo llings in
ovoryday Iifo poopIo dosiro bul cannol provido al
aII, or as of!cionlIy, for llomsoIvos as individuaIs.
3

Tloso llings couId bo Iabor, producls, or monoy.
Tloy occur for lvo roasons. IirslIy, lloro aro a groal
numbor of llings in any socioly vlicl individuaIs
cannol possibIy croalo on lloir ovn, villin a roason-
abIo poriod of limo, lloy praclicaIIy nood llo loIp of
ollor poopIo lo oblain llom. Tlis condilion is somo-
limos roforrod lo as inlrinsic joinlnoss. SocondIy,
lloro aro lasks vlicl an individuaI couId voII por-
form limsoIf, bul vlicl vouId lavo signi!canl
1
MuluaIism is a concopl vlicl goos back lo llo ninoloonll conlury. Tlo lorm
vas probabIy coinod by llo Ironcl sociaI anarclisl Iiorro-}osopl Iroudlon. Soo
lis :- "! 4!5!41); 5%"1)1<'- 9-/ 4"!//-/ %'$*1=*-/ (1865). AIso comparo vill Kropolkin,
>')'!" ?19.
2
van dor Iindon, OId Workors Movomonls and 'Nov IoIilicaI Iconomy.
3
Hocllor, @*1(415"-/ %8 A*%'5 B%"19!*1)+, p. 33.
,- . !"#$%&' )*+&
nogalivo offocls (cosls) for llo porson invoIvod, for oxampIo bocauso vorking
lo oblain a good on onos ovn is friglloning or sluIlifying, or bocauso il gols
in llo vay of ollor aclivilios. In boll casos, individuaIs bono!l by onIisling llo
loIp of ollors. To componsalo for llis cooporalion from ollors, lloy can rocip-
rocalo by porforming a lask in rolurn, or pay for il in casl or vill goods.
MuluaIisl aclivilios nol onIy occur among aII kinds of vorkors, formaIIy or
informaIIy, bul aIso among aII ollor sociaI cIassos. MuluaIism in llis sonso is
nol cIass-spoci!c, aIllougl il is oflon an imporlanl compononl of proIolarian
survivaI slralogios: a voaIll of sociaI conlacls vill poopIo viIIing lo slaro
may componsalo for a Iack of maloriaI voaIll.
.23)-)42
C!7%* .')'!"/
In muluaIisl arrangomonls, difforonl poopIo conlribulo Iabor, producls or
monoy lo a slarod projocl. Iol us bogin vill muluaIisl inslilulions in vlicl
llo fund consisls of Iabor. Sucl inslilulions can oillor rolalo Iabor, or uso
Iabor for llo produclion of ono good, by vlicl aII can bono!l. In llo !rsl caso
(rolalion), ono porson !rsl consumos llo Iabor of llo rosl of llo group, and
aflor llal anollor, olc. Sucl forms of Iabor rolalion aro knovn around llo
vorId.
4
NicoIaas van Mooloron doscribos ono sucl arrangomonl on Curaao,
vlicl vas popuIar lloro unliI llo !rsl docados of llo lvonlioll conlury:
Wlonovor ono noodod lo vood, pIanl or larvosl, llo cuslom vas impIo-
monlod llal vas knovn as 'saam. AII noiglbors llon agrood lo vork for oacl
ollor onco or lvico in llo vook in llo ovoning by moonIigll. Tlo bono!ciary
of llo vork providod rum and rofroslmonls. As llo vorkors oncouragod
oacl ollor by singing in lurns in 'guonoo or 'Macamba, llo vork vonl
smoollIy and ovoryono bono!llod by il.
5
Van Mooloron llinks llal a /!!.
lad llo advanlago llal llo vork vas dono mucl faslor, bocauso vorkors
oncouragod oacl ollor, vlicl is vory imporlanl, ospociaIIy for slronuous
Iabor in llo !oIds.
6
Ollor vrilors con!rm llis conjocluro. David Amos offors
4
Soo o.g., Ipsloin, D4%(%.14 :-$-"%5.-(), p. 73, DavIoy, E"!// !(9 E%..'(1)+,
p. 57, Wong, @-!/!()/ 1( )3- >!61(,, p. 120.
5
Van Mooloron, F%"6/6'(9- $!( E'*!G!%, p. 35.
6
Ibid.
/"& 01%1#2*3% 14*+&'3& . ,5
lvo oxpIanalions: vorking in a group boll slimuIalos friondIy compolilion
among vorkors, and is moro agrooabIo: Working vill onos companions,
joking and singing, is obviousIy Ioss lodious llan soIilary Iabor.
7
Work in llo !oIds is, of courso, nol llo onIy form of Iabor llal can bo rolalod.
Tlo barn raisings common in llo Unilod Slalos in llo ninoloonll conlury
aro anollor oxampIo: ovory !rsl Sunday of llo monll, a group of farmors buiIl
a nov barn for ono of lloir mombors, unliI ovory mombor of llo group lad
lad lis lurn.
8
In yol anollor varianl, vomon lako caro of oacl ollors cliIdron
in lurn, or loIp oacl ollor vill ollor lasks.
In a socond form of Iabor muluaIism, llo joinl offorl rosuIls in a /3!*-9
producl. Tlo mombors of llo coIIoclivo gallor onco or sovoraI limos lo vork
logollor, for llo produclion of a good from vlicl lloy aII lopo lo bono!l
vlon il is roady.
9
CoIIoclivoIy buiIding a communily conlro or a clurcl aro
good oxampIos.
Iabor muluaIism oflon bocomos Ioss imporlanl vlon monoy bocomos moro
conlraI lo llo IocaI oconomy. A londoncy lo buy Iabor lasks individuaIIy vill
monoy llon usuaIIy incroasos. On Curaao, llo /!!. sooms lo lavo disap-
poarod from llo 1920s or 1930s onvards. SimiIar lronds aro visibIo in many
pIacos.
10
Bul lloro aro aIso oxcoplions lo llis ruIo. In llo caso of llo Maka in
Soulloaslorn Camoroon, llo riso of llo casl crop cuIlivalion insload slimu-
Ialod Iabor rolalion, bocauso llo Maka rofusod lo porform vago Iabor for llo
ollor viIIagors.
11
7
Amos, WoIof Co-oporalivo Work Groups, p. 231.
8
BosIoy, Coalo and Ioury, Iconomics of Rolaling Savings and Crodil Associa-
lions, p. 793 (nolo).
9
Aparl from rolaling Iabor (vlicl in llo Iiloraluro is aIso caIIod cooporalivo Iabor
or oxclango Iabor), lloro is aIso foslivo Iabor, i.o. Iabor vlicl is organizod !9 3%4 al
llo roquosl of ono viIIagor, vlo rovards llo vorkors for lloir offorls vill food and
drink (Irasmus, CuIluro, Slrucluro and Irocoss, Mooro, Cooporalivo Iabour in
Ioasanl AgricuIluro). SvindoII, H!*. C!7%'*, p. 133, suspocls llal in lropicaI Africa
foslivo vorkgroups may voII form llo basis of conlomporary lirod gang Iabour,
inasmucl as lloir Iack of rociprocily is a moans of lransforring Iabour from pooror
farmors lo 'big-mon and omorgonl capilaIisl farmors.
10
Irasmus, CuIluro, Slrucluro and Irocoss, Brovn, IopuIalion Grovll.
11
Gosclioro, Working Groups or Wago Iabour`.
,6 . !"#$%&' )*+&
I%)!)1(, /!$1(,/ !(9 4*-91) 8'(9/ JIKBE?/L
Il is a smaII slop from Iabor muluaIs lo muluaIisl inslilulions in vlicl llo
slarod fund consisls parlIy or vloIIy of goods or monoy. Iabor rolalion cor-
rosponds lo llo simpIosl varianl of llo rolaling savings and crodil muluaI,
llo ROSCA, in vlicl, lovovor, llo Iabor inpul is ropIacod by a conlribulion
in llo form of goods or monoy. Tlo lransaclion cycIo in llo simpIosl ROSCA
oporalion can bo piclurod as in TabIo 5.1.
12
TabIo 5.1
A simpIo ROSCA
Mombor Conlribulion|Sum rocoivod
1sl mooling 2nd mooling 3rd mooling TolaI
A 10|0 10|30 10|0 30|30
B 10|30 10|0 10|0 30|30
C 10|0 10|0 10|30 30|30
An anllropoIogicaI sludy from llo oarIy 1960s rocords llal Indian migranls
on llo isIand of Maurilius oporalod a ROSCA caIIod a 4+4"- or 43--): A man or
a voman caIIs logollor a group of frionds and noiglbours. Supposo lloro aro
lon of llom, and oacl puls in Rs. 10. Tloy llon drav Iols and llo vinnor lakos
llo Rs. 100. (Somolimos llo organisor aulomalicaIIy lakos llo !rsl 'pooI.) Tlo
foIIoving monll oacl again puls in Rs. 10, and anollor mombor lakos llo
rosuIling Rs. 100, and so il conlinuos for lon monlls unliI oacl mombor las
lad lis Rs. 100.
13
In ollor vords, sums of monoy voro doposilod in llo
43--), bul for llo rosl llo Iogic vas llo samo as in Iabor rolalion. Il is lloroforo
nol surprising llal somo scloIars boIiovo ROSCAs originalod in rolaling Iabor
pooIs.
14
Tlis oxpIanalion sooms pIausibIo, bul vlollor il is corrocl las yol lo
bo provod by ompiricaI rosoarcl.
12
Comparo Ardonor, Comparalivo Sludy of Rolaling Crodil Associalions,
p. 214.
13
Bonodicl, CapilaI, Saving and Crodil, p. 341.
14
Wo can road, for oxampIo, aboul NgvaIand in llo Imo Slalo of Nigoria: Tlo
Ngva lavo a lradilion of pooIing Iabour lo broak farm bollIonocks. Transilion from
Iabour pooIs lo pooIing monoy rosourcos vas oasy onougl. (Nvabugluogu, M/'/',
p. 47). And llo foIIoving commonl is mado on llo NO!(,1 (ROSCA) in Camoroon: Tlo
(O!(,1 is roaIIy llo monolisod form of a lradilionaI mollod of organising co-oporalivo
Iabour, namoIy vlal migll bo caIIod a 'rolaling Iand-cIoaring associalion. SovoraI mon
agroo lo vork as a group, !rsl on llo !oIds of ono mombor, and llon in succossion
/"& 01%1#2*3% 14*+&'3& . ,7
ROSCAs can aIso bo vaslIy moro compIox llan llo vory simpIo caso jusl
doscribod. Tlo aIIocalion of llo ordor of rolalion is conlraI lo ROSCAs, bul llis
ordor can bo dolorminod by agroomonl among parlicipanls in various diffor-
onl vays: aIIocalion by an organizor, by auclion, or by draving Iols. In an
auclion, individuaI parlicipanls can obviousIy slrongIy in"uonco llo ordor
of aIIocalion, and llis mollod can lloroforo Ioad lo quilo compIox roIalions
of dobl and crodil villin llo arrangomonl.
15
In llo caso of Maurilius, vo !nd
llal, Iiko llo Indian immigranls on llo isIand, llo Clinoso aIso lad ROSCAs.
Bul lloso funclionod in a difforonl vay:
Tlo Clinoso on llo isIand as oIsovloro oporalo a varianl of llo cycIo in
vlicl llo 'Iondors (Ialo dravors) in offocl rocoivo inlorosl paymonls from
llo 'borrovors (oarIy dravors). Tlo parlicipanls bid for lurns, a man in
nood of quick casl may bid lo lako Rs. 90 insload of Rs. 100, if pormillod
lo drav !rsl, or lo may agroo lo pul in a lolaI of Rs. 110 ovor llo cycIo
if lo can lavo Rs. 100 immodialoIy. Tlus llo ollor mombors of llo cycIo
rocoivo in duo courso moro llan lloir conlribulions, llo difforonco is a form
of inlorosl paid lo llom by lloso vill moro urgonl nood of monoy. If llo
socond and llird dravings aro bid for as voII, llo lolaI inlorosl paymonls
lo llo moro palionl mombors incroaso.
16
Tlo sloor numbor of difforonl mollods invonlod for aIIocaling rosourcos
llrougl ROSCAs is aslounding, and llo arrangomonls couId indood bocomo
oxcoodingIy compIox.
17
}usl oxaclIy vly somo ROSCAs aro so mucl moro
on lloso of ovoryono oIso in llo group. Indood, somo (O!(,1 mombors roporl llal llo
monoy lloy savo is usod lo liro Iabour lo cIoar lloir farm Iand. (DoIancoy, Crodil
for llo Common Man, p. 319).
15
CaIomiris and Rajaraman, RoIo of ROSCAs, pp. 2115.
16
Bonodicl CapilaI, Saving and Crodil, p. 341, soo aIso Iroodman, HandIing of
Monoy.
17
Horo is a compIox oxampIo from Clina in llo 1930s, llo so-caIIod +!% 3'1 (Ioi,
@-!/!() C18- 1( E31(!, pp. 2703):
- An organizor vlo vas in immodialo nood of monoy vas llo slarling poinl. Ho
brougll logollor fourloon ollor poopIo. Ivoryono conlribulod $10. Tlo organizor
paid $10 on ovory mooling (llal is 14 limos in lolaI) pIus an inlorosl of $3 oacl limo.
Tlo organizor paid 14 ! $10 + 14 ! $3 = $182 in lolaI, vloroas lo rocoivod 14 ! $10
= $140 on llo !rsl mooling. In ollor vords, lo paid an inlorosl of $42.
- Ivory limo, aII parlicipanls rocoivod laIf llo conlribulion of llo organizor dividod
by llo numbor of parlicipanls (|$13/2j/14 = 0.464). Tlis vas caIIod llo organizors
surpIus. Tlo ordor of llo pIayors vas docidod by Iol.
- Ivory sossion, llo fourloon parlicipanls rocoivod in lurn a !xod sum of $70 ($140/2).
Tlus, llo porson vlo rocoivod $70, acluaIIy rocoivod $70 + $0.464 = $70.464.
,8 . !"#$%&' )*+&
compIox llan ollors is sliII IargoIy unknovn.
18
Il is porlaps no coincidonco
llougl llal llo mosl compIox variolios occur in viIIago communilios vill a
Iong lislory. Wo couId lloroforo lypollosizo llal slarlors, sucl as migranls
- If a mombor lad rocoivod $70, lo vouId pay $70/14 = $5, pIus an inlorosl of ($1.5)
(llal is $6.5 in lolaI) al ovory subsoquonl mooling. A porson vlo lad rocoivod $70
vas caIIod a 9-7)%*, a porson vlo sliII lad lo rocoivo lis slaro vas caIIod a 9-5%/1)%*.
As llo rolaling cycIo procoodod, llo numbor of doblors incroasod and llo numbor
of doposilors diminislod.
- Tlo !rsl sossion bogan vlon llo organizor lad rocoivod lis $140. During llis sos-
sion, llo !rsl doblor appoarod. $70.464 vas paid and $13 vas rocoivod (from llo
organizor). A grand lolaI of $57.464 vas sponl. Tloro voro llirloon doposilors and
lloir 'subscriplion (vlalovor llal may bo) vas lloroforo $57.464/13 = $4.420.
- In llo socond sossion, il vas llo socond doblors lurn lo rocoivo $70.464 vliIo llo
organizor again paid $13. In addilion, llo !rsl doblor paid $6.5 B $0.464 = $6.036.
Tlo socioly paid a grand lolaI of $70.464 B $19.036 = $51.428. Tlis amounlod lo
$4.286 for oacl of llo lvoIvo doposilors.
- In llo llird sossion, llo llird doblor rocoivod $70.464, llo lvo doblors paid 2 !
$6.036 = $12.072, and llo group as a vloIo consoquonlIy $70.464 B 25.072 = $45.492.
Tlis amounlod lo $4.126 (or acluaIIy 4.127) for oacl of llo oIovon doposilors. And
so on.
- In llo lonll sossion, llo lonll doblor rocoivod $70.464, llo nino doblors of llo procod-
ing sossions paid 9 ! $6.036 = $54.324, and llo organizor paid $13. ConsoquonlIy,
llo associalion as a vloIo paid $70.464 B $67.324 = $3.14. Tlal amounlod lo $0.785
for oacl of llo four doposilors.
- In llo oIovonll sossion, llo group roaIizod a posilivo baIanco. $70.464 vas paid
and $13 + (10 ! $6.036 = $60.360) = $73.360 vas rocoivod. Tlo romaindor vas
consoquonlIy $2.896. Tlus, llo llroo romaining doposilors llon rocoivod a sum of
monoy, namoIy $0.965.
- In llo fourloonll and Iasl sossion $70.464 vas paid and $13 + (13 ! $6.036 = $78.468)
= $91.468 vas rocoivod. Tloro vas a posilivo baIanco of $8.004 and no doposilor.
If vo considor llo individuaI baIanco of oacl pIayor in llo courso of llo onliro gamo,
il appoars llal llo organizor (as vo aIroady romarkod) paid $182 and rocoivod $140.
Tlo porson vloso lurn il vas in llo !rsl sossion rocoivod $70.464 and paid $10 + (13 !
$6.036 = $78.468) = $88.468. GonoraIIy spoaking, llo Ialor a pIayor bocamo a doblor,
llo moro monoy lo vouId rocoivo. Il is cIoar llal +!% 3'1 vas a rallor compIicalod
ROSCA. Tlus, Ioi, llo anllropoIogisl vlo doscribod llis arrangomonl, romarkod llal
Tlo compIoxily of llis syslom is loo dif!cuIl for ovory ordinary viIIagor lo undor-
sland. In facl, vory fov porsons in llo viIIago knov llo syslom of caIcuIalion. Tloy
lavo lloroforo lo invilo llo viIIago loads lo inslrucl llom. Ioi, @-!/!() C18- 1( E31(!,
p. 273.
18
In lloir Moxican caso sludy, Kurlz and Slovman, Tanda, p. 70, mako a sug-
goslion llal couId bo lakon furllor: Tlo facl llal parlicipanls in llo )!(9! do nol
acquiro lloir posilion in llo rolalion ordor oillor by bidding or gambIing, as is common
in somo Asian associalions, poinls lo llo consumor-orionlod funclion of llo )!(9!.
Anyvay, nol ovory mombor nood lavo oxaclIy ono slaro. Bascom, D/'/', p. 64,
vrilos on llo Isusu: A singIo individuaI may loId moro llan ono 'momborslip in
a givon -/'/' groop by roguIarIy making moro llan ono conlribulion and rocoiving
llo fund moro llan onco during a singIo cycIo. ConvorsoIy, a singIo 'momborslip
may bo slarod by lvo or moro individuaIs vlo aro nol abIo lo afford llo onliro
conlribulion soparaloIy.
/"& 01%1#2*3% 14*+&'3& . ,9
vlo onIy roconlIy knov poopIo in llo pIaco vloro lloy lavo novIy sollIod,
vouId profor simpIo variolios. In conlrasl, groups vill a ligllIy knil, slabIo
and roIalivoIy oId communily cuIluro vouId bo moro IikoIy lo oxporimonl
vill llo ruIos, and somolimos dovoIop vory compIox sysloms of rociprocaI
obIigalion.
B!$1(,/ !(9 "%!( !//%41!)1%(/ JBC?/L
Tlo roquirod sum doposilod in ovory mooling in a ROSCA can vary con-
sidorabIy. Quilo Iargo sums of monoy musl lavo circuIalod in llo rolaling
manumission funds vill vlicl BraziIian sIavos-for-liro bougll lloir froo-
dom in llo ninoloonll conlury, for oxampIo.
19
Somo goods aro obviousIy loo
oxponsivo lo pay for vill ordinary ROSCAs. Housos aro a cIoar oxampIo. In
gonoraI, lloy aro so oxponsivo llal lousoloIds lavo lo savo many yoars lo
buy llom (if indood lloy can savo llis amounl of monoy al aII). In sucl casos,
a ROSCA can bo ompIoyod in vlicl llo mombors do nol rocoivo a paymonl in
-$-*+ round, bul aflor /-$-*!" rounds. If, for inslanco, lon famiIios oacl vanl
a louso vorll $10,000 and if lloso famiIios oacl doposil $1,000 ovory yoar
in a slarod fund, llon ono famiIy can buy a louso oacl yoar, and aflor lon
yoars aII famiIios lavo a louso. Sucl oxlondod ROSCAs voro oslabIislod
in llo Unilod Slalos in llo !rsl laIf of llo ninoloonll conlury. Ialor lloy
voro inlroducod in many ollor counlrios. In Gormany, lloy voro knovn
as P!'/5!*6!//-(.
20
ROSCAs of llis lypo voro aIso roforrod lo as lorminaling
sociolios, disconlinuod vlon aII llo parlicipanls lad lad lloir lurn.
B1.'")!(-%'/ !""%4!)1%(
As llo ROSCAs aro in a sonso lomoIogous lo forms of rolaling Iabor, llo socond
form of Iabor aIIocalion aIso las ils counlorparl in llo domain of goods and
monoy. In llis varianl, a group savos a corlain amounl of monoy by moans
of a poriodic conlribulion. Tloy can subsoquonlIy do ono of llroo llings vill
llis sum. Tloy can buy a common good llal romains a coIIoclivo proporly (a
joinl good), lloy can dislribulo llo savod sum again among llo parlicipanls
19
VoIasco o Cruz, IuzzIing Oul SIavo Origins, p. 223, obsorvos, llal llo modoI
of llo manumission funds sooms lo lavo boon llo -/'/' |ROSCAj, a Yoruba inslilulion
|. . .j llal llo African diaspora inlroducod in sovoraI parls of llo Amoricas.
20
BIock, P!'/5!*-(, ScloIlon, Rolaling Savings and Crodil Associalions.
,, . !"#$%&' )*+&
(individuaI aIIocalion of monoy), or lloy can buy goods vill llo monoy llal
viII subsoquonlIy bo dislribulod among llo parlicipanls (individuaI aIIoca-
lion of goods).
A O%1() ,%%9 can bo anylling. In llo 1950s, Harry Hoolink gavo a vory mun-
dano oxampIo of llo syslom llal occurrod in llo NollorIands in vlicl sovoraI
lousovivos buy a vasling maclino logollor, and uso il in lurn.
21
An impor-
lanl form of joinl good aIIocalion is llal of cooporalivos of smaII commodily
producors (craflsmon, farmors), sucl as cooporalivo dairios vlicl, in lloir
originaI form, consislod moroIy of a group of dairymon bandod logollor on
llo basis of lurning llo miIk inlo clooso, oacl man boing Iofl vill lis clooso
lo disposo of as bosl as lo couId.
22
SimiIar arrangomonls aro found around
llo vorId. Tlo .!3!7-* is an Illiopian oxampIo: Il usuaIIy las llo purposo
of providing assislanco lo lloso vlo aro sliII in llo counlrysido, nol laving
migralod lo an urban aroa. Tlus, llo rosidonls of a principaI cily viII mool
poriodicaIIy, and provido funds lo supporl somo projocl back in llo lomo viI-
Iago or in llo counlrysido, sucl as buiIding a sclooI, lospilaI, road, commu-
nily laII, or furnisling ono of lloso faciIilios, or somo ollor noody purposo.
23

Bouman and HarlovoId provido an oxampIo from Woslorn Camoroon, around
1970: Somolimos aII monoy is pooIod for a spoci!c purposo as vill llo Corn-
miII Sociolios, lo onabIo vomon lo buy a cornmiII lo roIiovo llom of llo lodious
maizo-grinding by land.
24
A savings associalion of llis lypo las a slrucluro
as piclurod in TabIo 5.2.
TabIo 5.2
A simpIo saving associalion for a joinl good
A 10|0 10|0 10|0 30|0
B 10|0 10|0 10|0 30|0
C 10|0 10|0 10|0 30|0
A+B+C 30|0 |30|0 30|0 90|90
21
Hoolink, Curaao on Tlorsloin VobIon, p. 43.
22
Hibbard, AgricuIluraI Cooporalion, p. 522.
23
Gordos, Irocursors of Modorn SociaI Socurily, p. 219.
24
Bouman and HarlovoId, Djanggi, p. 107. SimiIar arrangomonls can bo found
in Iuropoan lislory. Soo Tann, Co-oporalivo Corn MiIIing, Ban!oId, Consumor-
Ovnod Communily IIour and Broad Sociolios.
/"& 01%1#2*3% 14*+&'3& . ,:
Sucl a saving associalion can aIroady bo offoclivo if lloro is onIy ono round, if
llal ono round is suf!cionl lo purclaso llo joinl good.
A difforonl silualion oblains in llo caso of 1(91$19'!" !""%4!)1%( %8 .%(-+, an
arrangomonl aIso knovn as Savings Associalion (SAVA) in llo Iiloraluro.
25

Blro givos an oxampIo from an unof!ciaI sollIomonl noar Capo Tovn: Iacl
monll llo mombors mol al a mombors louso and doposilod R150. Ono of
llo mombors, Nofurniluro, savod R300 por monll, R150 for lor and R150 on
llo namo of a !clivo porson. Tlo monoy vas doposilod in a group accounl
al NodBank. Aflor lon monlls, slo rocoivod aboul R3,000 llal slo usod lo
robuiId lor louso in Transkoi.
26
In SAVAs, ono round is of courso novor suf!-
cionl. Tlo individuaI conlribulion vouId llon bo oquaI lo llo individuaI pay-
monl, and lloro vouId bo no poinl in llo arrangomonl.
Tlo Iasl varioly is llo 1(91$19'!" !""%4!)1%( %8 ,%%9/. Tlis incIudos, for oxam-
pIo, llo simpIosl consumor cooporalivos vlicl aro aIso knovn as dividing
sloros. To iIIuslralo, Arllur von Sludnilz, a Gorman sociaI roformor vlo
lravoIIod across llo Unilod Slalos in 1876, roporlod a convorsalion vill a
muIo spinnor from IaII Rivor. Tlo spinnors slory vas as foIIovs:
Tlo sovon of us voro vorking in a faclory vlon pricos roso so mucl
llal vo couId lardIy afford lo buy food anymoro. So vo docidod lo pooI
our doIIars and conls lo buy vlal vo noodod moro cloapIy. Iacl of us
caIcuIalod lis famiIys noods for llo noxl monll. Wo drov up a budgol of
ninoly-oigll doIIars and appoinlod a socrolary, vlo foolod up ovorylling
vo noodod. Noxl, vo sonl somoono lo purclaso llo goods. Wo ronlod an
aroa, brougll llo iloms lloro, and dislribulod llom. Wlon ovorylling cosl
Ioss llan oxpoclod, vo vouId rofund llo baIanco. Wlon il cosl moro, vo
paid vlal vas duo. Wo caIIod our aroa llo MuIo Spinnors Cooporalivo
Sloro. Wo purclasod our cIollos llo samo vay, oxcopl llal vo agrood lo
buy from llo doaIor llal offorod us llo biggosl discounl. Tlo doaIor gavo
us slamps onlilIing us lo a discounl, llus saving us lon porconl on cIollos
and lvoIvo porconl on soving suppIios.
27
25
Smols, Communily-Basod Iinanco Sysloms, p. 178.
26
Blro, Monoy and VioIonco, p. 215 nolo.
27
Von Sludnilz, N%*9!.-*16!(1/43- ?*7-1)-*$-*3Q")(1//-, pp. 2067. A lransilion from
llo ROSCA is possibIo in llis caso. Horo is an oxampIo from Woslorn Camoroon: Ollor
djanggi lavo lakon on a suppIy funclion. IoopIo proforring zinc roofs lo llalclod
lousos for llo sako of convonionco and slalus, lavo slarlod djanggi vloro aII funds
:; . !"#$%&' )*+&
B1.'")!(-%'/ !""%4!)1%( 21)3 4*-91) 8!41"1)1-/
A fund croalod lo bo aIIocalod simuIlanoousIy can, in llo moanlimo, aIso
bo usod as a crodil faciIily. In llal caso, aII mombors of a group roguIarIy
doposil monoy in llo fund, bul lloy can aIso lomporariIy lako monoy from il,
promising lo ropay Ialor. UsuaIIy, a mombor vlo lakos oul a Ioan viII lavo
lo pay inlorosl. Sucl an arrangomonl is aIso roforrod lo as an AccumuIaling
Savings and Crodil Associalion (ASCRA).
28
Migranl vorkors in Camoroon
lavo an inslilulion vlicl lloy caII a 8!.1"+ .--)1(, or 4%'()*+ .--)1(,. Tloso
aro associalions of poopIo from llo samo rogion, or from an aroa, vloro llo
samo Ianguago is spokon. DoIancoy doscribos llo arrangomonl:
Tlo ollnic associalions in angIoplono Camoroon aro a roguIar foaluro of
llo Iivos of a Iargo proporlion of lloso vlo Iivo in a migralion 'Iocalion: 80
por conl of lloso vlo como from 'oulsido aro mombors, as voII as 40 por
conl of lloso vloso origin is in llo noiglbourlood. Tlo moolings rango in
sizo from 1012 lo aboul 100, and aro usuaIIy loId soon aflor pay day in a
pIanlalion camp or a conlraIIy-Iocalod lovn. | . . .j. Tlo gol-logollor froquonlIy
opons vill somo businoss lransaclions. Mombors conlribulo monoy lo bo
loId as savings by llo associalions unliI llo ond of llo yoar, and llo lroasuror
doposils lloso funds in a bank and/or may mako inlorosl-payabIo Ioans lo
mombors and, occasionaIIy, lo non-mombors. AII savings and accumuIalod
inlorosl aro rolurnod lo llo mombors in Novombor or Docombor, and llis
onabIos llom lo pay lloir loavy Clrislmas oxponsos. Bul many immodialoIy
rolurn a Iargo proporlion of llo accruod funds lo llo savings programmo
for llo noxl yoar, vlicl opons al llo samo mooling. | . . .j During llo yoar
as many as 3060 por conl of llo mombors may lako sucl Ioans, and
aIllougl in mosl moolings lloso cannol oxcood vlal llo borrovors lavo
savod in llo socioly, llo amounl may somolimos bo raisod lo llo oxlonl llal
ollor mombors aro viIIing lo pIodgo lloir savings as a guaranloo of Ioan
ropaymonl. In caso of dofauIl, llo surolios Ioso lloir savings.
29

aro kopl by llo prosidonl vlo llon buys zinc slools lo dislribulo ovor llo mombors
insload of monoy. Buying in Iargo quanlilios lo is IikoIy lo cIaim a discounl. Tlo
samo procoduro migll suil agricuIluraI purposos. Bouman and HarlovoId, Djanggi,
p. 114.
28
Bouman, ROSCA and ASCRA, pp. 3767.
29
DoIancoy, Crodil for llo Common Man, p. 320. Soo aIso llo caso of llo 5%*6
/%41-)1-/ in Hong Kongs Nov Torrilorios in llo 1950s (TopIoy, CapilaI, Saving and
Crodil, p. 178).
/"& 01%1#2*3% 14*+&'3& . :<
@*%9'4-* 4%%5-*!)1%(
Wlon a group of poopIo oslabIislos a coIIoclivo fund lo buy moans of pro-
duclion (inslrumonls olc.) and slarls a businoss on ovn accounl, llis is
acluaIIy a combinod 7'+1(,0 5*%9'4)1%( !(9 /-""1(, 4%%5-*!)1$- ompIoying ils
mombors. Sucl arrangomonls lavo a Iong lislory. Tlo associalion vlicl
fourloon unompIoyod piano makors sol up in Iaris, ono and a laIf conlury
ago, offors a good iIIuslralion:
Tloy bogan | . . .j by coIIocling conlribulions of a fov ponnios from oacl
mombor. Sinco lloy vorkod from lomo, mosl ovnod somo of llo nocossary
maloriaI for lloir lrado: lloy conlribulod lo llo socioly in kind. On 10 Marcl
1849 lloy oslabIislod llo socioly vill 2,000 francs vorll of invonlory and
229.50 francs in casl. IoIIoving llis major accompIislmonl, llo socioly
vas roady for cIionls. Nono camo for lvo monlls. Of courso, llo mombors
oblainod noillor pro!l nor saIary, lloy survivod by pavning lloir porsonaI
boIongings. Tlo fourll monll lloy found a bil of ropair vork and oarnod
somo monoy. Dividing il amongsl llomsoIvos, lloy oblainod 6.60 francs
apioco. Iacl mombor kopl 5 francs from llis modosl dividond. Tlo surpIus
(i.o. 1.60 francs por porson) vas usod for a fralornaI banquol vill lloir vivos
and cliIdron lo coIobralo llo associalions auspicious boginning. | . . .j In
}uno, a fov vooks Ialor, lloy lad a vindfaII, an ordor for an onliro piano
cosling 480 francs!
30
>')'!" 1(/'*!(4-
Il is aIso possibIo llal a coIIoclivo fund is sol up on llo basis of poriodic
conlribulions, paid oul in parl or as a vloIo onIy vlon a caIamily occurs.
Tlo savings fund is llon usod as an insuranco sclomo. Again, lloro aro lvo
varianls: oillor llo monoy is usod lo covor coIIoclivo risks, or il is usod lo
covor individuaI risks.
A 4%""-4)1$- 4%$-*!,- %8 *1/6/ is roIovanl vlon llo group is llroalonod by a
common dangor a dangor llal can onIy bo avorlod by a joinl good. DanioI
Dofoo providod an oxampIo, vlon lo vrolo aboul
30
Gido, C-/ %7/)!4"-/ !' 9;$-"%55-.-(), pp. 1920. An accounl of an oyovilnoss can
bo found in Hubor, Skizzon aus dom franzsisclon GonossonsclaflsIobon, pp.
92333.
:- . !"#$%&' )*+&
our marslos and fons in Issox, Konl, and llo IsIo of IIy, vloro groal
quanlilios of Iand boing vill mucl pains and a vasl clargo rocovorod oul
of llo soas and rivors, and mainlainod vill banks (vlicl lloy caII vaIIs),
llo ovnors of lloso Iands agroo lo conlribulo lo llo kooping up of lloso
vaIIs, and if I lavo a pioco of Iand in any IovoI or marsl, llougl il bonds
novloro on llo soa or rivor, yol I pay my proporlion lo llo mainlonanco
of llo said vaII or bank, and if al any limo llo soa broaks in, llo damago
is nol Iaid upon llo man in vloso Iand llo broacl lapponod, unIoss il vas
by lis nogIocl, bul il Iios on llo vloIo Iand, and is caIIod a IovoI Iol.
31

An 1(91$19'!" 4%$-*!,- %8 *1/6/ is approprialo if mombors of an associalion aro
individuaIIy llroalonod by a dangor, sucl as for inslanco iIInoss, doall, or
disabiIilios causod by Iabor. In llal caso, aII mombors conlribulo lo a fund
poriodicaIIy, bul onIy lloso mombors vlo roquiro componsalion for a spo-
ci!c roason rocoivo a pay-oul from llo fund. Tlo simpIosl form of sucl an
arrangomonl is piclurod in TabIo 5.3.
TabIo 5.3
A simpIo muluaI-insuranco associalion
A 10|0 10|0 10|0 30|0
B 10|0 10|0 10|90 30|90
C 10|0 10|0 10|0 30|0
M()-*!4)1%(/ !(9 )*!(/8%*.!)1%(/
Il is nol uncommon llal difforonl muluaIisl associalions aro Iinkod lo oacl
ollor diroclIy or indiroclIy. IirslIy, poopIo somolimos boIong lo sovoraI asso-
cialions of llo samo lypo aII al onco. Oflon, lloso mombors ropay dobls vill
dobls.
32
Sucl muIlipIo momborslips, Bouman and HarlovoId nolo, moan llal
31
Dofoo, Issay Upon Irojocls, soclion Of IriondIy Sociolios.
32
Ionl, }uggIing Monoy in Yogyakarla, p. 233. Soo aIso Bascom, D/'/', p. 64:
Il is aIso common for a singIo individuaI lo boIong al llo samo limo lo sovoraI dif-
foronl -/'/' groups, vlicl may lavo difforonl conlribulions and varying inlorvaIs
of paymonl.
/"& 01%1#2*3% 14*+&'3& . :5
ROSCAs and ASCRAs aro no Iongor smaII, soparalod sociolios, bul omorgo as
a syslom of Iinkod crodil rings in vlicl monoy conlinuaIIy "ovs from ono
associalion lo anollor.
33
SocondIy, associalions of difforonl lypos can bo con-
noclod lo oacl ollor. In llo vosl of Camoroon, for inslanco, vo !nd spociaI
fund sociolios (a kind of ASCRA) in addilion lo ROSCAs (9O!(,,1). Tloso spociaI
funds somolimos lako llo form of a lroubIo fund and aro combinod vill
djanggis, making llo Iallor aII llo moro "oxibIo and bollor adaplod lo llo
noods of ils mombors. A mombor, unabIo lo lonour lis djanggi-subscriplion
al a parlicuIar mooling, can lako a Ioan from llo lroubIo fund againsl 5
inlorosl monllIy.
34
TlirdIy, an associalion can clango from ono lypo inlo
anollor, a SAVA can, for oxampIo, bocomo an ASCRA. A muluaIisl arrangomonl
can aIso bo lransformod inlo a commorciaI onlorpriso, or a gamo of clanco.
And fourllIy, ollor forms of organizalion can bo lransformod inlo muluaI-
isl associalions. In Iiodmonl, for inslanco, muluaI insurancos voro formod,
vlicl ropIacod llo guiIds llal lad oxislod oarIior bul voro prolibilod in
1844.
35
A spociaI kind of lransformalion occurs vlon muluaIisl associalions
bocomo pormanonl, or aro formaIIy inslilulionaIizod. I aIroady nolod provi-
ousIy llal llo Iifo span of rolaling sociolios, vlicl in principIo is Iimilod, can
bo oxlondod by slarling again aflor oacl cycIo. Bul llo rolalion principIo can
aIso bo romovod from rolaling associalions, and lloy can bo inslilulionaIizod
33
Bouman and HarlovoId, Djanggi, p. 111.
34
Ibid., p. 107.
35
AIIio, WoIfaro and SociaI Socurily in Iiodmonl, p. 441. Tlo dirocl lransilion
from guiId lo muluaI insuranco vas corlainIy nol unusuaI in Iuropoan lislory. Gor-
sky, MuluaI Aid and CiviI Socioly, p. 306, for inslanco roporls llal Tlo ruIobooks
of llo oarIiosl BrisloI bono!l cIubs suggosl llo dirocl in"uonco of llo docIining crafl
guiIds on llo ruIos of ordor llal govornod lloir businoss and sociaI arrangomonls.
Tloro vas lomo-visiling, lo onsuro obsorvalion of guiId ordinancos, jusl as friondIy
socioly slovards visilod mombors lomos. Iinos, lo onforco docorum, llo dulios of
of!co and allondanco al moolings and funoraIs, voro common lo boll lypos of associa-
lion, as vas parlicipalion in llo oIoclion of of!ciaIs, vill guiIds voling al an annuaI
mooling, and llo sociolios soIocling mombors as slovards and baIIoling for prosidonl
from nominoos. In boll casos domocracy vas lomporod vill rospocl for liorarcly.
Ollor simiIarilios voro llo uso of a box vill muIlipIo Iocks and koys loId by sopa-
ralo of!ciaIs, and llo conlraI imporlanco of mombors rocoiving a doconl funoraI. Boll
sol groal sloro on conviviaIily, vill guiIds coIobraling palron sainls days and civic
coromonios, and bono!l cIubs divorling monllIy sums for boor on cIub nigll and
onjoying an annuaI foasl, oflon around Wlilsun.
:6 . !"#$%&' )*+&
in llis vay. In llo pasl, llis lapponod quilo oflon in llo caso of Savings and
Ioan Associalions, for inslanco by aIIoving porsons lo bocomo mombors vlo
did nol vanl lo buy a louso for llomsoIvos, bul vlo rogardod llo associalion
as a good invoslmonl.
36
InslilulionaIizod forms of non-rolaling arrangomonls,
sucl as ASCRAs, aro voII-knovn. Crodil Unions aro a good oxampIo, Iiko many
ASCRAs, lloir mombors oflon slaro corlain claraclorislics, sucl as a roIigion or
a profossion. Tloy lavo a corporalo slrucluro, and lloir funclion is mainIy lo
provido slorl-lorm casl crodils lo mombors al nominaI ralos of inlorosl. In
llo courso of llo lvonlioll conlury, crodil unions lavo sproad from Norll
Amorica across Iargo parls of llo vorId.
37
50&%#6)00%6&$)0'
My lypoIogy indicalos llal muluaIism look a groal varioly of forms in llo
pasl, and sliII doos loday. Yol gonoraI pallorns and roIalions can bo discornod.
Tvo criloria soom ospociaIIy imporlanl: rolalion vorsus non-rolalion, and
scloduIod vorsus conlingonl aIIocalion.
38
I%)!)1(, $-*/'/ (%(&*%)!)1(, !""%4!)1%(
In llo caso of rolaling aIIocalion, a maximum numbor of parlicipanls musl
aIvays oxisl, bocauso ovoryono vanls lo lavo lis or lor lurn villin a roason-
abIo poriod of limo. In llo caso of rolaling Iabor, llo numbor of lousoloIds
comprising llo group is roIalivoIy smaII, nol usuaIIy roacling doubIo !guros.
39

36
BIock, P!'/5!*-(, p. 170f.
37
I.g., Slapiro, E*-91) R(1%( :-$-"%5.-() 1( S1/4%(/1(, Runcio, E*-91) R(1%(/ 1( )3-
B%')3 @!41!4.
38
Tloro aro, of courso, moro possibIo criloria for llo cIassi!calion of arrangomonls.
Wo couId, for inslanco, furllor spocify llo lypo of paymonls. Aro lloy mado lo indi-
viduaIs or groups` Is llo paymonl mado in monoy, kind or Iabor` Is il possibIo lo
borrov from llo fund`
39
Mooro, Cooporalivo Iabour in Ioasanl AgricuIluro, p. 272. SvindoI, H!*.
C!7%'*, p. 130, spoaks in llo caso of Africa of raroIy abovo lon |lousoloIdsj, and
Ipsloin, D4%(%.14 :-$-"%5.-() !(9 B%41!" E3!(,-, p. 73, in llo caso of Soull India of
aboul six mon.
/"& 01%1#2*3% 14*+&'3& . :7
Tlo momborslip of a ROSCA lypicaIIy varios from lvo
40
lo sovoraI lundrod
poopIo, bul llo avorago is probabIy somovloro bolvoon lon and lvonly
poopIo.
41
Tlo Iargor llo momborslip, llo moro unslabIo llo organizalion
bocomos. In conlomporary Soull Africa:
Wlonovor ROSCAs bocamo Iargo, lloy londod lo faiI | . . .j. Ior oxampIo, a ROSCA
in llo 1970s in llo lovnslip Ianga lad, al llal limo, up lo moro llan 300
parlicipanls. Ivorybody lad lo vail lloir lurn and llo killy bocamo vory
Iargo, up lo R53,000. Tlo cycIo bocamo vory Iong and somo vorriod llal
llo ROSCA vouId coIIapso boforo lloy lad lad lloir lurn, and lloro voro
somo mombors vlo bribod llo organizors in ordor lo jump llo quouo.
Corruplion Iod lo llo oxpuIsion of somo mombors in 1978 and a spIil in
llo organizalion. In 1995, llo ROSCA sliII oxislod bul lad sixly-!vo mombors
and nov mombors voro nol aIIovod. AIllougl sixly-!vo mombors vas sliII
a Iol, il offorod a donsor nolvork vill moro possibiIilios for sociaI conlroI
and llo parlicipanls voro conlonl vill llo !nanciaI muluaI.
42
Tlo probIom of Iimilod momborslip can bo soIvod parlIy by dividing ROSCAs
inlo sub-ROSCAs. In llo 1950s, Bascom doscribod llo Yoruba-D/'/', Iargo
ROSCAs vill up lo lvo lundrod mombors, vlo voro spIil in four or moro
subgroups vill difforonl coordinalors. Iaymonl vas mado according lo a
syslom of doubIo rolalion: on llo ono land, llo subgroups rolalod and, on
llo ollor land, lloro vas rolalion villin llo subgroups.
43
TabIo 5.4 slovs
in a somovlal simpIi!od mannor lov llis syslom funclionod.
40
A vory simpIo inslilulion knovn as 431"-.7! |. . .j appoars in Norllorn Rlodo-
sia. In ils mosl common form, lvo vago-oarnors agroo lo givo parl of lloir monllIy
vagos lo oacl ollor in lurn, and a man may mako sovoraI sucl biIaloraI agroomonls.
OccasionaIIy llroo mon join logollor in sucl an arrangomonl. |. . .j Il may bo arguod
llal vloro, as is usuaI loro, onIy lvo parlicipanls aro invoIvod, llo lorm 'associalion
is inapproprialo. Hovovor llo oIomonls of rolalion and roguIarily appoar, and llo
oxislonco of groups of llroo parlicipanls slovs llal 431"-.7! may bo rogardod as an
ombryonic form of llo inslilulion. Ardonor, Comparalivo Sludy of Rolaling Crodil
Associalions, p. 207.
41
BosIoy, Coalo, and Ioury, Iconomics of Rolaling Savings and Crodil Associa-
lions, p. 796 nolo.
42
Blro, Monoy and VioIonco, pp. 1556.
43
Bascom, D/'/', p. 64.
:8 . !"#$%&' )*+&
TabIo 5.4
DoubIo rolalion in a ROSCA vill lvonly mombors and four subgroups
Iirsl subgroup Socond subgroup Tlird subgroup Iourll subgroup
1sl lurn lo rocoivo llo killy 2nd lurn 3rd lurn 4ll lurn
5ll lurn 6ll lurn 7ll lurn 8ll lurn
In aII non-rolaling muluaIisl arrangomonls, Iiko SAVAs, ASCRAs, producor coop-
oralivos, and muluaI insurancos, llo silualion is fundamonlaIIy difforonl.
Tloro is no loclnicaI Iimil lo llo momborslip in lloso casos, and lloroforo
sucl associalions can calor lo Iargo groups of poopIo. Ior inslanco, lloro lavo
boon muluaI insurancos invoIving many llousands or ovon lundrods of llou-
sands of mombors. ObviousIy a groving momborslip can Ioad lo probIoms in
coordinalion and managomonl, vlicl usuaIIy rosuIl in a moro formaI, moro
profossionaI and moro buroaucralic organizalion.
A socond imporlanl difforonco bolvoon rolaling and non-rolaling arrango-
monls is llal rolaling arrangomonls aro aIvays Iimilod in limo, vliIo non-
rolaling arrangomonls aro nol. Indood, rolaling arrangomonls como lo an ond
vlon llo cycIo is compIolod. Mosl knovn ROSCAs conlinuod up lo ono or lvo
yoars, aIllougl arrangomonls aro knovn llal vonl on for !vo or lon yoars.
44

In conlrasl, non-rolaling arrangomonls can conlinuo indo!niloIy. Indood, sav-
ings arrangomonls and muluaI insurancos lavo boon knovn lo conlinuo for
docados. Tlo difforonco bolvoon rolaling and non-rolaling associalions is
onIy roIalivo lovovor. As nolod proviousIy, rolaling arrangomonls can aIso
bo mado pormanonl by Iinking sovoraI cycIos, vill llo samo or vill difforonl
parlicipanls. Iinilo arrangomonls can, in ollor vords, bo combinod indo!-
niloIy. In llo caso of an Illiopian ROSCA, llo -6'7, il vas found llal
Tlo -6'7 conlinuos unliI oacl mombor las boon a vinnor, and llon a frosl
slarl is oflon mado. Hovovor, an -6'7 may Iasl indo!niloIy, vill no porson
boing abIo lo vin a socond limo unliI oacl ono las dono so onco. Momborslip
viII romain llo samo llrougloul llo -6'7, unIoss a parlicipanl is unabIo
44
Of courso, llo duralion of a ROSCA doponds on llo numbor of paymonls (llo num-
bor of moolings) and llo poriod of limo bolvoon llo moolings. A ROSCA vlicl comos
logollor ovory vook and las llirloon mombors llus las a lorm of llroo monlls.
/"& 01%1#2*3% 14*+&'3& . :9
lo pay llo fuII agrood conlribulion oacl poriod, in vlicl caso addilionaI
or ropIacomonl mombor(s) may bo admillod. In caso of doall, llo docoasod
loirs, usuaIIy lis vifo or cliIdron, may conlinuo in llo -6'7.
45

On llo ollor land, quilo oflon non-rolaling arrangomonls iniliaIIy lavo quilo
a slorl Iifo span. Savings funds voro, for inslanco, oflon dislribulod among
parlicipanls al llo ond of llo caIondar yoar, or on llo occasion of a loIiday.
Somolimos llo monoy vas squandorod coIIoclivoIy. Tlo Iimilod Iifo span of
llo arrangomonl in sucl casos vas nol so mucl a nocossary consoquonco of
llo loclniquo usod, bul of llo unviIIingnoss of parlicipanls lo savo monoy
for any Iongor poriod of limo.
E%()1(,-() $-*/'/ /43-9'"-9 !""%4!)1%(
Tlo nood for muluaIisl arrangomonls can bo oillor conlingonl or scloduIod.
A conlingonl domand arisos vlon a nood for monoy, goods or Iabor occurs
vlicl is nol pIannod and moslIy unvanlod for inslanco in llo caso of
doall, unompIoymonl, iIInoss, a naluraI disaslor, olc. Tlo muluaIisl arrango-
monls oflon usofuI in llis caso aro accumuIaling funds (SAVAs, ASCRAs) and,
of courso, ospociaIIy muluaI insurancos. Tloro aro lvo kinds of scloduIod
domand: ono-off and rocurring. B1(,"- -T5-(/-/ may for inslanco bo rofundod
for coromonios or parlios, on llo occasion of rilos of passago, sucl as vod-
dings or funoraIs. On sucl occasions, llo individuaIs or lousoloIds invoIvod
aro in aculo nood of a Iargo amounl of goods or monoy vlicl lloy cannol
suppIy by llomsoIvos in a slorl poriod of limo. Among lloso singIo oxponsos,
I incIudo llo purclaso of durabIos and invoslmonls in capilaI goods.
46
In
lis doscriplion of llo Nigorian Ngva, Nvabugluogu gavo an oxampIo of a
muluaIisl associalion vlicl rospondod lo a singIo scloduIod domand:
|M/'/'j oxislod lo provido young mon vill llo casl lloy noodod lo gol
marriod. In pro-coIoniaI Ngva socioly aduIlory vas punislabIo oillor by
45
46
A dislinclion bolvoon coromoniaI oxponsos and consumor oxponsos rocurs fro-
quonlIy in llo Iiloraluro. Kurlz and Slovman, Tanda, p. 72, for oxampIo, vrolo
llal BIuo-coIIar vorkors and lloir vivos uso llo )!(9! primariIy in lvo vays: lo
purclaso consumor iloms llal vouId ollorviso bo unoblainabIo, sucl as cIolling,
oIoclric food bIondors, radios, plonograpls, and llo Iiko and lo !nanco coromoniaI
oxponsos sucl as coIobralions for a sainls day, or lloir cliIdrons birlldays, gradu-
alions, or voddings, vlicl aro as Iavisl as possibIo.
:, . !"#$%&' )*+&
doall or by llo saIo inlo sIavory of llo offonding man. Young mon lriod,
lloroforo, lo gol lloir ovn vivos oarIy in Iifo, bul lloy lad llo probIom of
raising llo monoy lo pay llo bridovoaIll (or 'dovry as il is convonlionaIIy
caIIod in IngIisl llrougloul soullorn Nigoria). Tloso suf!cionlIy aslulo
bogan lo mako roguIar savings from lloir oarnings, kooping llom in llo
cuslody of roIiabIo oIdors. | . . .j Irom llis smaII boginning llo 1/'/' oxpandod
lo bocomo a cIub ombracing llo vloIo viIIago.
47
Tlo socond varianl of scloduIod domand appIios lo *-,'"!*"+ *-4'**1(,
-T5-(/-/, sucl as llo poriodic slrain on lousoloId rosourcos al llo ond of
llo monll. In lloso casos, muluaIisl associalions can aIso provido a soIulion.
In llo vosl of Camoroon, for oxampIo, poopIo sol up SAVAs lo bo abIo lo pay
llo annuaI poII lax.
48
In combinalion, lloso lvo main dislinclions gonoralo llroo famiIios of
muluaIisl praclicos (Iiguro 5.1).
Iiguro 5.1
Tlroo muluaIisl famiIios
ScloduIod - Rolaling Iabor
- ROSCA
- Savings and Ioan
Associalion
Rolaling
- SimuIlanoous aIIocalion
- ASCRA
- Iroducor Cooporalivo
Non-rolaling Conlingonl - MuluaI Insuranco
Mon and vomon lako parl in aII forms, bul il sooms llal rolaling associalions
aro oflon mado up mainIy of vomon, vloroas mon compriso a roIalivoIy Iargo
parl of conlingonl associalions. A salisfaclory oxpIanalion of llis difforonco in
gondor composilion las nol yol boon givon.
49
47
Nvabugluogu, M/'/', p. 47.
48
Bouman and HarlovoId, Djanggi, p. 114. |Rjolaling crodil associalions aro usod
lo savo monoy in ordor lo mool oxpoclod and unoxpoclod noods. Kurlz and Slov-
man, Tanda, p. 64.
49
Soo aIso Ardonor and Burman, >%(-+&A%&I%'(9/.
/"& 01%1#2*3% 14*+&'3& . ::
U3*-!)/ !(9 /-4'*1)+
Iiko any ollor coIIoclivo aclivily, muluaIisl associalions can aIso faiI in many
vays. In ordor lo assoss llo spoci!c naluro of lloso llroals, il is usofuI lo
romind oursoIvos of llo ossonco of muluaIisl funds. In !"" casos, mombors
conlribulo monoy, goods or Iabor lo a slarod fund, from vlicl subsoquonlIy
paymonls aro mado lo somo or lo aII mombors. In /%.- casos, ospociaIIy in
scloduIod non-rolaling associalions, mombors can aIso borrov monoy or
goods from llo fund for a corlain poriod of limo.
Iiguro 5.2
Tlo basic muluaIisl slrucluro
"#$%&'( )*+, -./0#+(

1%.+

Wo can nov dislinguisl bolvoon lvo fundamonlaIIy difforonl kinds of llroals.
IirslIy, lloro aro -T)-*(!" llroals, i.o. llroals againsl vlicl parlicipanls in llo
arrangomonl can do vory IillIo on lloir ovn. Tloso llroals can lako llo foI-
Ioving forms.
50
- >-.7-*/ .!+ (% "%(,-* 7- !7"- )% 9-5%/1) monoy or goods or pay off a Ioan,
bocauso of clangod circumslancos. Tako for inslanco muluaIs in a vork-
ing-cIass aroa, vloro famiIios aro aImosl compIoloIy dopondonl on ono
ompIoyor for lloir incomo. If llo ompIoyor goos bankrupl, llis viII aIso
ondangor llo muluaI arrangomonls in llal vorking-cIass noiglborlood.
- U3- 8'(9 %8 .')'!"/ 1/ )3*-!)-(-9 by vioIonco, in"alion, and so on. In Clina
al llo ond of llo ninoloonll conlury, llo Tai-png roboIIion, vill ils Iong
lrain of sorrovs, and llo conlinuaI faminos and "oods of Ialor yoars in
50
Comparo Ardonor, Womon Making Monoy Go Round, pp. 57.
<;; . !"#$%&' )*+&
Norllorn Clina, lavo londod lo bring Ioan sociolios inlo discrodil, bocauso
oxporionco las slovn llal llousands of porsons lavo pul inlo llom vlal
couId novor bo rocovorod.
51
- IspociaIIy in conlingonl associalions, llo dangor oxisls llal a (!)'*!" 91/!/)-*
%* -4%(%.14 9%2()'*( can affocl an onliro popuIalion, so llal many or aII
mombors of a muluaI domand paymonl al llo samo limo, and llo fund is
quickIy oxlauslod. A friondIy socioly vloso mombors vork in llo buiIding
lrado viII gol inlo lroubIo, for oxampIo, if a rocossion occurs in llo buiIding
induslry vlicl causos unompIoymonl among many mombors of llo asso-
cialion al onco, causing llom aII lo appIy for a bono!l from llo muluaI fund
al llo samo limo.
Aparl from lloso oxlornaI llroals, lloro aro aIso 1()-*(!" llroals causod by
individuaI imporfoclions:
- M(91$19'!" .-.7-*/ 9% (%) 5!+ )3- 9-5%/1) !,*--9 '5%(. Tlo sovorily of sucl
dofauIls varios considorabIy. In rolaling sociolios, il makos a big difforonco
vlollor a parlicipanl faiIod lo pay lor conlribulion boforo slo rocoivod
lor paymonl, or aflorvards. In llo !rsl caso, llo damago is Iimilod, in llo
socond caso, llo ollor parlicipanls suffor a groal Ioss.
- U3- !9.1(1/)*!)%* !55*%5*1!)-/ .%(-+ 1""141)"+ from llo fund, or managos il
badIy. Tlo porson vlo las llo killy in lis lomo is conlinuaIIy lomplod lo
borrov monoy from il jusl for a slorl vliIo. Holzo Ionl nolod llal llis is
nol uncommon in }ava, vloro adminislralors usuaIIy lry lo ropay llo Ioan
boforo llo associalion noods llo monoy. In llis vay, lloir aclions romain
liddon and lloy conlinuo lo lavo porsonaI accoss lo a convonionl sourco for
!nanciaI omorgoncios. Somolimos, lovovor, lloy Ioso conlroI, and llo fund
suffors.
52
- IspociaIIy in conlingonl organizalions, .-.7-*/ .!+ 4"!1. ! 5!+.-() %( 8!"/-
5*-)-(/-/ by simuIaling iIInoss, unompIoymonl olc.
51
Smill, F1""!,- C18- 1( E31(!, p. 157.
52
Ionl, }uggIing Monoy in Yogyakarla, p. 188. Tlis risk is absonl from ROSCAs in
vlicl mombors poriodicaIIy como logollor in porson. As llo killy is (ro)dislribulod
in oacl mooling in llo prosonco of aII llo parlicipanls, llo probIom cannol, in facl,
occur. Tlo facl llal oacl fund, insload of boing kopl by a lroasuror, is immodialoIy
landod ovor lo ono of llo mombors, oxcIudos llo possibiIily of ombozzIomonl. Bou-
man and HarlovoId, Djanggi, p. 112.
/"& 01%1#2*3% 14*+&'3& . <;<
- >-.7-*/ .!+ 4"!1. !(9 *-4-1$- ! "%!( %( 8!"/- ,*%'(9/, faiI lo ropay a Ioan in
duo limo, ropay onIy parl of il, or faiI lo ropay any of il.
MuluaIs obviousIy cannol do mucl aboul -T)-*(!" llroals (Iiko vars, crisos
olc.) as sucl. Al bosl, lloy can in somo casos lry lo mako llomsoIvos Ioss
vuInorabIo by sproading llo risk. IriondIy sociolios, for oxampIo, roducod llo
IikoIilood llal aII mombors vouId suffor llo samo advorsily al onco by moans
of supra-rogionaI amaIgamalion, vlicl onsurod llal mombors camo from dif-
foronl rogions and lrados (soo aIso Claplor 6). And somo ROSCAs doIiboraloIy
lriod lo rocruil mombors vill difforonl oconomic backgrounds.
53

MuluaIs lavo many moro vays of counloring 1()-*(!" llroals. MuluaIs
villin a vory cIoso communily viII suffor roIalivoIy IillIo fraud and dofauIl.
SlirIoy Ardonor poinls oul jusl lov mucl poopIo in llis silualion aro pro-
parod lo do lo savo faco.
54
Tloro aro knovn casos of fallors vlo proforrod llal
lloir daugllors bocamo proslilulos, rallor llan faiI in lloir obIigalions lo llo
IocaI muluaIs. Somolimos, loclnicaI faclors mako fraud moro dif!cuIl. Il is,
for inslanco, no coincidonco llal many muluaI insuranco associalions iniliaIIy
focusod on funoraIs, bocauso il is vory dif!cuIl lo simuIalo doall.
55
Vori!calion
bocomos moro dif!cuIl if llo sociaI bonds bolvoon mombors of a muluaI aro
nol so slrong or, in an ovon moro oxlromo caso, if mombors of a group do nol
ovon knov oacl ollor porsonaIIy. Tlo Iasl caso is roIalivoIy unusuaI, aIllougl
lloro aro sovoraI knovn oxampIos of llis varianl.
56
In caso of asymmolricaI
informalion (vlon llo foundor of a muluaI las insuf!cionl informalion aboul
llo roIiabiIily of a candidalo mombor), procaulions bocomo cruciaI.
In principIo, lloro aro llroo kinds of socurily moasuros avaiIabIo. IirslIy,
lloro aro *'"-/ 8%* /-"-4)1%(: llo llroal lo llo arrangomonl can bo roducod by
onIy aIIoving porsons lo join vlo aro IikoIy lo mool lloir obIigalions. Horo
aro somo oxampIos.
57
53
Anon., 'Iarlnors, p. 437.
54
Ardonor, Comparalivo Sludy of Rolaling Crodil Associalions.
55
Soo llis voIumo, Claplor 6.
56
Kano, CamIoons do Ia !nanco popuIairo, pp. 23f., Bijnaar, Kasmoni.
57
Soo aIso Hocllor, @*1(415"-/ %8 A*%'5 B%"19!*1)+, pp. 1101.
<;- . !"#$%&' )*+&
- D()*+ 1/ 5-*.1))-9 %("+ 8%* 5-*/%(/ 21)3 23%. .-.7-*/ 3!$- (%) O'/) ! !(!(41!"
roIalionslip for inslanco roIalivos, or poopIo vill llo samo ollnic back-
ground, or poopIo vlo vonl lo llo samo sclooI.
58
- D()*+ 1/ 5-*.1))-9 %("+ 8%* 5-*/%(/ 23% !*- (%) "16-"+ )% V91/!55-!*W /'99-("+
21)3%') )*!4-. If llo muluaI las a killy vlicl is moro or Ioss pormanonl, il is
ospociaIIy imporlanl lo !nd an adminislralor vlo is !rmIy liod lo a pIaco
in ono vay or anollor. In ROSCAs in }amaica, for inslanco, il vas a ruIo llal
llo adminislralor slouId bo a porson vill roaI proporly, sucl as a lomo,
and vill a pormanonl addross vloro lo can aIvays bo found.
59
SimiIarIy,
muluaI bono!l sociolios oflon onlruslod lloir killy lo pubIicans or cIorgy-
mon porsons vlo vouId risk a groal doaI, if lloy voro found guiIly of
fraud.
- D()*+ %8 (-20 '(6(%2( .-.7-*/ 5!//-/ )3*%',3 ! )*1!" 5-*1%9 or (in llo caso of
rolaling arrangomonls) puls llom al llo ond of a cycIo, so llal polonliaI
docoil doos IillIo larm.
- N-2 .-.7-*/ !*- /-"-4)-9 %( )3- 7!/1/ %8 )3-1* *-5')!)1%( or lloir good namo,
i.o. vill probabiIislic boIiofs llo ollors loId aboul llo polonliaI mombors
proforoncos, or lloir bolavior.
60
- DT1/)1(, .-.7-*/ !4) !/ ,'!*!()%*/ 8%* 9'71%'/ .-.7-*/. In llo Illiopian -6'7
(a ROSCA), oacl mombor vas obIigod lo suppIy ono or moro guaranlors, vlo
vouId pay in caso of dofauIl, rogardIoss of llo roason vly a mombor lad
faiIod lo mool lis obIigalions.
61
- N-2 .-.7-*/ !*- *-<'1*-9 )% 5!+ !( -()*!(4- 8-- %* 7%(9 lo oncourago lloir
IoyaIly, and/or aro roquirod lo provido a socurily or coIIaloraI for llo Ioan.
>%(1)%*1(, providos a socond moans of socurily.
62
Tlis praclico is ospociaIIy
imporlanl in muluaI insurancos. In lis sludy of muluaI aid sociolios in oarIy
ninoloonll-conlury Iaris, MiclaoI SibaIis slovs lov cIosoIy mombors kopl
an oyo on oacl ollor. On llo ono land, $1/1)-'*/ voro appoinlod, vlo voro
supposod lo visil lloso vlo rocoivod sick bono!ls boll in ordor lo clock
58
Comparo Gordos, Irocursors of Modorn SociaI Socurily, p. 215.
59
Anon., 'Iarlnors, p. 436.
60
IIIis, Ropulalion, pp. 3312.
61
62
Soo aIso llo lloorolicaI considoralions in: Banorjoo, BosIoy, and Guinnano, Tly
Noiglbors Koopor, pp. 492501.
/"& 01%1#2*3% 14*+&'3& . <;5
llom oul, and as an acl of clarily. In llis conloxl, llo arlicIos of associalion
slalo llal Tlo obIigalions of llo visilors consisl of survoiIIanco, bonovoIonco
and lumanily. Tlo inlorosls of llo Socioly aro onlruslod lo llom, lloy slouId
nol mako an oxcoplion for anyono. Somolimos, llo mombor of llo board
rosponsibIo for llo soIoclion of $1/1)-'*/ vas nol aIIovod lo soIocl llom
oillor from among lis frionds, or from among llo noiglbours vlo voro
loo cIoso lo llo sick porson.
63
On llo ollor land, ordinary mombors oflon
sponlanoousIy scrulinizod oacl ollor as voII, as lapponod in 1823 vlon a
socioly of ongravors cancoIIod llo sick bono!ls of a mombor namod ViaIard
vlon somoono spollod lim drunk in a vinoslop.
64
B!(4)1%(/ aro a llird procaulion. Wo can dislinguisl bolvoon oxlornaI and
inlornaI sanclions. In llo caso of inlornaI sanclions, mombors of llo muluaI
mool oul punislmonls llomsoIvos. Il is imporlanl lo knov in llis caso in
vloso dirocl inlorosl il is llal llo ruIos of llo muluaI aro adlorod lo. If aII
llo mombors lavo lo pay for a Ioss logollor, lloy aII bono!l by punisling llo
offondor. Bul if for oxampIo il vas agrood llal llo coordinalor of a ROSCA por-
sonaIIy vouId acl as guaranlor for dofauIl or fraud
65
onIy llal porson las an
immodialo inlorosl in llo punislmonl. In llo caso of oxlornaI sanclions, oillor
of!ciaIs (llo slalo aullorilios) can adminislor punislmonl, or llo Iargor com-
munily (sucl as llo onliro viIIago). Sucl sanclions somolimos lavo a formaI
claraclor, bul lloy aro oflon informaI as voII: in llal caso, llo dofauIlor quilo
simpIy Iosos lis ropulalion, and is lloroforo unabIo lo join a muluaI again. In
llo caso of llo Illiopian muluaI insuranco 191*, any mombors in arroars for
lvo or moro consoculivo poriods may bo oxpoIIod llis novs quickIy sproads,
and an ox-mombor may bo barrod from joining anollor 191*.
66
7/2 +,&,"-$'+8
MuluaIisl arrangomonls voro and aro oporalod around llo vorId. Hovovor,
llo froquoncy of lloir occurronco varios considorabIy, doponding on llo
sociaI conloxl. Associalions vill /43-9'"-9 aIIocalion soom lo bo ospociaIIy
63
SibaIis, MuluaI Aid Sociolios of Iaris, p. 17.
64
Ibid., pp. 167.
65
As in llo 4'(91(!. Soo Kurlz, Rolaling Crodil Associalion.
66
Gordos, Irocursors of Modorn SociaI Socurily, pp. 2156.
<;6 . !"#$%&' )*+&
common in poor counlrios, and among migranls in poor !(9 ricl counlrios.
Associalions vill 4%()1(,-() aIIocalions soom lo bo univorsaI, bul in advancod
capilaIisl counlrios lloy Iosl lloir smaII-scaIo and non-buroaucralic claraclor,
insofar as lloy voro nol ropIacod aIlogollor by govornmonl provisions. Wlal
oxpIains llo popuIarily of muluaIism, or llo Iack of il, in givon sociaI and
lisloricaI circumslancos`
Tloro lavo of courso aIvays boon aIlornalivos for muluaIism.
67
Indood,
anyono vill a corlain dogroo of aulonomy vlo roguIarIy noods monoy, goods
or Iabor can usuaIIy borrov lloso on an individuaI, privalo basis, from ollor
poopIo in lis or lor dirocl sociaI onvironmonl. In llo caso of fairIy smaII sums
of monoy, ono can oflon appoaI lo roIalivos or acquainlancos. In llo caso of
Iargor amounls of monoy, approacling a suporior and asking for crodil vouId
bo llo obvious lling lo do. In aII lloso casos, a roIalionslip of dopondonco is
formod, vlicl can impodo porsonaI froodom and, in llo caso of palronago by
a suporior, couId ovon rosuIl in dobl bondago. Il is lloroforo IikoIy llal, nor-
maIIy, ono vouId onIy rosorl lo llis kind of soIulion if, for somo roason, ollor
soIulions voro nol possibIo.
68
Tloso ollor soIulions faII, broadIy spoaking, inlo lvo calogorios: muluaI-
ism and formaI inslilulions, sucl as banks and insuranco companios. Wlal
faclors pIay a parl in llo cloico bolvoon lloso aIlornalivos` No doubl, an
imporlanl aspocl of llis cloico is llal muluaIism is usuaIIy moro llan jusl a
form of micro-!nanco. Aparl from lloir manifosl funclion of rodislribulion,
muluaIisl associalions usuaIIy lavo a Ialonl funclion as voII: lloy salisfy a
nood for company, and a sonso of communily soIidarily. Tloro is, ospociaIIy
among nov immigranls, a groal nood for cIubs and simiIar organizalions,
bocauso lloy loIp llo novcomors lo adjusl.
69
Gorsky arguod llal in nino-
67
Soo o.g., Smols, Housing Iinanco, Claplor 4.
68
Iorlaps llis aIso oxpIains vly llo imporlanco of palronago in advancod sociolios
las diminislod. Soo aIso llo discussion on llis subjocl bolvoon TloobaId and Korovkin
(TloobaId, DocIino of Ialron-CIionl RoIalions, Korovkin, IxpIoilalion, Cooporalion,
CoIIusion, TloobaId, SurvivaI of Ialronago.). Tlo }ovisl sofl Ioans sociolios in
llo oarIy lvonlioll conlury vlicl providod, villoul a suroly, monoy from poopIo
vlo voro voII-off lo poor novcomors voro a kind of lransilionaI plonomonon,
bolvoon palornaIism and soIf-roIianco. Soo GodIoy, }ovisl Sofl Ioan Sociolios,
Tononbaum, E*-91) )% U3-1* E%..'(1)+.
69
ROSCAs aro vory common among migranls. In Iapua Nov Guinoa in llo 1970s,
ROSCAs voro knovn among migranls in llo lovns as sundaying or forlniglling.
Ono aullor commonls: il is a claraclorislic of llo Iabouring and Iovor incomo groups
from aII parls of Iapua Nov Guinoa, il is nol lypicaI of pubIic sorvanls or ollor
/"& 01%1#2*3% 14*+&'3& . <;7
loonll-conlury Brilain llo goograplic dislribulion of oarIy friondIy sociolios
in aroas of in-migralion and induslriaIizalion suggosls a primary appoaI lo
young incomors vlo lad roIinquislod ruraI supporl slrucluros for llo liglor
vagos of llo lovn, bul Iackod a Ioor Iav sollIomonl or onlilIomonl lo clar-
ily.
70
Mosl ROSCAs aro aIso omboddod in a broador conloxl of sociabiIily.
71

Oscar Iovis romarks aboul llo Moxican vorking-cIass famiIy Gomoz in llo
1950s in lis famous sludy H1$- H!.1"1-/ aro rovoaIing:
Tlo sonso of communily is slrong, parlicuIarIy among llo young poopIo
vlo boIong lo llo samo gangs, form IifoIong friondslips, allond llo samo
sclooIs, mool al llo samo dancos loId in llo palios and froquonlIy marry
villin llo samo $-41(9!9. AduIls aIso lavo frionds vlom lloy visil, go
oul vill, and borrov from. Groups of noiglbors organizo raffIos and
)!(9!/ (informaI muluaI savings and crodil pIans), parlicipalo in roIigious
piIgrimagos logollor, and logollor coIobralo llo foslivaIs of llo $-41(9!9
palron sainls, llo Clrislmas @%/!9!/, and ollor loIidays.
72
Tlo sociabIo claraclor of muluaIisl arrangomonls and lloir rools in communi-
lios diffors from banks and insuranco companios in imporlanl rospocls. In llo
!rsl pIaco, muluaIism offors a soIulion lo poopIo vlo Iack llo viII lo savo
a corlain amounl of monoy or goods on lloir ovn. By moans of muluaIism,
an individuaI may roacl vlal }on IIslor caIIod imporfocl ralionaIily: an
individuaI rocognizos lis or lor ovn voaknoss, and voIunlariIy appoaIs lo
oxlornaI compuIsion lo roaIizo vlal lo or slo vouId nol acliovo by lim or
lorsoIf.
73
Aspla Bijnaar rovoaIs lov llis sociaI conslrainl lo soIf-conslrainl
funclions in ROSCAs.
74
In banks and simiIar inslilulions, sucl prossuro is oflon
vlilo coIIar vorkors. In a sampIo of 28 vorking famiIios in Iao, 22 loads of famiIy
ongagod in sundaying and in a sampIo of 89 migranl vorkors around Goroka, 59
sundayod, porconlagos 66 and 79 rospoclivoIy. SkoIdon rogards llis as a procoss of
adaplalion: Tlo syslom appoars lo rocroalo in a modi!od form llo cycIos of dobl and
crodil, of oxclango and rociprocily in llo lradilionaI socioly. Il loIps lo inlogralo llo
migranl inlo a nolvork of sociaI rosponsibiIily in llo urban onvironmonl. SkoIdon,
RogionaI Associalions, pp. 2523.
70
Gorsky, MuluaI Aid and CiviI Socioly, pp. 3089.
71
Soo aIso Woissor, P*%)3-*3%%9 %8 >-.%*+.
72
Iovis, H1$- H!.1"1-/, p. 63.
73
IIslor, R"+//-/ !(9 )3- B1*-(/, Claplor 2, soo aIso Do Svaan, M( E!*- %8 )3- B)!)-,
pp. 1445.
74
Bijnaar, Kasmoni, Claplor 4.
<;8 . !"#$%&' )*+&
absonl. An accounl of }amaican ROSCAs (roforrod lo as 5!*)(-*/) iIIuslralos llo
difforonco:
ovory llrovor |parlicipanlj fooIs il lo bo lis mosl imporlanl obIigalion lo
oblain llo monoy for lis llrov. Ho forogoos aII ollor purclasos lo mako
llal paymonl and oxorls slronuous offorls lo !nd vays of oarning monoy.
Wlon a mombor las accumuIalod llo monoy for lis llrov, lo lakos il
immodialoIy lo llo bankor |adminislralorj, so llal lo viII nol bo lomplod
lo spond il in any ollor vay. On llo ollor land, llo govornmonl savings
bank ongondors no sucl prossuro. Tlrovors roporl llal, ovon if lloy pIan
lo doposil a corlain amounl in llo bank oacl vook, il is aImosl impossibIo
lo do so. Tloir rosourcos aro so smaII in comparison vill lloir noods llal
lloy aIvays soo somolling llal lloy nood dosporaloIy on lloir vay lo llo
bank vill llo monoy and, moro oflon llan nol, spond il and novor gol lo
llo bank.
75
A socond difforonco is llal muluaIisl associalions aro oflon psycloIogicaIIy
and/or praclicaIIy moro accossibIo llan banks: of!ciaI inslilulions aro somo-
limos Iocalod al a groal dislanco, and ono las lo bo proparod lo mako a Iong
journoy lo visil llom, banks roquiro a suroly or guaranlor for a Ioan, vliIo
muluaIisl arrangomonls nood nol do so in mosl casos, bocauso llo parlicipanls
knov oacl ollor porsonaIIy, of!ciaI inslilulions aro imporsonaI and formaI,
vloroas muluaIisl associalions aro porsonaI and informaI,
76
of!ciaI inslilu-
lions somolimos oporalo considorabIo !nanciaI or IogaI barriors.
77
In llo procoss of oxpanding lloir oporalions, banks and insuranco com-
panios bocamo incroasingIy inloroslod in Iargo groups of smaII savors, and
lloy mado moro allompls lo Iovor lloir !nanciaI barriors, in compolilion
vill muluaIisl arrangomonls. In somo casos, banks sol up lloir ovn savings
associalions. Tlo so-caIIod Clrislmas CIubs, vlicl sproad across llo Unilod
Slalos from 1909 onvards, aro an oxampIo. Tloso cIubs voro adminislorod
75
Anon., 'Iarlnors, p. 439. Anollor advanlago of ROSCAs is llal aflor llo monoy
lad boon conlribulod, ono couId nol villdrav monoy on impuIso, as couId bo dono
from a bank or buiIding socioly accounl. Burman and Iombolo, BuiIding Nov
RoaIilios, p. 41.
76
Bouman and HarlovoId, Djanggi, pp. 1156.
77
In Iapua Nov Guinoa, for inslanco, llo coIoniaI aullorilios lad, for a Iong limo,
Iaid dovn roslriclions on llo accoss of Clinoso migranls lo banks. According lo
Clinoso informanls, llo !rsl bank Ioan vas nol granlod lo a Clinoso unliI llo 1950s.
Wu, To KiII Tlroo Birds Will Ono Slono, pp. 5701.
/"& 01%1#2*3% 14*+&'3& . <;9
by banks llo mombors voro supposod lo conlribulo a smaII sum of monoy
for !fly consoculivo vooks, on vlicl lloy rocoivod a smaII inlorosl. On 10
Docombor, llo !naI sum vas paid. Tlo banks rogardod lloir Clrislmas CIubs
as an advorlising undorlaking, llrougl vlicl many vago oarnors vlo lad
aImosl no knovIodgo of banking aclivilios couId bo famiIiarizod vill Iargo
savings and crodil inslilulions.
78
In spilo of sucl allompls, commorciaI banks and insuranco companios novor
compIoloIy von llo compolilion vill muluaIism ovoryvloro. Ivon if formaI
inslilulions succood in Iovoring lloir psycloIogicaI and praclicaI barriors for
onlry, and ovon if lloy provido a subslilulo for llo sociaI conslrainl, muluaI-
isl arrangomonls oflon romain nol onIy moro salisfying, bul aIso cloapor and
moro praclicaI llan lloir commorciaI counlorparls, for llo simpIo roason llal
lloir porsonaI and sociabIo claraclor usuaIIy moans Iovor lransaclion cosls.
79
78
Crosgravo, Clrislmas CIubs.
79
VoIImor, Warum gibl os (immor nocl) Krodilgonossonsclaflon`.
!"#$%&' )*+
!"#"$% '()"*$(+,
Insocurily is a slrucluraI foaluro of aImosl aII subaI-
lorn vorkors Iivos. Bul llo kinds of risks lo vlicl
lloy aro oxposod can diffor groalIy. ClalloI sIavos
confronl lvo main kinds of llroals: lloy can oillor bo
punislod plysicaIIy, Iockod up, or slarvod (or ovon
lorlurod, muliIalod and kiIIod), or, lloy and/or lloir
Iovors or Iovod onos can bo rosoId lo anollor ovnor.
Againsl lloso llroals no insuranco is possibIo al
mosl carofuIIy managing roIalionslips or rosislanco
of somo kind can offor a vay oul. Tlo lousoloIds
of froo vago vorkors, soIf-ompIoyod vorkors and
ollor roIalivoIy aulonomous vorkors ballIo vill
quilo difforonl dangors. Incomo may bo roducod
by llo doall of a broadvinnor, roliromonl, unom-
pIoymonl, lomporary sicknoss, accidonlaI injury, or
disabiIily. Ivon llo rosourcos of prosporous louso-
loIds
1
lavo novor boon abIo lo componsalo fuIIy for
lloso lypos of roduclions in incomo. In llo absonco
of a good sociaI socurily syslom, lousoloIds nood lo
sook oul ollor moans of proloclion from sucl risks.
SovoraI survivaI slralogios aro possibIo. Doponding
1
I foIIov AIan DavIoys four calogorios of incomo: pctcri (llo condilion of
paupors, onliroIy dopondonl on clarily), suosisicncc (llo condilion of poopIo vlo
oarnod a Iiving vago and couId, lloroforo, spond smaII porlions of lloir incomo for llo
onjoymonls of Iifo and in !usl limos accumuIalo savings or polly proporly loIdings),
prcspcrii (llo condilion of poopIo vloso incomos onabIod llom lo mako signi"canl
cloicos aboul vlal lo purclaso), and cpu|cncc (llo condilion of lloso vlo couId
spond according lo vlim). DavIoy, C|.ss .n! Ccmmunii, pp. 1678.
,,- . !"#$%&' )*+
on circumslancos, il is possibIo lo appoaI lo clarily, frionds, and acquainlancos,
or lo a sociaI suporior vill vlom ono las a palron-cIionl roIalionslip.
2
Aparl from or insload of lloso informaI mollods, llo nood may ariso for
a difforonl, moro organizod form of proloclion: insur.ncc. Tlo ossonco of insur-
anco Iios in llo oIiminalion of risk of Iossos for oacl lousoloId, by combining
a Iargor numbor of simiIarIy oxposod lousoloIds vlo oacl conlribulo lo a
common fund promium paymonls, suf"cionl lo mako good llo Ioss causod
any ono lousoloId. Tlo oconomic funclion of insuranco is nol llo oIiminalion
of risk or Ioss as sucl, bul rallor llo subslilulion of a knovn smaII for an
uncorlain Iargo Ioss.
3
A gonoraI do"nilion of muluaI insuranco sociolios is: .sscci.iicns |crmc! tc|-
uni.ri| |cr i|c purpcsc c| prcti!ing i|cir mcmocrs uii| !n.nci.| .ssisi.ncc in c.sc
c| ncc!. Sucl sociolios lavo aIvays oxislod in somo or ollor form.
4
Tlis claplor
focusos on muluaI insuranco sociolios of vlicl llo mombors (llo insurod) aro
prodominanlIy ucr|crs (arlisan journoymon, vago oarnors, olc.) u|c m.n.gc
i|c |un! i|cmsc|tcs. Tlo criloria for sociolios considorod loro oxcIudo noillor
mombors oulsido llo proIolarial, nor donalions from oulsido sourcos (sucl as
llo slalo or Ioading pliIanllropisls) lo llo common fund.
5
2
Ior an onumoralivo doscriplion of lousoloId survivaI slralogios, soo: van dor
Iindon, Inlroduclion, pp. 79.
3
Manos, Insuranco.
4
MuluaI insuranco is by no moans oxcIusivoIy a producl of modornily, nor is il
roslriclod lo llo vorking cIassos. In Ancicni |ccncm, p. 81, Mosos IinIoy monlions
innumorabIo IillIo bonovoIonl sociolios, commonIy organizod by lrado or occupalion,
llal muslroomod in llo cilios and lovns of anliquily, ospociaIIy in llo HoIIonislic
vorId and llo Roman Impiro |. . .j. In Rcm.n Scci.| Rc|.iicns, pp. 789, Ramsay Mac-
MuIIon usos slalulos lo rovoaI llo oxislonco of a simiIar organizalion in llo Roman
lovn of Iavinium in A.D. 136: Tloso vlo visl lo mako lloir monllIy conlribulions
lovard buriaI may onlor llis associalion, llougl, undor guiso of llis associalion, lloy
may nol mool logollor moro llan onco a monll. |. . .j Wloovor vislos lo onlor llis
associalion musl conlribulo an inilialion foo of 100 soslorcos and an amplora of good
vino. If anyono of llis associalion slaII dio vliIo in good slanding, 300 soslorcos slaII
bo aIIollod from llo lroasury, from vlicl sum for funoraI oxponsos 50 soslorcos slaII
bo aIIollod lo bo dividod up al lis pyro, and llo funoraI procossion slaII procood
on fool. |. . .j Irosidonls of dinnors in rolalion of momborslip, four in numbor, slaII
provido, oacl ono, an amplora of good vino, Ioavos of broad (cosl, 2 .sscs for llo
numbor of porsons in llo associalion, four sardinos |for oacl momborj, furnislings
of llo labIo, lol valor, and vailors.
5
Il slouId bo nolod llal somo nominaI muluaI insuranco sociolios voro nol
roaIIy muluaI insuranco sociolios. ClarIos Gamba roporls, llal in MaIaya aflor 1928
lloro vas an incroaso in llo numbor of sociolios somo of vlicl voro do"niloIy lrado
unions in facl llougl nol in namo. Of llo ninoly ompIoyoos giIds rogislorod undor
llo Sociolios Ordinanco boforo WorId War II, lvonly-lvo voro oslabIislod during llo
/0%0#1 *230'#24& . ,,,
Workors muluaI insuranco sociolios may bo oillor diroclIy-domocralic or
buroaucralic. ClarIos Borgquisls doscriplion of !||.rmcnic.s among nilralo
vorkors in norllorn CliIo around 1900 convoys llo cuIluro of diroclIy-
domocralic sociolios:
Horo vorkors laugll llomsoIvos lov lo pIay musicaI inslrumonls and
Ioarnod lo danco. Somo "Ilarmnicas aIso offorod nigll cIassos in oIomonlary
oducalion. Tlo quiol docorum of lloso cuIluraI oasos llal vorkors con-
slruclod lo dovoIop lloir minds and sociaI skiIIs slood in slark conlrasl
lo llo noisy, plysicaIIy oxlausling onvironmonl lloy vorkod in, and llo
Ioud and bavdy almosploro of llo bars and brolloIs vloro lloy sougll
roIoaso from llo roaIily of lloir vorking Iivos. AIcoloI vas prolibilod in
llo "Ilarmnicas, and ovon llo aII-maIo danco inslruclion procoodod in an
almosploro of groal soriousnoss and formaIily. A sympallolic middIo-cIass
journaIisl roaclod vill a mixluro of condosconsion and avo lo lis danco
vill a voII-vaslod, formaIIy allirod mombor of a "Ilarmnica in 1904. 'My
parlnor vas oxlromoIy poIilo, and possossod of sucl slrong muscIos, llal
insload of my Ioading lor, slo Iod mo as if I voro a foallor. Somo of
lloso cIubs voro quilo Iargo, vill momborslips of sovoraI lundrod vorkors
al llo Iargor o"cinas. Workors conlribulod lvo lo "vo posos monllIy lo
muluaI-aid funds adminislorod by "Ilarmnicas and by sporls and drama
cIubs. Tloso funds voro usod lo suslain injurod and sick mombors, lo pay
funoraI oxponsos, and lo loIp supporl vorkors famiIios for a slorl poriod
foIIoving llo doall of a mombor.
6
Dircci|-domocralic sociolios aro proloclivo organizalions vlicl aim lo com-
bino sociaI insuranco vill sociabiIily, omplasizing boll maloriaI and cuIluraI
soIf-prosorvalion. Burc.ucr.iic sociolios diffor in llal lloy sorvo no sociabiIily
funclion. AIllougl llo mombors do of"ciaIIy run lloir organizalion, mom-
borslip is so Iargo (llousands, or ovon lundrods of llousands) llal mombors
do nol knov oacl ollor porsonaIIy, and pay lloir duos anonymousIy, by
maiI or lo a coIIoclion agonl.
Bocauso pooror vorkors lousoloIds faco a pIollora of risks, and lardIy
ovor lavo suf"cionl moans lo purclaso comprolonsivo insuranco, lloy lavo
four yoars procoding May 1941, and voro knovn undor llo lilIo of MuluaI insuranco
Sociolios. Gamba, Origins c| 1r.!c Unicnism in M.|.., p. 4.
6
Borgquisl, I.ocr in I.iin Amcric., p. 46.
,,5 . !"#$%&' )*+
lo soIocl llo risks mosl imporlal lo llom. Il appoars llal llis soIoclion vas
raroIy basod on puroIy oconomic faclors.
7
GonoraIIy lvo slops voro invoIvod
in solling priorilios. IirslIy, moaningfuI orionlalions sorvod lo oslabIisl basic
guidoIinos. Noxl, docisions voro lakon on llo basis of ralionaI oconomic fac-
lors. Tlus, during llo Viclorian ora in Groal Brilain for oxampIo, vorkors
focusod on funoraI insuranco, and in llis vay managod lo arrango improssivo
funoraIs: IunoraIs voro pubIic ovonls, and llo vays lloy voro conduclod
ro!oclod on llo slalus and osloom of llo famiIy. Sicknoss, on llo ollor land,
vas a privalo sufforing, and modicaI allonlion vas a privalo bono"l |. . .j, so
modicaI insuranco lad a Iovor posilion on llo Iisl of insuranco oxpondiluro
priorilios.
8
IoIIoving llis proIiminary soIoclion on llo basis of rospoclabiIily, sub-
soquonl docisions londod lo bo oconomic in naluro. Ior oxampIo, if llo Iifo
oxpoclancy of vorkors vas rallor slorl, il mado sonso lo omplasizo loaIll
insuranco ovor oId-ago annuilios. In llo 1880s, }.M. IudIov oxpIainod: a
young man from 18 lo 21, vlo vanls lo do llo bosl lo can for limsoIf and for
ollors in Iifo, las mucl bollor usos lo pul lis monoy lo llan by providing for
limsoIf on llo conlingoncy of lis roacling 60 or 70 yoars of ago. I llink llal
Ialor on, vlon lo marrios and vlon lo las gol cliIdron aboul lim, lo sliII
las mucl bollor purposos lo vlicl lo can appIy lis monoy.
9
Tlis docision-
making procoss boars a romarkabIo rosombIanco lo soIoclion in many ollor
silualions. Il is parlicuIarIy slriking llal across vory difforonl cuIluros vork-
ors aII allaclod groal imporlanco lo digni"od funoraIs.
-)#$.%')/0,(#
Momborslip soIoclion for muluaI insuranco sociolios can bo basod on a vari-
oly of sociaI calogorios. Workors lavo organizod muluaI insuranco accord-
ing lo lloir occupalion, pIaco of rosidonco, noiglborlood, ollnicily, roIigion,
lomporanco, or a combinalion of any of lloso. Mosl muluaI insuranco sociolios
7
Ior a gonoraI anaIysis of llis plonomonon, soo SalIins, Cu|iurc .n! Pr.ciic.|
Rc.scn.
8
}olnson, S.ting .n! Spcn!ing, pp. 86 and 436.
9
MaxvoII Commilloo, 188485, X (270), q. 1458, quolod in }olnson, S.ting .n!
Spcn!ing, p. 83.
/0%0#1 *230'#24& . ,,6
aIso oxcIudod poopIo from momborslip according lo lloir ago and gondor,
as I viII doscribo Ialor.
Tlo foundors of muluaI insuranco sociolios voro nol nocossariIy liglIy
skiIIod vorkors. }oln IIiffo roporls llo foIIoving aboul llo slorl-Iivod African
Iabour Union oslabIislod by immigranl casuaI Iaborors in llo porl of Dar-os-
SaIaam in 1937:
|Tlo organizalionj lad 32 mombors in Augusl 1937 and 40 by Soplombor.
Tlo idoa lad como from llroo mombors vlo lad soon simiIar organisalions
in Soull Africa. Tlo unions ruIos provido a picluro of vlal vork in llo
porl and Iifo in llo lovn moanl lo llo inloIIigonl immigranl Iabouror. Iirsl,
llo union vas moanl lo bo a communily. Il vas lo buiId a cIub louso vloro
llo mombors couId mool lvico a monll lo discuss lloir affairs. |. . .j Tlo
subscriplion vas Sls. 1.50 a monll for commilloo mombors and Sls. 1.00
for ordinary mombors, roIalivoIy ligl "guros bocauso llo union pIannod lo
provido bono"ls for ils mombors. 'Tloy say lloir union is for llo purposo
of loIping ono anollor vlon sick and for buriaI purposos, il vas roporlod,
and llo ruIos promisod llal 'llo union viII assisl any mombor in dislross.
|. . .j Bosidos lloir dosiro for socurily, llo mombors aIso sougll advancomonl.
'Ivory mombor slouId Ioarn lo road and vrilo, llo ruIos slalod, for vlicl
purposo 'llo Union viII ompIoy a loaclor lo inslrucl mombors in roading
and vriling.
10
Tlo dirocl molivo for oslabIisling aulonomous vorking-cIass insuranco carri-
ors couId invoIvo a varioly of considoralions. IirslIy, lloso carriors providod
opporlunilios for porpolualing an oIdor lradilion. Tlis londoncy occurrod
in counlrios vloro guiIds lad oxislod, if sogmonls of llo vorking cIass sliII
romomborod llom, or if lracos of lloso organizalions romainod.
11
SocondIy,
casos of vorkors insuranco from abroad migll sorvo as an oxompIar, vloro
muluaI insuranco sociolios voro knovn lo oxisl in llo counlry of origin.
TlirdIy, lloso sociolios voro somolimos oslabIislod by ollor kinds of vork-
ors organizalions, sucl as lrado unions or consumor cooporalivos. IourllIy,
individuaIs or groups from ollor sociaI cIassos somolimos inilialod llom.
IifllIy, llo slalo couId oncourago or sponsor llo oslabIislmonl of bono"l
10
IIiffo, Croalion of Group Consciousnoss, pp. 556.
11
Soo on llo organizalionaI Iogic of guiIds: Guslafsson, Riso and Iconomic Bolav-
iour, Hickson and Tlompson, Nov Tloory of GuiIds.
,,7 . !"#$%&' )*+
sociolios. IinaIIy, lloso sociolios aIso camo inlo boing sponlanoousIy, oul of
a rocognizod nood for llom.
12
Tlo sponlanoous croalion of muluaI insuranco sociolios foIIovod a simpIo
and IogicaI Ioarning procoss. A ninoloonll-conlury Brilisl obsorvor doscribos
llo dovoIopmonl in lloso lorms: Tlo IocaI buriaI cIubs |. . .j lavo gonoraIIy
arison oul of llo cuslom of sonding round llo lal, on llo docoaso of a foIIov-
vorkman lo coIIocl somolling for lis funoraI and famiIy. Tloy llus commonco
in llo rudo form of a 'Iovy |. . .j. A socioly in llis slago las no accumuIalod
fund |. . .j. Tlo "rsl slop in llo vay of organizalion is lo 'koop ono doall in
land so as lo avoid llo doIay of coIIocling llo monoy vlon il is vanlod and
land il ovor in limo lo mool llo "rsl nocossilios of boroavomonl.
13
123 )'4,)
Tlo diroclIy-domocralic muluaI insuranco sociolios voro liny, voII-run opora-
lions. Tloir momborslip lypicaIIy rangod from a fov dozon lo a fov lun-
drod individuaIs vlo knov oacl ollor porsonaIIy. Tloir primary, manifosl
funclion vas lo roduco porsonaI "nanciaI risks, by accumuIaling a fund for
supporl paymonls in caso of caIamilios, sucl as doall or unompIoymonl. Tlis
claraclorislic dislinguislos muluaI insuranco sociolios from lrado unions (of
12
IillIo las boon vrillon aboul llo aulonomous conslruclion of muluaI insuranco
sociolios. Ono oxampIo, lovovor, is ImiIy Honigs accounl of fomaIo loxliIo vorkors
in Slanglai during llo 1920s and 1930s: Aflor vorking logollor for sovoraI yoars,
six lo lon vomon vouId formaIizo lloir roIalionslip vill ono anollor by pIodging
sislorlood. Somolimos llis simpIy invoIvod going lo a roslauranl, oaling a moaI
logollor, drinking a cup of 'ono-loarl vino and loasling lloir IoyaIly lo ono anollor.
Bocauso Iargo numbors of vomon vorkors voro Buddlisls, il vas moro common for
lloso forming sislorloods lo go lo a Buddlisl lompIo, burn inconso boforo llo slaluo
of a doily, and pIodgo lo bo IoyaI lo ono anollor 'llrougl Iifo and doall. Onco lloy
lad formod a sislorlood, llo mombors vouId caII oacl ollor by kinslip lorms basod
on ago: llo oIdosl vas 'Big Sislor, llo noxl oIdosl 'Socond Sislor, and so forll. |. . .j
Oflon llo sislorloods funclionod as an oconomic muluaI insuranco socioly: in ordor
lo avoid borroving from 'slamp-monoy Iondors vlo clargod ovor 100 porconl in
inlorosl, vomon paid a monllIy 'sislorlood foo. Tlon if ono of llo mombors facod
an oxlraordinary oxponso sucl as a vodding, a funoraI, or an iIInoss, slo couId drav
on llis fund. Sislorloods aIso fuI"IIod a sociabiIily funclion: Mombors of sislor-
loods sociaIizod logollor: lloy vouId gol logollor al ono mombors louso lo clal on
Sundays, lo go vindov-slopping, or lo loar porformancos of IocaI opora. (Honig,
Burning Inconso, IIodging Sislorlood, pp. 7001.)
13
Bovoridgo, Vc|uni.r Aciicn, p. 54.
/0%0#1 *230'#24& . ,,8
vlicl llo main goaI is lo in!uonco lorms of paymonl and vorking condi-
lions) and from broador poIilicaI movomonls.
Non-pormanonl dividing sociolios voro llo simpIosl varioly of diroclIy-
domocralic sociolios: mombors dividod up llo groalor parl of llo accumu-
Ialod fund on a bank loIiday, or ollorviso villin a fairIy slorl limo poriod.
14

Tlo cIubs voro voII suilod lo llo insocuro Iivos of pooror vorkors: if duo lo
unompIoymonl or ollor crisis lloy lad lo coaso conlribulions lloy couId Ioso
no moro llan ono yoars conlribulion.
15
An Irisl roporl from 1874 rovoaIs an
addod bono"l: |Wlonj llo divido limo comos, |llo vomonj Iook prolly slarp
aflor lloir lusbands, and considor llo divido as a godsond. Tloy slick lo lim
vlon lo goos lo drav il, for foar lo migll bo lomplod inlo a pubIic louso and
Ioso il aII. Tlis loIps lo koop llo man slraigll, and llo divido is lo llo foro for
IillIo comforls for llo famiIy. Tlo cliof roason vomon Iiko lonlinos |dividing
socioliosj is llal monoy is paid in and comos back lo llom and lloir cliIdron
vlicl vouId ollorviso bo sponl on drink.
16
Bocauso oIdor mombors voro moro IikoIy llan youngor onos lo faII iII or dio,
division of funds oflon onlaiIod an agoing momborslip for dividing sociolios.
If llo dividond faIIs, llo socioly Iosos in allraclivo povor, il is unIikoIy lo gol
nov mombors, uIlimaloIy dvindIos and dios. If llo dividond is kopl up by
rocruiling nov bIood, llis moans llal llo youngor mombors, slaring oquaIIy
vill llo oId, viII gol a smaIIor annuaI dividond llan lloy couId gol by form-
ing a procisoIy simiIar nov socioly of lloir ovn. Soonor or Ialor llo young
mombors, or lloso invilod lo bocomo young mombors, viII roaIizo llis.
17
Susponding roguIar dislribulion of porlions of llo accumuIalod fund Iod
lo a lransilion lo moro pormanonl forms of insuranco. Somolimos rosorvo
funds voro simpIy slorod in boxos, bul lloy migll aIso bo doposilod in bank
accounls, or usod for Ionding purposos, invoslmonls, or ovon spocuIalion.
Tlo scccn! m.ni|csi |unciicn of oarIy muluaI insuranco sociolios vas, as mon-
lionod abovo, sociaI rallor llan "nanciaI. Tloir smaII momborslip sizo mado
lloso associalions idoaI for onjoying llo company of ollors. Mombors baskod
14
Gosdon, Iricn!| Scciciics in |ng|.n!, p. 57.
15
Tlano, Icun!.iicns c| i|c Wc||.rc Si.ic, p. 30.
16
Iricn!| .n! Bcnc!i Bui|!ing Scciciics Ccmmissicn. Rcpcris c| i|c Assisi.ni Ccmmis-
sicncrs, |rc|.n! .n! W.|cs (uii| Mcnmcui| .n! Hcrc|cr! |Brilisl IarI. Iapors, 1874 (995),
XXIII, Iarl 2j, p. 28. Quolo in BuckIoy, 'On llo CIub, pp. 501.
17
Bovoridgo, Vc|uni.r Aciicn, p. 43.
,,9 . !"#$%&' )*+
in varmll and rospocl among lloir poors al vookIy, bivookIy, or monllIy
gallorings, vloro an almosploro of comradoslip, soIidarily, unily and
ovon brollorIy Iovo provaiIod.
18
Tlis colosion manifoslod ilsoIf in a varioly
of vays, incIuding drinking bouls, roIigious coIobralions, parados, dancos, or
sporling ovonls. Many sociolios pursuod liglor ambilions and lriod lo onricl
lloir mombors profossionaI knovIodgo, roIigiosily, or poIilicaI invoIvomonl.
Somolimos lloy sol up smaII Iibrarios for llis purposo.
19
5'($(+,)
Hov did muluaI insuranco sociolios organizo lloir "nancos` In addilion lo
roguIar conlribulions, lloir incomo couId incIudo onlranco foos (payabIo by
nov mombors lo componsalo for llo facl llal lloy lad nol paid promiums
in llo pasl), "nos if a mombor faiIod lo compIy vill any of llo ruIos (sucl
as nol allonding a coIIoaguos funoraI or a mooling or rofusing lo porform
rolaling managoriaI dulios), donalions from nolabIos and inslilulions sucl
as roIigious congrogalions, and govornmonl subsidios.
Ixponsos consislod of paymonls duo in llo ovonl of a mombors doall or
iIInoss, ollor cosls associalod vill supporl bono"ls (sucl as doclors foos and
modicalion), ovorload (romunoralion of board mombors), sociabiIily (dancos,
drinks, and llo Iiko), possibIo dividonds payabIo lo mombors, and laxos.
18
SibaIis, MuluaI Insuranco Sociolios of Iaris,p. 25.
19
Il is slriking lov mucl llo oxprossions of sociabiIily can vary. Masonic Ianguago
and riluaIs voro prominonl in Brilain and ils (formor) coIonios AuslraIia, Canada, Iro-
Iand, Nov ZoaIand, and llo Unilod Slalos, bul lloir in!uonco doos nol appoar lo lavo
boon imporlanl oIsovloro. No convincing oxpIanalion is curronlIy avaiIabIo for llis
prosonco or absonco. Iorlaps parl of llo oxpIanalion is llal froomasonry in llo Brilisl
Impiro al an oarIior slago vas mucl Ioss roslriclod lo llo uppor cIassos, in conlrasl lo
ollor rogions. Soo CIark, Briiis| C|uos .n! Scciciics. (Tlanks lo }aap KIooslorman for
llis llougll.) Mary Ann CIavson ascribos masonic in!uonco in llo Unilod Slalos lo
llo lomporanco movomonl, vlicl doprivod mon of lloir lavorns (imporlanl mascuIino
sociaI spaco|sj from vlicl vomon voro barrod). Tlo rosuIl vas llo quasi-masonic
Iodgo: Tlo riluaI of llo Iodgo vas, Iiko llo acl of drinking, a riluaI of maIo soIidar-
ily and suporiorily. And llo Iodgo ilsoIf couId sorvo as an oquivaIonl of llo lavorn, a
sox-sogrogalod, maIo-onIy sociaI spaco suilabIo for casuaI sociaIizing as voII as moro
soIomn ondoavors. Tlo fralornaI ordor providod a vay for mon lo compIy vill llo
norm of lomporanco villoul accoding lo llo allack on llo maIo sociaI vorId llal il
couId impIy (CIavson, Ccnsiruciing Brci|cr|cc!, p. 162). WliIo llo oxpIanalion may
bo vaIid for llo Unilod Slalos, il doos nol appIy in ollor counlrios, if onIy bocauso of
llo lromondous imporlanco of pubs lo many quasi-masonic organizalions.
/0%0#1 *230'#24& . ,,:
Tlo oporaling accounl of a muluaI insuranco socioly for a givon limo poriod
(for oxampIo, a yoar) vouId lloroforo incIudo llo foIIoving lypos of onlrios
(Iiguro 6.1):
Iiguro 6.1
Oporaling accounl of a muluaI insuranco socioly
Bcnc!is Ccsis
Inlranco foos Supporl paymonls
Duos Ollor forms of roIiof
Iinos Ovorload
Donalions SociabiIily
Subsidios Dividonds
Ollor incomo (inlorosl, olc.) Taxos
Ollor oxponsos
S.tings
TolaI TolaI
Iov organizalions acluaIIy lad ovory kind of incomo and oxponso Iislod loro.
SliII, llis labIo cIoarIy slovs llo organizalions lad a varioly of moans al lloir
disposaI lo improvo mallors in llo ovonl of "nanciaI dif"cuIlios. VirluaIIy aII
concoivabIo variolios appoar lo lavo boon appIiod, ranging from incroasing
duos (onco or pormanonlIy) and roquosling addilionaI donalions, lo roIaxing
or imposing limo roslriclions on supporl paymonls, and curlaiIing sociabiIily
oxponsos.
6*7$('8$#'3($% )#*,(7#/) $(4 2,$9(,)),)
Tlo slrucluro of diroclIy-domocralic bono"l sociolios lad al Ioasl llo advan-
lago llal mombors knov oacl ollor porsonaIIy. Tloy lad roguIar faco-lo-
faco conlacl, and voro consoquonlIy abIo lo oxorciso rociprocaI sociaI conlroI,
making il oasy lo discovor fraud by mombors vlo faIsoIy cIaimod lo bo iII or
unompIoyod. Tlis advanlago vas ospociaIIy lruo for lloso sociolios in vlicl
aII mombors praclicod llo samo occupalion, or Iivod cIoso lo oacl ollor.
20
On
llo ollor land, lloso oarIy sociolios voro aIso oxcoplionaIIy vuInorabIo.
20
Soo for oxampIo Irovorl, Kr.n||cii .|s pc|iiisc|cs Prco|cm, p. 255, or Badoza,
TypograplicaI Workors.
,,; . !"#$%&' )*+
Ono probIom vas an insu|!cicni sprc.!ing c| i|c ris|s for vlicl mombors
sougll insuranco. Tlo momborslip of many muluaI insuranco sociolios con-
sislod of subaIlorn vorkors ompIoyod in llo samo "oId, or ovon vill llo samo
company. As a rosuIl, aII mombors facod llo samo risks, sucl as unompIoy-
monl, iIInoss, or disabiIily rosuIling from disaslors in llo vorkpIaco (mining
accidonls, for oxampIo). In addilion, buriaI funds oxporioncod sorious lroubIo
vill llo ago dislribulion of mombors of muluaI insuranco sociolios. Irank
Hankins doscribod llis probIom in Amorican buriaI sociolios:
InovilabIy llo uniform Iovy or assossmonl provod vorkabIo onIy during llo
oarIy yoars of a socioly, vliIo llo momborslip vas incroasing al a rapid ralo
and llo majorily of mombors voro sliII young and lloir morlaIily Iov. As
llo avorago ago of llo momborslip incroasod and il vas no Iongor possibIo
lo mainlain llo oarIy porconlago ralo of grovll, llo doall ralo and lonco
llo numbor of assossmonls roso slarpIy. Sinco llis llrov a disproporlionalo
financiaI burdon on llo youngor mombors, rocruiling bocamo sloadiIy
moro dif"cuIl and villdravaIs voro slimuIalod by llo conslanl formalion
of nov sociolios offoring Iovor ralos and as a ruIo promisos of addilionaI
bono"ls. Many !ourisling ordors bocamo insoIvonl, somo morgod, aII voro
compoIIod lo mako radicaI aIloralions in lloir "nanciaI oporalions. |. . . Ofj
llo 3500 muluaI assossmonls formod during llo poriod bolvoon 1870 and
1910, fuIIy 3000 faiIod aflor an avorago Iifo of "floon yoars.
21
Sicknoss bono"l sociolios oxporioncod simiIar probIoms. In 1834, a Brilisl
roporl on sociolios al Borouglbridgo slalod: Tloro lavo boon sovoraI, bul
lloy aro aII brokon up, oving lo llo incroaso in llo cIaims of llo agod, vlicl
lavo dolorrod llo young from onloring |. . .j.
22
Tlo roaI viclims of bankrupl-
cios voro oflon llo oIdor mombors, vlo lad paid lloir duos for many yoars
and voro suddonIy Iofl uninsurod. As muluaI insuranco sociolios lardIy ovor
accoplod nov mombors boyond a corlain ago, il vas virluaIIy impossibIo for
lloso oIdor mombors lo join a nov socioly. Of courso, somo of lloso probIoms
aIso rosuIlod from insuf"cionl acluariaI knovIodgo. Many sociolios drov on
21
Hankins, IralornaI Ordors, p. 424.
22
Rcpcri |rcm His M.jcsis Ccmmissicncrs |cr |nuir .n! A!minisir.iicn .n! Pr.ciic.|
Opcr.iicn c| i|c Pccr I.us uii| |ti!cncc .n! Appcn!iccs (Iondon, 1834), Appondix A,
p. 806, quolod by Birko, SoziaIo SoIbslliIfo, p. 84, nolo.
/0%0#1 *230'#24& . ,,<
a vory Iimilod rango of oxporioncos, and usod caIcuIalion mollods invoIving
rallor odd assumplions.
Iun!s m.n.gcmcni vas a socond sourco of vuInorabiIily for lloso sociolios.
Dirocl domocracy in llo oarIy organizalions invoIvod rolaling llo of"cos for
clairman and lroasuror (somolimos ospociaIIy bocauso of goograplic mobiI-
ily among mombors), vlicl moanl froquonl clangos in Ioadorslip. Sucl a
syslom mado il oxlromoIy dif"cuIl lo dovoIop managoriaI oxporliso.
23
Nor
voro mombors of muluaI insuranco sociolios usod lo managing Iargo sums of
monoy, vlicl oflon Iod lo impropor uso of accumuIalod funds. Bocauso smaII
sociolios moslIy Iackod privalo of"co spaco, mombors usuaIIy mol in occIosi-
aslicaI buiIdings, or in pubs. Moolings loId in pubs (as lloy oflon voro) couId
lovovor lavo nofarious consoquoncos, procisoIy bocauso of llo sociabiIily
funclion of oarIy sociolios. Wlon llo box vas fuII, llo lomplalion of slaring
oul llo monoy vas oflon irrosislibIo. In somo cIubs a llird of llo conlribulions
vas sponl in drink, and as oacl mombor lad lo spond so mucl for llo good
of llo louso al llo monllIy or forlnigllIy cIub moolings, llo induslrious and
abslomious, il vas said, Ioarnod lo drink.
24
Il vas aIso quilo common for llo
porson in clargo of llo casl box lo ombozzIo funds, or simpIy lako off vill llo
monoy. Tlo funds migll bo usod in a Iollory (in an offorl lo incroaso capilaI
quickIy) or Ioanod oul lo mombors vill parliaIily and on dofoclivo socu-
rily.
25
IinaIIy, funds moanl lo covor difforonl risks oflon romainod logollor,
so llal monoy inlondod as funoraI insuranco migll bo sponl lo covor sicknoss.
In addilion, oarIy sociolios froquonlIy ovorslrolclod lloir moans. If llo socro-
lary of an organizalion rocoivod componsalion for lis sorvicos according lo ils
momborslip, pay-ouls migll bo incroasod lo allracl mombors, or nov mom-
bors voro rocruilod indiscriminaloIy, vlicl migll lavo disaslrous offocls on
llo "nanciaI slalo of affairs.
26
23
Mombors voro somolimos ponaIizod for rofusing lo sorvo in rolaling of"cos.
IonaIlios, consisling of "nos (as vas oflon llo caso), couId Ioad lo inoquaIily among
mombors: Bocauso of llo dulios of llo of"ciaIs, many proforrod nol lo sorvo bul lo
pay a "no. Tlis moanl llal onIy llo poorosl mombors sorvod, and lloso couId Ioasl
afford llo Ioss of oarnings llrougl allonding lo lloir duly (llougl lloso dulios voro
nol vory onorous, and visils lo llo sick migll bo "llod inlo dinnor-limo). Tlo syslom
of "nos llus incroasod llo dif"cuIlios of llo poorosl mombors. Irolloro, Ariis.ns
.n! Pc|iiics, p. 29.
24
Goorgo, Icn!cn Ii|c in i|c |ig|iccni| Ccniur, p. 293.
25
Ibid.
26
Irolloro, Ariis.ns .n! Pc|iiics, p. 29.
,5- . !"#$%&' )*+
A llird probIom vas llo sonsilivily of smaII muluaI insuranco sociolios lo
llo si.ic c| i|c cccncm. In limos of oconomic lardslip, lloy lad lo copo nol
onIy vill roducod vago incomo among vorking mombors, bul aIso vill ris-
ing unompIoymonl affocling rogislorod mombors. Boll faclors Iovorod llo
disposabIo incomo of vorkors lousoloIds, and oflon bankruplod llo sociol-
ios during oconomic sIumps. Somolimos, sovoro lardslip drovo mombors lo
Iiquidalo lloir fund, and divido up llo procoods as a form of unompIoymonl
componsalion.
27
In addilion lo lloir vuInorabiIily, oarIy muluaI insuranco sociolios sufforod
from goograplicaI Iimilalions. Tlo mobiIily of journoymon and skiIIod vork-
ors froquonlIy doprivod llom of lloir onlilIomonl lo momborslip bono"ls
vlon lloy movod avay, or oIso forcod llom lo mako compIicalod arrango-
monls lo conlinuo paying duos in lloir formor pIaco of rosidonco.
28
If lloy foII
iII, lloso mombors vouId rocoivo paymonls from lloir oId brancl, and vouId
lavo lo undorgo modicaI lroalmonl al lloir formor pIaco of rosidonco as voII.
:;!%'$#'3(
Af"Iialion providod a parliaI soIulion lo llo vuInorabiIily and goograplicaI
Iimilalions of muluaI insuranco sociolios. Il moanl llal Iooso lios voro oslab-
Iislod vill ollor, simiIar sociolios on an inlorcommunaI or nalionaI (and
occasionaIIy ovon inlornalionaI) basis. Tlo abundanco of quasi-Masonic orga-
nizalions in AngIo-Saxon counlrios (sucl as llo Mancloslor OddfoIIovs) is
an oxampIo of sucl af"Iialion. Bocauso af"Iialion did nol affocl llo oporalions
of smaII branclos, convonlionaI sociaI praclicos romainod inlacl. Af"Iialion
aIso faciIilalod insuranco for mobiIo mombors, by making il possibIo for IocaI
branclos lo sollIo lloir accounls vill oacl ollor:
27
Wlon lrado vas poor and llo mombors of sucl an associalion couId nol gol
onougl lo oal il vas obvious llal a common fund accumuIalod oslonsibIy for somo
ollor purposo musl bo usod lo provido llom vill somo sorl of roguIar 'doIo unliI
lrado improvod. Gosdon, Iricn!| Scciciics, p. 55.
28
Tlal IocaI muluaI insuranco sociolios couId mainlain llomsoIvos ovon vill liglIy
mobiIo vorkors is slovn by llo oxampIo of llo Unin Marl-Macoo, an organizalion
foundod in 1904 by Afro-Cuban cigar makors in Tampa, IIorida. Soo Groonbaum,
Iconomic Cooporalion.
/0%0#1 *230'#24& . ,5,
arrangomonls voro oasiIy mado for a man lo pay lis conlribulions inlo a
brancl in lis nov IocaIily and lo rocoivo lis bono"ls from llal brancl. Tlo
dobls llus croalod bolvoon llis IocaI brancl and llo brancl in lis lomo
lovn of vlicl lo romainod a mombor couId bo sollIod by lloir brancl
of"cors. Tlo groal advanlago of llis arrangomonl vas llal llo mombor
couId avaiI limsoIf of llo faciIilios of a IocaI Iodgo and llo sorvicos of a IocaI
doclor, paid for uIlimaloIy by lis ovn Iodgo. Tlis doclor vouId nol onIy
loaI lis iIInossos bul vouId aIso, and imporlanlIy, corlify lis onlilIomonl
lo bono"l.
29
In addilion, af"Iialion mado il possibIo for branclos in "nanciaI dif"cuIlios
lo roquosl aid from ollor branclos.
Af"Iialod Ordors oxporioncod llo adminislralivo probIoms of llo IocaI soci-
olios al a liglor IovoI. Tloy couId opl lo sol up a main of"co vill a pormanonl
managoriaI slaff, or lo rolalo conlraI managomonl funclions among difforonl
branclos, as a form of dirocl domocracy. Boll mollods voro usod in prac-
lico, aIllougl unsurprisingIy llo "nanciaI affairs of organizalions llal rolalod
managomonl lypicaIIy ran Ioss smoollIy llan llo affairs of sociolios llal sol
up main of"cos vill pormanonl managors.
30
<3=,*$7, >*3.%,0)
In somo casos (ospociaIIy in advancod capilaIisl counlrios), muluaI insuranco
sociolios acliovod slabiIily and ovorcamo llo probIoms facing oxcIusivoIy
IocaI organizalions, llrougl nalionaI fodoralion and (parliaI) conlraIizalion.
NovorlloIoss, lvo fundamonlaI probIoms porsislod.
Tlo "rsl probIom vas llal a Iargo proporlion of llo Iaboring poor romainod
uninsurod, ovon in counlrios vill liglIy soplislicalod sysloms of muluaI
insuranco. On llo ono land, sogmonls of llo vorking popuIalion Iivod in pIacos
boyond llo roacl of muluaI insuranco sociolios.
31
On llo ollor land, lloro is a
29
BuckIoy, 'On llo CIub, p. 54: soo llo roforonco lo Scccn! Rcpcri c| i|c Ccmmis-
sicncrs ic |nuirc inic Iricn!| .n! Bcnc!i Bui|!ing Scciciics, P.ri || (Bril. IarI. Iapors,
1872 (514), XXVI), Q81. Soo aIso Gosdon, Sc||-Hc|p, p. 47.
30
Gosdon, Sc||-Hc|p, p. 45.
31
Il is, of courso, possibIo llal somo vorkors vouId lavo Iikod lo lako oul insur-
anco, bul voro nol inloroslod in llo concurronl sociabiIily roquiromonl.
,55 . !"#$%&' )*+
socioIogicaI principIo, according lo vlicl a syslom of smaII, aulonomous, coI-
Ioclivo provisions gonoraIIy oxcIudos a subslralum.
32
AIllougl llis ruIo did
nol appIy univorsaIIy, muluaI insuranco sociolios aImosl aIvays mainlainod
a llrosloId slulling oul corlain calogorios of undosirabIo poopIo. Tlo main
criloria for oxcIusion voro usuaIIy loaIll, ago, occupalion, ollnicily, roIigion
and gondor. Tlo oxcIudod groups migll lovovor organizo muluaI insuranco
sociolios of lloir ovn (sucl as vomons sociolios, an aroa llal las rocoivod
insuf"cionl allonlion), probabIy again oxcIuding corlain groups. Tloro soom
lo lavo boon lvo main roasons for llis oxcIusion poIicy, corrosponding lo llo
lvo manifosl funclions of llo sociolios:
33
- Ivon if acluariaI principIos voro virluaIIy unknovn, mombors cIoarIy undor-
slood llal oxcIusion of individuaIs in ligl-risk groups vouId improvo llo
sociolys "nanciaI posilion. Mosl sociolios lloroforo rofusod nov mombors
abovo a corlain ago, or roquoslod llal appIicanls undorgo plysicaI oxami-
nalions.
- Tlo sociolios al Ioasl mosl of llom oxprossod (palriarclaI) concopls of
lonor and sociabiIily, and voro unabIo lo copo vill many oxlornaI in!u-
oncos. Iar loo IillIo rosoarcl las boon dono on llo oxcIusionary naluro of
muluaI insuranco sociolios, vlicl voro nol jusl compIoloIy undor maIo ccn-
irc| (as many scloIars lavo nolod), bul aIso froquonlIy mado mon llo soIo
ocnc!ci.rics. MuluaI insuranco sociolios (and ollor forms of insuranco, dis-
cussod boIov) aImosl aIvays providod insuranco covorago for p.i! vork-
ors. Womon and cliIdron voro oflon inoIigibIo for momborslip, unIoss lloy
porformod vago-Iabor llomsoIvos. Tlis praclico lad sovoraI consoquoncos.
Womon voro Ioss IikoIy lo roporl sicknoss llan mon. AddilionaIIy, mon
moro oflon usod llo sorvicos of scionli"c modicino, vliIo vomon and cliI-
dron oflon mado do vill lradilionaI loaIing mollods.
34
A socond probIom vas llal aImosl nono of llo muluaI insuranco sociolios
providod comprolonsivo proloclion againsl .|| possibIo risks facing vorking-
32
Do Svaan, Workors and CIionls MuluaIism, p. 47.
33
Do Svaan ovorIooks llo socond roason, lloroby making il impossibIo lo
undorsland vly vomon, for oxampIo, voro oxcIudod from many muluaI insuranco
sociolios.
34
Irovorl, Kr.n||cii .|s pc|iiisc|cs Prco|cm, pp. 28891.
/0%0#1 *230'#24& . ,56
cIass lousoloIds. Mosl organizalions offorod sicknoss insuranco, or conlainod
provisions for buriaI insuranco, bul ollor forms of insuranco (sucl as oId-ago
ponsions and unompIoymonl componsalion) rocoivod IillIo allonlion. Tlis
nogIocl oxislod parlIy bocauso somo kinds of insuranco (sucl as suporannua-
lion) roquirod moro llorougl acluariaI knovIodgo, and mucl Iargor "nanciaI
rosorvos. Bocauso mosl mombors of llo vorking cIass oarnl rallor Iov vagos,
il vas dif"cuIl lo accumuIalo a Iargo fund.
Had llo insuranco businoss consislod onliroIy of muluaI insuranco sociol-
ios, il vouId inovilabIy lavo Iofl many calogorios of risk uncovorod.
35
Novor-
lloIoss, aII-incIusivo forms of muluaI vorkors insuranco did ovoIvo Ialor on,
for oxampIo in llo Unilod Slalos during llo 1930s.
36

<30>,#'#3*)
MuluaI insuranco sociolios voro raroIy llo onIy insuranco carriors sorving
llo vorking cIass. Compoling inslilulions voro aclivo as voII, in mosl casos.
ObviousIy, lloso compolilors nol onIy doaIl vill sogmonls of llo popuIa-
lion nogIoclod by muluaI insuranco sociolios, bul aIso vill groups covorod
by llom.
1r.!c unicns voro llo "rsl compolilors facing muluaI insuranco sociolios. Many
unions oxpandod lloir coro oporalions (llo slruggIo for doconl vagos and
vorking condilions) lo incIudo oxlra bono"ls comparabIo lo lloso suppIiod
by muluaI insuranco sociolios. Mancur OIsons froo ridor paradox loIps
oxpIain vly lloso oxlra bono"ls slrongllonod unily among union mombors:
if a union couId oblain liglor vagos and bollor condilions for .|| vorkors
(incIuding non-union vorkors), and if union momborslip vas so Iargo llal
individuaI conlribulions voro baroIy a drop in llo buckol, llon individuaI
vorkors oflon did nol rogard il vorllvliIo al Ioasl in llo slorl lorm lo
35
Bovoridgo, Vc|uni.r Aciicn, p. 76 oslimalos llal in 1910, slorlIy boforo llo
NalionaI Insuranco Acl, lloro voro 12 miIIion ompIoyod in llo Unilod Kingdom, of
vlom ovor 4.5 miIIion voro insurod by muluaI insuranco sociolios.
36
A good oxampIo is llo InlornalionaI Workors Ordor (193054), a Iargo organi-
zalion (momborslip roaclod 185,000 in 1947) subjocl lo communisl in!uonco, vlicl
roIiod subslanliaIIy on voIunloor offorls and onroIIod mombors rogardIoss of lloir
insurabiIily. Soo WaIkor, P|ur.|isiic Ir.icrnii, and Sabin, Rc! Sc.rc in Ccuri.
,57 . !"#$%&' )*+
join llo union, roasoning llal lloy vouId bono"l from llo unions acliovo-
monls anyvay villoul joining il. Nol onIy did lloy savo monoy llis vay, bul
lloir ompIoyor migll aIso rogard lloir non-union slalus favorabIy. Tloroforo,
a fairIy Iargo union bono"ling boll mombors and non-mombors vas moli-
valod lo offor various .!!iiicn.| inconlivos, lo incroaso IoyaIly among mom-
bors.
37
IorsonaI sorvicos sucl as insuranco lavo boon an imporlanl moans of
rocruiling mombors for immodialo and langibIo goaIs, vliIo aIso affording
llo union funds and organizalionaI faciIilios vlicl couId bo usod for moro
coIIoclivo purposos.
38
Trado unions vlicl did nol grov oul muluaI insuranco sociolios (in acluaI
facl lloy froquonlIy did) oflon Ioarnl llo lard vay aboul lov imporlanl il
vas lo offor lloir mombors addilionaI bono"ls. Ior oxampIo, faiIuro lo oslab-
Iisl muluaI insuranco funds causod many Amorican lrado unions lo bo dis-
soIvod during llo Ianic of 18739. Unions vill Iargo momborslips, sucl as
lloso of carlvriglls, miIIors, moclanicaI onginoors, brickIayors, quarry vork-
ors, minors and cobbIors, Iosl lloir mombors aflor an oconomic dovnlurn
occurrod bocauso, as a conlomporary Gorman obsorvor nolod, lloy Iackod
llo m.icri.| ocn!, llo monoy lo assisl and prolocl llo sick, llo disabIod, and
llo unompIoyod.
39
In somo casos, an insuranco aclivily vas compalibIo vill
ollor praclicos among IocaI vorkors. In 1916, llo union of raiIvay and slrool-
car ompIoyoos in }ava nolod llal many mombors paid lloir duos irroguIarIy,
bocauso lloy voro nol accuslomod lo Iabour unions llal slrossod slruggIo,
bul rallor lo muluaI supporl organizalions from vlicl lloy rocoivod immodi-
alo bono"ls in rolurn for roguIar conlribulions. Hoping lo allracl nov mom-
bors, llo union lloroforo formod a vidovs fund.
40
Somolimos lrado unions
providod sucl oxlonsivo sorvicos, llal lloy voro aImosl indislinguislabIo
from muluaI insuranco sociolios.
41
37
OIson, Icgic c| Cc||cciitc Aciicn, osp. pp. 723. Soo aIso van Ioouvon, Trado
Unions and llo Irovision of WoIfaro.
38
Croucl, 1r.!c Unicns, pp. 556.
39
Sarlorius von WaIlorslauson, Wcr|crs Mctcmcni in i|c Uniic! Si.ics, p. 197.
40
IngIoson, |n Sc.rc| c| jusiicc, p. 81.
41
Ior oxampIo, soo llo dobalo bolvoon C.G. Hanson and Ial Tlano: Hanson, Crafl
Unions, Tlanos commonl (Crafl Unions), and Hansons ropIy (Crafl Unions |. . .j.
A RopIy).
/0%0#1 *230'#24& . ,58
Ccrpcr.ic |un!s
Insuranco funds oslabIislod by corporalions voro a socond sourco of com-
polilion facing muluaI insuranco sociolios. Sucl funds voro oflon parl of
an offorl by businoss (and armios) lo porsuado ompIoyoos lo slay vill llo
company.
42
Iarlicipalion in corporalo insuranco pIans vas oflon voIunlary,
bul lloro voro aIso many casos of compuIsory momborslip. Sucl covorago
offorod advanlagos lo vorkors, ospociaIIy if ompIoyors conlribulod lo llo
fund, vlicl lloy usuaIIy did. Bul lloro voro aIso major disadvanlagos, in
parlicuIar llo compIolo conlroI of llo fund by managomonl. Managomonl
usod insuranco as a discipIinary Iovor againsl ompIoyoos: if an ompIoyoo
quil llo company, lo or slo forfoilod any rigll lo coIIocl bono"ls, ovon aflor
yoars of paying duos. Moroovor, managomonl oflon lad oxcIusivo accoss lo
"nanciaI dolaiIs aboul llo insuranco fund, so llal ompIoyoos lad no vay
of knoving vlollor llo bono"ls (sucl as llo quaIily of modicaI caro and
llo ralo of componsalion) couId bo improvod.
43
IinaIIy, if a company vonl
bankrupl, ils fund migll bocomo insoIvonl.
In addilion lo mandalory company funds, vorkors froquonlIy sol up muluaI
insuranco sociolios of lloir ovn lo provido suppIomonlary bono"ls. Bocauso
corporalo funds aIvays providod plysicaI oxaminalions and suporvision, il
vas possibIo for lloso suppIomonlary sociolios lo oporalo al a Iovor cosl llan
indopondonl muluaI insuranco sociolios. Workors aIso froquonlIy lriod lo gain
moro conlroI ovor llo corporalo fund. MiclaoI Hanagan corroclIy caIIs llis
offorl a slruggIo for vorkors conlroI: Il vas nol a ballIo for vorkors conlroI
in llo lradilionaI sonso, bul il vas a ballIo in vlicl vorkors fougll lo oslab-
Iisl lloir rigll lo oxisl on a basis llal vouId froo llom from dopondonco on
llo arbilrary vlims of ompIoyors.
44
42
WoIfram Iisclor doscribos llo foIIoving lronds in corporalo sociaI poIicy: 1.
Insuranco for sicknoss, accidonls, disabiIily, and oId ago. Tlis lypo incIudos provisions
for vidovs and orplans as voII as crodil unions. 2. Subsidios lo roduco llo cosl of
Iiving, incIuding spociaI ompIoyoo dvoIIings or sollIomonls, company cafolorias or
rofroslmonl faciIilios, as voII as provisions for loaIll and porsonaI caro ranging from
slovors lo lospilaIs. 3. Training opporlunilios (sucl as faclory sclooIs and lraining
vorkslops). 4. IinanciaI bono"ls, incIuding promiums, bonusos, pro"l slaring and
commission. Iisclor, IioniorroIIo dor bolriobIiclon SoziaIpoIilik, p. 34.
43
Hanagan, AgricuIluro and Induslry, p. 97.
44
Ibid., pp. 978.
,59 . !"#$%&' )*+
Burc.ucr.iic .n! ccmmcrci.| |un!s
Tlo principaI difforonco bolvoon buroaucralic and commorciaI insuranco
funds is llal insurod parlios lad llo uIlimalo say in buroaucralic funds,
vloroas slockloIdors conlroIIod commorciaI funds. NovorlloIoss, llo diffor-
oncos bolvoon llo lvo kinds of funds voro in praclico oflon minor. Mombors
of buroaucralic funds (aIso knovn as coIIocling sociolios) raroIy lad any
offoclivo say in mallors of poIicy. In llo 1940s, a Brilisl obsorvor nolod:
Tlrougl ignoranco or indifforonco or boll, raroIy moro llan a landfuI of
mombors or lloir doIogalos ovor allond llo moolings al vlicl govorning
commilloos slouId bo appoinlod by llom. Somo sociolios numboring lloir
mombors in miIIions issuo an opon invilalion lo aII lo allond llo annuaI gon-
oraI mooling, and llon porlaps liro a singIo laII vlicl vouId accommodalo
5,000 al llo mosl! IndubilabIy llo Managomonl vouId bo surprisod if ovory
ono of lloir miIIion or moro mombors lriod lo forco a vay in.
45
CoIIocling sociolios and commorciaI insuranco companios slarod lvo clar-
aclorislics. IirslIy, lloy boll spociaIizod in funoraI insuranco. UnIiko muluaI
insuranco sociolios, lloy Iackod a sociabiIily funclion, and lloroforo Iackod
dirocl conlacl and muluaI suporvision of mombors. Tlis mado il mucl lardor
lo provido loaIll insuranco. Sicknoss bono"ls aro noloriousIy dif"cuIl lo
manago. UnIoss carofuI suporvision is oxorcisod, mombors aro apl lo 'slay on
llo funds Iong aflor lloy aro roaIIy "l for vork.
46
SocondIy, lloy usod agonls
vlo mado lomo visils lo rocruil nov mombors and coIIocl duos. Il vas llo
coIIoclors lask lo romind llo poIicyloIdor of Iong-run goaIs vlon immodi-
alo "nanciaI prossuros soomod ovorvloIming lo imposod llo sorl of disci-
pIino for saving llal many poopIo couId nol oxorciso on lloir ovn.
47
Dccicrs |un!s
Doclors aIso fuI"IIod a sociaI funclion in corlain silualions, and sicknoss funds
gonoraIIy proforrod lo ompIoy lloir ovn doclors. AIIan MilcloII oxpIains vly
45
Ginsburg, InduslriaI Iifo Assuranco, p. 267. In llis Iigll, il viII como as no sur-
priso llal coIIocling sociolios somolimos bocamo commorciaI insuranco companios.
46
Ibid., p. 263.
47
}olnson, S.ting .n! Spcn!ing, 389. IniliaIIy mombors of coIIocling sociolios fro-
quonlIy paid lloir duos lo llo main of"co by posl (Ginsburg, InduslriaI Iifo Assur-
anco, p. 263). Il is IikoIy llal lousoloIds ran inlo dif"cuIlios vill llis arrangomonl.
/0%0#1 *230'#24& . ,5:
llis vas so in llo caso of Iranco: In a fov inslancos, iniliaIIy, mombors voro
aIIovod lo consuIl any doclor in llo communo or urban .rrcn!isscmcni. Bul il
rapidIy bocamo apparonl llal llo lroaling (privalo) plysician and llo 'con-
lroIIing (muluaIisl) plysician migll disagroo aboul llo sovorily of an iIInoss
or injury, and lloroforo aboul llo sociolys IiabiIily. Ior obvious roasons, llon,
il mado sonso for llo slalo lo roquiro llal llo diagnosis of a famiIy doclor bo
counlorsignod by llo sociolys ovn. AddilionaI foos for privalo modicaI caro
voro normaIIy docIarod lo bo oulsido llo sociolys rosponsibiIily.
48
Difforoncos of opinion bolvoon muluaI insuranco sociolios and doclors fro-
quonlIy occurrod bocauso of con!icling "nanciaI inlorosls. Tonsions mounlod
bolvoon llom vlon muluaI insuranco sociolios incroasod lloir markol slaro
for modicaI sorvicos, roducing doclors bargaining povor. A romarkabIo ovonl
occurrod in llo Irisl lovn of Cork:
Tloro a groving numbor of voaIlly poopIo bocamo mombors of IocaI
friondIy sociolios, llus avoiding llo nocossily of paying lloir doclors foo.
IooIing lloir indopondonco and llo incomo of lloir privalo praclicos undor
llroal, IocaI doclors roboIIod |. . .j. Tlo socioly lloy formod in 1894, llo Cork
ModicaI Bono"l Associalion, vas loclnicaIIy a friondIy socioly. Il vas opon,
lovovor, onIy lo poopIo of modoralo and Iov incomo (maximum 200 por
annum) and vas offoclivoIy run by llo doclors of Cork. Having llus mado
provision for llo poor, lloso doclors llon "xod a ralo al vlicl lloy vouId bo
ompIoyod by ollor friondIy sociolios in llo cily, and lloy rofusod lo accopl
lorms ollor llan lloso coIIoclivoIy agrood amongsl llomsoIvos.
49
?#$#, '(#,*=,(#'3(
GonoraIIy spoaking, slalos can lako oillor a passivo or aclivo roIo in llo aroa
of sociaI insuranco. A passivo slanco moans llal llo slalo doos nol visl lo
organizo sociaI insuranco ilsoIf, and lloroforo Ioavos llis rosponsibiIily lo
ollor inslilulions, providing al mosl IogaI suporvision. Aclivo inlorvonlion
moans llal llo slalo providos sociaI insuranco diroclIy, incIuding for ils ovn
48
MilcloII, Iunclion and MaIfunclion of MuluaI insuranco Sociolios, p. 176.
49
BuckIoy, 'On llo CIub, p. 48. In 1846, a group of doclors in Amslordam oslab-
Iislod lloir ovn sicknoss fund bocauso lloy foIl llroalonod by commorciaI and muluaI
funds. Van Gonabook, Mci tcrccn!c |r.c|i risiccs tcrz.c|i, pp. 18390.
,5; . !"#$%&' )*+
ompIoyoos. In praclico, slalos oflon combino llo lvo approaclos, sucl as in
lodays Unilod Slalos.
In mosl counlrios vlicl oxporioncod capilaIisl induslriaIizalion, llo slalo
iniliaIIy assumod a passivo slanco vill rospocl lo muluaI insuranco sociolios.
IniliaIIy govornmonls onIy sougll lo idonlify and do"no llom IogaIIy (sucl
as in llo Brilisl Rosos Acl of 1793) and lo dislinguisl llom from undosir-
abIo organizalions, sucl as lrado unions. SovoraI concorns, lovovor, oflon
causod llo slalo lo clango ils approacl from passivo loIoralion lo aclivo
inlorvonlion:
- i|c ccn!iiicn c| i|c scci.| insur.ncc sccicr as il dovoIopod and grov, croaling a
povor slruggIo bolvoon compoling insuranco carriors,
- i|c inicrcsis c| i|c si.ic iisc||, incIuding sociaI and poIilicaI slabiIily, inlor-
nalionaI compolilivonoss, minimum oporaling cosls and maximum of"-
cioncy,
- i|c inicrcsis c| ucr|crs, lo onsuro vido covorago and uniform onforcomonl of
sociaI roguIalions adminislorod by llo vorkors llomsoIvos,
- i|c inicrcsis c| cmp|ccrs, lo onforco sociaI roguIalions laiIorod lo parlicu-
Iar markol condilions, modialo businoss compolilion, and roguIalo funds
adminislorod by ompIoyors or spociaIizod privalo associalions.
50
Tloso faclors as voII as many ollors slapod llo difforoncos bolvoon sociaI
socurily sysloms ovoIving in oacl counlry, and consoquonlIy llo difforonl
roIos vlicl muluaI insuranco sociolios allainod in llom. Counlrios vlicl
lriod lo imilalo foroign sociaI socurily sysloms novor fuIIy succoodod,
51
and a
divorsily of nalionaI sociaI socurily sysloms rosuIlod. NovorlloIoss lvo basic
50
Tlorborn, Noo-Marxisl, IIuraIisl, Corporalisl, Slalisl Tloorios, pp. 2245.
51
Various spociaIisls lavo obsorvod llal llo Bismarckian modoI of sociaI insur-
anco las boon unabIo lo funclion adoqualoIy in Ialin Amorica bocauso llo Iabor forco
lloro diffors in composilion from llal of Iuropo. In llo Iallor, saIariod urban vork-
ors roprosonlod a Iargor parl of llo Iabor forco, vloroas in Ialin Amorica llo Iabor
forco consisls moslIy of agricuIluraI vorkors and llo soIf-ompIoyod. In llo roformod
Bismarckian modoI, sociaI socurily is "nancod by conlribulions from llo vorkor and
llo ompIoyor llal aro basod on llo saIary of llo vorkor. Tlo soIf-ompIoyod vorkor
in Ialin Amorica cannol afford lo pay llo ompIoyors conlribulion, and Iov-incomo
agricuIluraI vorkors vlo lond lo bo migralory and lo clango ompIoyors froquonlIy
aro dif"cuIl lo idonlify. Mosa-Iago, Asccni ic B.n|rupic, p. 13.
/0%0#1 *230'#24& . ,5<
oplions voro opon lo slalos pursuing an aclivo sociaI socurily poIicy: lloy
couId oillor inlogralo oxisling insuranco carriors in llo impIomonlalion of llo
slalo sociaI socurily syslom, or nogalo llom by oslabIisling sociaI socurily
sorvicos indopondonlIy.
Gormany during llo Bismarck Ira offors a cIassic caso of ncg.iicn. Bis-
marcks sociaI IogisIalion of llo 1880s rosuIlod from adopling llo principIo
llal llo slalo lad an obIigalion lo provido insuranco, villoul invoIving
oxisling voIunlary funds in llo poIicy.
52
Tlo NalionaI Insuranco Acl of 1911 in
IngIand vlicl oslabIislod compuIsory insuranco arrangomonls vas a lypi-
caI caso of inicgr.iicn. Tlis acl conlraclod llo oxisling IriondIy Sociolios, lrado
union funds, and commorciaI insuranco companios (Approvod Sociolios).
Tlo syslom Iaslod onIy a fov docados, lovovor. Nogalion foIIovod in llo
1940s: Tlo marriago of 1911 bolvoon llo Slalo vlon il onlorod llo "oId of
insuranco againsl sicknoss and llo voIunlary agoncios vill a lundrod yoars
oxporionco in llis "oId, las boon foIIovod in 1946 by compIolo divorco.
53
Inlogralion aIso occurrod in llo Soviol Union during llo 1930s. Wloroas llo
main funclion of lrado unions (llo slruggIo for doconl vagos and Iabor roIa-
lions) vas lakon avay from llom, as parl of llo program of forcod induslri-
aIizalion, lloy voro granlod compIolo conlroI ovor llo sociaI socurily syslom.
Irom llon on, onIy llo grovll of llis socondary form of componsalion for
vork (soIoclivo bono"ls) jusli"od llo oxislonco of lrado unions. In 1948 aboul
ono miIIion aclivo lrado unionisls aIlogollor porformod llo funclions of insur-
anco doIogalos. Tloir lask las boon lo roguIalo IocaIIy aII mallors concorning
invaIid ponsions, sicknoss bono"ls, and so forll. Tlo lrado unions aIso look
ovor llo managomonl of loIiday rosorls, sanaloria, and rosl lomos.
54
6"#+30,)
Tlo discussion so far loIps lo cIarify lisloricaIIy vlal llo oplions of diroclIy
domocralic muluaI insuranco sociolios voro.
52
AII quolos aro from: MilcloII, BurgorIiclor IiboraIismus und VoIksgosundloil,
p. 405.
53
Bovoridgo, Vc|uni.r Aciicn, pp. 801.
54
Doulsclor, Russia, p. 559. Soo aIso RimIingor, Wc||.rc Pc|ic .n! |n!usiri.|iz.-
iicn, pp. 2789.
,6- . !"#$%&' )*+
Wlon slalos look a p.ssitc approacl lo roguIaling lloir oporalions, llo falo
of lloso sociolios dopondod IargoIy on llo compolilion lloy facod from ollor
insuranco carriors. To slay in businoss, muluaI insuranco sociolios noodod lo
bo jusl as of"cionl as lloir compolilors. Tlroo oulcomos voro possibIo:
- MuluaI insuranco sociolios managod lo slay abroasl of compolilors. Tloir
succoss llon inovilabIy Iod lo oxpansion, graduaI buroaucralizalion, and
consoquonlIy llo Ioss of lloir originaI sociabiIily funclion.
- Sociolios proforrod lo rolain lloir sociabiIily funclion, offoclivoIy roducing
llom lo smaII friondIy sociolios llal no Iongor focusod on sociaI socurily.
- Sociolios noillor villslood compolilors and grov in sizo, nor rolainod lloir
sociabiIily funclion, and voro lloroforo ovonluaIIy vound up.
Wloro llo slalo .ciitc| inlorvonod in llo affairs of muluaI insuranco sociolios,
and pursuod a poIicy of nogalion or soIoclivo inlogralion vlicl oxcIudod
lloso sociolios, marginaIizalion bocamo inovilabIo. Tlis silualion aroso in
Gormany foIIoving Bismarcks sociaI IogisIalion: Iunds consisling of voI-
unlary donalions (Hi||s|.sscn) slagnalod and bocamo rallor moaningIoss,
vloroas funds mado up of mandalory conlribulions (Zu.ngs|.sscn) grov
vill llo loIp of govornmonl subsidios and immoasurabIy suporior moans.
55

In IroIand, vloro llo govornmonl nogalod muluaI insuranco sociolios sinco
llo 1940s, llo romaining IriondIy Sociolios bocamo sociabiIily cIubs.
56
If llo slalo look ovor muluaI insuranco sociolios as parl of a poIicy of aclivo
inlogralion, llon oxpansion, buroaucralizalion, and Ioss of sociabiIily soon
foIIovod. Iord Bovoridgo nolod llal, as a rosuIl of llo Brilisl NalionaI Insur-
anco Acl of 1911, IriondIy Sociolios bocamo moro of"ciaI and Ioss porsonaI,
moro of insuranco agoncios and Ioss of sociaI agoncios and llal lloro vas
prossuro lo conconlralo in Iargor unils, Ioading lo disappoaranco of a Iargo
proporlion of smaII sociolios.
57
55
MilcloII, BurgorIiclor IiboraIismus und VoIksgosundloil, p. 406.
56
BuckIoy, 'On llo CIub, p. 57.
57
Bovoridgo, Vc|uni.r Aciicn, pp. 789.
/0%0#1 *230'#24& . ,6,
CIoarIy, il is possibIo for diroclIy domocralic muluaI insuranco sociolios
lo cooxisl vill passivo inlorvonlion by llo slalo, and miId compolilion from
ollor lypos of insuranco carriors. SlouId llal silualion clango, llo sociolios
aro inovilabIy confronlod vill a cloico bolvoon llroo oplions: oxpanding
lloir oporalions, vill llo offocl of buroaucralizalion al llo oxponso of socia-
biIily, marginaIizalion, or dissoIulion.
!"#$%&' )&*&+
!"#$%&'( *""+'(,-./'$
Consumor cooporalivos aro basod on budgol pooI-
ing: sovoraI individuaIs or lousoloIds pay inlo a
joinl fund, usod lo purclaso goods for subsoquonl
dislribulion among lloso individuaIs or lousoloIds.
Bul ovon llo simpIosl cooporalivos can funclion onIy
if llo mombors lavo al Ioasl somo monoy, and can
lavo dirocl conlacl vill rolaiIors or vloIosaIors.
Moro compIox forms furllormoro roquiro somo
organizalionaI froodom. Tlal is vly ospociaIIy froo
vago oarnors, slaro-croppors and soIf-ompIoyod
vorkors formod consumor cooporalivos, and vly
sucl organizalions !ourislod ospociaIIy undor non-
roprossivo sociaI condilions.
1

Somolimos sucl cooporalivos voro inilialod and
run by mombors of llo liglor ranks and cIassos. I
viII rofor lo sucl organizalions as loloronomous.
My primary aroa of inlorosl, lovovor, concorns llo
!"#$%$&$"' cooporalivos, vloro mombors aIso par-
licipalod in llo organizalions docision-making pro-
coss.
2
Tloir vaIuo vill rospocl lo polonliaI mombors
1
Il is concoivabIo llal aIso "%()** Iaborors vlo lad somo monoy, sucl as urban
sIavos-for-liro abIo lo buiId up a nosl ogg (VoIasco o Cruz, IuzzIing Oul SIavo
Origins, p. 218), lad accoss lo dividing sloros, bul I lavo yol lo "nd ovidonco for
llis varianl in llo roIovanl Iiloraluro.
2
NovorlloIoss, nolabIos (o.g. priosls, mayors, judgos, ligl-ranking of"ciaIs) migll
bo onlruslod by llo cooporalivo vill advisory or suporvisory rosponsibiIilios: sucl
arrangomonls onlancod llo organizalions slanding and bono"llod roIalions vill boll
llo aullorilios and polonliaI mombors.
,-. / !"#$%&' )&*&+
is domonslralod ropoalodIy in various parls of llo vorId, from llo IliIippinos
lo Gormany.
3
AIllougl in llo pasl lloro vas a vorIdvido offorl lo propagalo
ono slandard modoI for consumor cooporalivos (llo modoI of llo Brilisl so-
caIIod RocldaIo Iionoors), il novor ropIacod llo ollors aIlogollor, and many
difforonl lypos of organizalions oxisl lo llis day.
4
Tlo nood of vorking-cIass lousoloIds for consumor cooporalivos arisos
from lloir praclico of purclasing consumor goods vill monoy, vlicl may
Ioad lo various probIoms. IinanciaIIy, boll llo slabiIily and llo amounl of llo
famiIys vago incomo may bo insuf"cionl lo purclaso goods doomod nocos-
sary or dosirabIo.
5
If a vorking-cIass famiIys incomo !uclualod and faiIod
(ovon vlon avoragod ovor a Iongor poriod of limo) lo covor cosls, llo conso-
quoncos for purclasing consumor goods voro cIoar:
- Iack of monoy vouId forco sucl a famiIy lo pay proporlionaloIy liglor
pricos duo lo ils inoIigibiIily for buIk discounls.
- Tlo famiIy vas oflon forcod lo roquosl crodil from a slopkoopor or crodil
inslilulion.
- Iack of monoy oflon Iod lo llo purclaso of inforior goods.
- IinanciaI dif"cuIlios migll lompl lousoloIds lo forogo purclasing somo
goods, or ropIacing ollors dospilo voar and loar.
6

ConvonlionaI markol lransaclions gavo riso lo ollor objoclions as voII: con-
sumor goods avaiIabIo on llo froo markol voro somolimos of inadoqualo
3
KorkvIiol, +!%,-! /$)0*)'1 2%,$%', Claplor 2, Gulknocll, Zur InlvickIung dor
inlornon und vorbandsmigon WiIIonsbiIdung, pp. 1689. Consumor cooporalivos
may lrado a broad varioly of goods as viII bo doscribod bul novor compriso aII
commodilios avaiIabIo in a counlry al a givon limo.
4
Tlo Iogondary RocldaIo Iionoors lad formod a cooporalivo in 1844, vlicl incIudod
among ils principIos: ono volo por mombor, ropaymonl of surpIusos lo mombors basod
on lloir slaro in llo saIo, casl paymonls, and poIilicaI and roIigious noulraIily. On
llis subjocl, soo o.g. HoIyoako, 34,)#5634)** 7*!)' $( 8$6$9*)!#,$%. Mombors of llo
inlornalionaI cooporalivo movomonl voro Iong al odds as lo vlicl principIos voro
RocldaIo. Soo o.g., HassoImann, :*';4,;4#* <*) <*"#';4*% =$%'"&>*%$''*%';4!(#*%, pp.
213. Al llo ond of llo 1920s, Valan Tolomianz nolod llal vliIo llo RocldaIo lypo
provaiIod in Iuropo and llo Unilod Slalos, il vas nol llo onIy lypo of cooporalivo.
Tolomianz, =$%'"&*%#*%$)>!%,'!#,$%, pp. 7680.
5
I am using llo lorms lousoloId and famiIy as synonyms loro. WliIo llo lvo
concopls aro nol onliroIy idonlicaI, lloir difforoncos aro nol roIovanl lo my argumonl.
Soo aIso my Inlroduclion.
6
Irinz, ?)$# "%< @,A,<*%<*, pp. 2730.
!0+123&' 400$&'#%5*&1 / ,-6
or unroIiabIo quaIily, or insuf"cionlIy avaiIabIo.
7
Tloso difforonl molivos voro
nol aIvays kopl aparl. Tlo appoaI of llo cooporalivo idoa can oxisl al many
difforonl IovoIs simuIlanoousIy.
8
0$-,12.$3&'#-
Consumor cooporalivos ariso in any numbor of vays. In claplor 5, I indi-
calod lov dividing sloros can bo organizod virluaIIy from scralcl. Tlo
dividing sloro is a rallor obvious invonlion, vlicl appoars lo lavo arison
sponlanoousIy in many pIacos in llo vorId. In llo 1930s, llo so-caIIod cily
cooporalivos omorgod in llo Unilod Slalos, mosl of vlicl voro oslabIislod
vill idonlicaI principIos:
Cooporalivo inlorosl is gonoralod in a smaII discussion group vlicl mools
for from six lo oigll vooks lo llrasl oul llorouglIy llo oconomics, sociaI
pliIosoply and loclniquo of cooporalion. Will llis as a nucIous, llo group
lransforms ilsoIf inlo a cooporalivo buying cIub. SoIocling a Iimilod Iisl of
commodilios, llo mombors pooI lloir ordors and bogin lo purclaso on
a cooporalivo basis llrougl a noarby cooporalivo vloIosaIo or a roguIar
vloIosaIor. A purclasing agonl is soIoclod lo clannoIizo lloso purclasos, lo
buiId cooporalivo inlorosl and lo bring nov consumors inlo llo cIub. Wlon
a suf"cionl voIumo of businoss is buiIl up, llo cIub opons a cooporalivo
sloro. In llis vay a cooporalivo vonluro may bo Iaunclod villoul a Iargo
originaI oulIay of funds.
9
Consumor cooporalivos aIso originalod in ollor vays. In oiglloonll- conlury
Brilain, llo IriondIy Sociolios (muluaI insuranco sociolios for vorkors)
oslabIislod funds for sucl cooporalivos. Acling oillor indopondonlIy or in
7
ObviousIy, aII lloso obslacIos may bo surmounlod in ollor vays, incIuding appoaIs
for govornmonl roguIalion (maximum pricos, quaIily inspoclion, olc.) or iIIogaI aclion
(slopIifling as a form of sociaI prolosl or squalling). Soo van dor Iindon, Working-
CIass Consumor Iovor, and claplor 10 of llis book. IoIilicaI considoralions migll
oxorl in!uonco. IIIon IurIougl, 8$%'"&*) 8$$9*)!#,$% ,% B)!%;*, p. 51, cIaims llal Ironcl
mombors of llo Iirsl InlornalionaI foundod consumor cooporalivos for llroo slralogic
roasons: Iirsl, lloy gonoralod monios for poIilicaI aclivism nolabIy slrikos. Socond,
lloy providod a IogaI baso for propaganda and poIilicaI aclivily. Tlird, lloy voro a
concrolo manifoslalion of domocralic, ogaIilarian, vorkor-conlroIIod commorco.
8
IoIIard, Ninoloonll-Conlury Co-oporalion, p. 88.
9
CampboII, Consumors Cooporalivo Movomonl, p. 52.
,-7 / !"#$%&' )&*&+
conjunclion vill sislor organizalions, lloy purclasod vloal, vlicl lloy
ground dovn as inoxponsivoIy as possibIo, and llon mado avaiIabIo lo lloir
mombors. Tloso cooporalivos bocamo knovn as !our cIubs:
Slocking-knillors al Iong Ialon, Nolls, foundod a fIour cIub, and llo
Slof"oId masons, boIioving llal 'sick sociolios lavo llo povor of offocling
somolling vory advanlagoous lovards oasing llo prosonl aImosl inloIorabIo
burllon, combinod vill "floon ollor IocaI friondIy sociolios 'lo procuro
grain or !our of llo bosl quaIily and al llo Iovosl pricos. Ivory mombor
rocoivod 'for limsoIf ono slono of !our por vook al primo cosl and lloso
vlo lavo famiIios laIf a slono a load for llo rosl of llo famiIy.
10
CIass slruggIos couId bo oquaIIy imporlanl. Somolimos a dofoal slimuIalod
llo omorgonco of consumor cooporalivos. In 1899 C)$<"0#,$% vas oslabIislod
in Hamburg, slorlIy aflor llo IocaI lrado union movomonl roaIizod llal llo
Iongsloromon, vlo lad roconlIy slagod an unsuccossfuI slriko, migll lavo
loId oul Iongor if lloy lad boon abIo lo purclaso food moro inoxponsivoIy
llrougl a cooporalivo.
11
In somo rogions of a parlicuIar counlry, consumor cooporalivos voro
formod bocauso of a docision oIsovloro (al llo cooporalivos loadquarlors)
lo oslabIisl a IocaI brancl. Rogarding Brilain, Carr-Saundors *# !-. nolo: In
lloso aroas in vlicl Co-oporalion "rsl mado progross, clio!y in llo indus-
lriaI norll, il dovoIopod sponlanoousIy as llo rosuIl of IocaI onllusiasm in
llo lovns and viIIagos, as a rosuIl lloro aro sliII many smaII sociolios and a
considorabIo amounl of ovorIapping. In dislricls in vlicl progross las boon
moro roconl, co-oporalion las dovoIopod by an incroaso in llo momborslip
and oxlonl of a smaIIor numbor of oslabIislod sociolios, in consoquonco socio-
lios covor Iargo aroas and lloro is IillIo ovorIapping.
12
B,%!%;*'
Consumor cooporalivos roquiro roIalivoIy IillIo slarl-up capilaI, and aro capa-
bIo of quickIy aclioving a ligl lurnovor in many ovoryday consumor goods.
10
Tann, Co-oporalivo Corn MiIIing, p. 46.
11
Glro, @,* <*"#';4*% D)E*,#*)6=$%'"&A*)*,%*, pp. 4249.
12
Carr-Saundors, IIoronco, and Ioors, 8$%'"&*)'1 8$6$9*)!#,$% ,% :)*!# ?),#!,%,
p. 67. Ialor lloy add: To somo oxlonl, lloroforo, Iov co-oporalivo IoyaIly is llo causo,
nol llo rosuIl, of llo grovll of Iargor sociolios. (p. 76).
!0+123&' 400$&'#%5*&1 / ,-8
Tloy can Iauncl oporalions vill vory IillIo casl.
13
Il is ovon concoivabIo, and
las acluaIIy lapponod, llal consumor cooporalivos bogin oporalions vill-
oul any slarl-up capilaI, by oblaining advancos from suppIiors. ObviousIy,
slarling villoul capilaI roquiros llal llo mombors Ioavo al Ioasl parl of lloir
bonusos in llo lroasury of llo consumor cooporalivo during llo oarIy yoars.
In somo casos mombors ovon conlribulo addilionaI funds lo lloir consumor
cooporalivo, offoclivoIy using il as a savings fund.
14
Iov soIIing pricos voro oflon llo originaI molivo for oslabIisling consumor
cooporalivos. Clinoso minors and raiIroad vorkors vlo in llo oarIy 1920s
clanlod Croalo a consumor cooporalivo so llal vo can gol cloap foods voro
oxprossing ono of llo driving forcos bolind foundors of cooporalivos aII ovor
llo vorId.
15
SoIIing goods boIov rolaiI ralos, or ovon al cosl prico, can lavo
sovoraI consoquoncos.
- F$;!- )*#!,-*)' !)* <),A*% ,%#$ E!%0)"9#;5. Tlis courso is IikoIy lo insligalo
aggrossion and poIilicaI opposilion againsl llo consumor cooporalivos.
- G!-* $( >$$<' #$ %$%6&*&E*)' E*;$&*' *H;**<,%>-5 <,(!;"-#, if nol impossibIo:
lloorolicaIIy, non-mombors migll bo granlod llo samo advanlagos as mom-
bors, vlicl vouId oIiminalo any roason for mombors lo suppIy capilaI lo
llo cooporalivo, aIlornalivoIy, a doubIo pricing slandard onlaiIing liglor
ralos for non-mombors llan for mombors vouId oIicil praclicaI objoclions.
13
Gido, F*' '$;,I#I' ;$$9I)!#,A*' <* ;$%'$&&!#,$%, p. 106, obsorvos: In facl, llo main
advanlago of consumor cooporalivos ovor produclion cooporalivos is llo oaso in
oslabIislmonl and llo spood of lloir grovll.
14
Consumor cooporalivos dorivo lloir capilaI from llroo principaI sourcos: sub-
scriplion lo slaros, bonusos llal romain in llo fund or aro convorlod inlo slaros,
and Ioans (from mombors or llird parlios). Mosl consumor cooporalivos Iimilod llo
numbor of slaros por mombor, aIllougl llo maximum variod vidoIy from llroo lo
a fov lundrod. Al Ioasl lvo molivos undorIay lloso roslriclivo roguIalions. IirslIy,
lloy proloclod cooporalivos from a lakoovor by an af!uonl individuaI or a compoling
"rm. Ivon if oacl mombor lad onIy ono volo, a majorily slaroloIdor couId dominalo
llo consumor cooporalivo by llroaloning lo Ioavo llo organizalion. SocondIy, bonusos
Iofl by llo mombors in llo lroasury of llo cooporalivo can ordinariIy bo rocIaimod.
Moroovor, mombors can soII lloir slaros back lo llo consumor cooporalivo llrougl
a rodomplion sclomo. Gido, F*' '$;,I#I' ;$$9I)!#,A*' <* ;$%'$&&!#,$%, pp. 10810. Boll
casos rovoaI llal consumor cooporalivos lavo mucl lo foar from majorily slaroloIdors.
AII llo samo, consumor cooporalivos can uso oxlra capilaI, for oxampIo lo oslabIisl
or purclaso produclion companios (vorlicaI inlogralion). Ovor limo, various appoaIs
lavo boon Iaunclod lo aboIisl llo roslriclion on llo numbor of slaros por mombor.
15
Slaffor, +!$ !%< #4* /$)0*)', p. 88. Tlis vas llo cooporalivo foundod in Anyan,
Hunan Irovinco on 1 May 1922.
,-9 / !"#$%&' )&*&+
- 34* ;$$9*)!#,A* '5'#*& ($'#*)' ,--,;,# &*&E*)'4,9. Mombors bocomo lomplod
lo purclaso iloms from llo cooporalivo for lloir non-mombor frionds or
roIalivos, or ovon lo acl as middIomon by rosoIIing iloms acquirod inoxpon-
sivoIy from llo cooporalivo al somovlal liglor ralos.
- D ;$$9*)!#,A* ,' ($);*< #$ )*&!,% ! )"<,&*%#!)5 $9*)!#,$%: il Iacks llo "nanciaI
moans lo pursuo ollor goaIs, sucl as promoling individuaI or coIIoclivo
saving, insuranco for mombors, capilaI accumuIalion, olc.
Wlon iloms aro soId !E$A* lloir cosl prico, oporaling consumor cooporalivos
IogicaIIy oblain a surpIus.
16
Tlo surpIus may bo aIIocalod in sovoraI diffor-
onl vays. Ono is lo dislribulo llo baIanco lo llo capilaI providors. Anollor
is lo invosl llo surpIus in oducalionaI and simiIar causos, sucl as soIidarily.
A llird vay may invoIvo paying llo baIanco lo llo cuslomors, in llo form
of monoy or as coupons avarding mombors crodil lovard fuluro purclasos
from llo consumor cooporalivo. Tlis llird oplion vas probabIy llo ono mosl
froquonlIy usod, aIllougl il couId obviousIy occur in combinalion vill llo
ollors.
Iaying llo cuslomors roquiros dovising a dislribulion moclanism. Tlo
mosl obvious syslom is lo baso llal moclanism on llo vaIuo of llo grocorios
purclasod, vlicl roquiros spoci"c knovIodgo of llo amounls sponl by oacl
lousoloId. To llis ond, oacl mombor is assignod an individuaI accounl, llo
grocory mombors purclasos aro Iislod in bookIols lo bo carriod vill llom
al aII limos, mombors aro givon lokons roprosonling llo vaIuo of lloir pur-
clasos, or, mombors aro givon rocoipls indicaling llo vaIuo of lloir purclasos.
AII lloso difforonl mollods lavo advanlagos and dravbacks, bul doscribing
llom aII is boyond llo scopo of llis sludy.
17
16
Oflon llis surpIus is nol dosignalod as a pro"l. In Iranco, sucl difforoncos voro
knovn as E$%,', ),'#$")%*', or #)$9 9*)J"'. In Brilain, lloy voro caIIod divi (from divi-
dond) or surpIus.
17
Al any ralo, llo surpIus may bo dislribulod among llo mombors onco llo vaIuo
of oacl mombors purclasos las boon caIcuIalod. Various disbursomonl sysloms lavo
boon usod. Iinoar assossmonls aro llo simpIosl mollod: supposo llo lolaI lurnovor
for a givon yoar is 1,000,000 monolary unils, vill 200,000 monolary unils romaining
as llo nol surpIus. Mombors vlo spond 1,000 monolary unils llal yoar viII rocoivo a
yoar-ond pay-oul of 200 monolary unils. Tlis mollods advanlago Iios in ils simpIicily.
Tlo disadvanlago is llo impIicil iIIusion llal aII producls yioId llo samo surpIus ralo.
In roaIily, somo producls obviousIy gonoralo IillIo surpIus (or may ovon bo soId al a
Ioss), vliIo ollors may yioId a liglor pro"l. Iinoar assossmonls inordinaloIy favour
mombors purclasing onIy producls soId al a Ioss ovor lloso purclasing producls vill
!0+123&' 400$&'#%5*&1 / ,-:
CIionloIo las a dirocl boaring on llo soIIing prico and surpIus dislribulion.
SlouId a consumor cooporalivo soII goods oxcIusivoIy lo ils ovn mombors, or
lo non-mombors as voII` If iloms aro soId lo llo gonoraI pubIic, vlicl proco-
duros slouId appIy` If llo surpIus is dislribulod lo llo consumors, rallor llan
lo llo suppIiors of capilaI, slouId purclasing non-mombors bo onlilIod lo
somo or aII of llo bonusos for vlicl mombors aro oIigibIo` Iraclicos lavo var-
iod vidoIy.
18
Tlo RocldaIo pionoors soId lo llo pubIic, non-mombors rocoivod
laIf llo E$%,' )I9!)#,' |dislribulod surpIusj avardod lo mombors, llo ollor
laIf vonl inlo a rosorvo. ObviousIy, granling llo gonoraI pubIic llo samo bon-
o"ls as llo mombors vouId lavo oIiminalod llo inconlivo lo join. On llo ollor
land, soIIing lo non-mombors vas an allraclivo moans of incroasing saIos and
oarning back llo capilaI invoslod moro quickIy. Tlis praclico vas aIso an oasy
vay for ollors lo bocomo acquainlod vill llo cooporalivo.
19
4%**'$$
Tlo succoss of consumor cooporalivos, and llo rosuIling amounl of lloir
poriodic surpIus, dopondod on many faclors. Tlo "rsl vas llo K"!-,#5 $( #4*
&!%!>*&*%#. IossibIo aroas of vuInorabiIily incIudod: an uncIoar slrucluro of
aullorily, inadoqualo managomonl, misapproprialion of funds, unviso pur-
clasing poIicy, olc.
20
SocondIy, lloro vas llo !;#"!- !&$"%# $( '4$99,%> dono
by mombors al llo cooporalivo. Tlo quanlilios purclasod variod vidoIy. Ivon
a ligl pro"l margin. Somo consumor cooporalivos lloroforo faclorod in a "xod mark-
up (o.g. 10 porconl) ovor llo purclaso prico vlon dolormining llo soIIing pricos of
individuaI producls. Tlis mollod vas a procaulion againsl an inoquilabIo dislribulion
of llo surpIus as a rosuIl of Iinoar assossmonl. Insload, a nov probIom arisos. Moclani-
caIIy incroasing aII purclaso pricos by a "xod ralo moans llal somo producls soII for
Ioss llan llo roguIar rolaiI pricos, vloroas ollors bocomo moro oxponsivo. RalionaI
mombors viII lloroforo purclaso onIy lloso goods from llo consumor cooporalivo
vill pricos oquaI lo or Ioss llan llo rolaiI ralos, lloy viII buy aII ollor goods from
llo commorciaI compolilion.
18
In Russia, Spain, SvilzorIand, BoIgium, llo NollorIands, and IlaIy, saIos incIudod
llo gonoraI pubIic in 1917 (Gido, F*' '$;,I#I' ;$$9I)!#,A*' <* ;$%'$&&!#,$%, p. 67),
in Gormany llis praclico vas prolibilod by llo Iavs passod on 1 May 1889 and
12 Augusl 1896. Ibid., 66.
19
Somolimos, a slalus bolvoon momborslip and non-momborslip oxislod. In Iranco,
llis vas knovn as !<4I)*%#. D<4I)*%#' paid an onlranco foo bul did nol parlicipalo in
organizalionaI aclivilios.
20
Gido, F*' '$;,I#I' ;$$9I)!#,A*' <* ;$%'$&&!#,$%, pp. 801.
,.; / !"#$%&' )&*&+
doopIy commillod mombors migll slop lloro onIy sporadicaIIy, bocauso
slopping oIsovloro (o.g. al noiglborlood slops) soomod moro allraclivo.
Karin Hagomann vrilos aboul Hamburg during llo 1920s: By no moans
aII mombors of llo consumor cooporalivos voro roguIar cuslomors. Boforo
llo var llo slaro of non-purclasing mombors avoragod 40 porconl, during
llo var llo "guro docIinod lo 35 porconl onIy lo riso lo aboul 45 porconl
aflorvards. Tlo ligl ralo of non-purclasing mombors vas a Iong-slanding
probIom for consumor cooporalivos.
21
Ono soIulion vas lo oxpoI mombors
sponding Ioss llan a minimum annuaI amounl al llo consumor cooporalivo,
sucl a moasuro couId oasiIy bo counlorproduclivo lovovor, and Ioad lo a
major docIino in momborslip.
A llird faclor vas llo <,A*)',#5 $( #4* '"99-5. Mombors vloso consumor
cooporalivos carry a broador varioly of consumor goods aro Ioss incIinod lo
slop oIsovloro.
22
IourllIy, 4$L #4* 9),;*6-*A*- ;$&9!)*< #$ $#4*) )*#!,-*)' vas of
imporlanco.
23
A "fll faclor vas llo )*-!#,$%'4,9 L,#4 ;$&9*#,#$)'. A consumor
cooporalivo vlicl is llo soIo rolaiI businoss in a corlain pIaco is IikoIy lo bo
busior llan ono compoling vill sovoraI IocaI rolaiIors. Somo consumor coop-
oralivos aIso compolod vill oacl ollor, ospociaIIy if lloy voro af"Iialod vill
difforonl poIilicaI movomonls or ollnic groups. And "naIIy, -*>!- )*>"-!#,$%'
camo inlo pIay as voII. In many counlrios, Iavs voro ovonluaIIy onaclod gov-
orning llo oporalions of llo consumor cooporalivos. A caso in poinl vas llo
Soviol Union, vloro llo rogimo look llo foIIoving docision in Novombor 1935:
Tlo organizalion of consumors cooporalion in lovns slaII bo Iiquidalod and
aII lloir proporly, incIuding aII IiabiIilios and assols, slaII bo lransforrod lo llo
IoopIos Commissarial of InlornaI Trado of llo USSR.
24
21
Hagomann, B)!"*%!--#!> "%< +M%%*)9$-,#,0, p. 147.
22
Tlis procoss is obviousIy soIf-suslaining: onIy vlon a consumor cooporalivo is
doing voII can llo assorlmonl bo oxpandod considorabIy.
23
Gido, F*' '$;,I#I' ;$$9I)!#,A*' <* ;$%'$&&!#,$%, pp. 856.
24
Quolod according lo CampboII, Consumors Cooporalivo Movomonl, p. 37.
On llo falos of oarIior consumor cooporalivos in Russia, soo: Tolomjanz, Konsum-
gonossonsclaflon in RuIand, Ionomarova, Raboclio polrobiIloIskio kooporalivy,
Iumpianski, Gonossonsclaflsbovogung in RuIand, SaIzman, Consumor Coopora-
livo Sociolios in Russia, Clambro, Coopralion do Consommalion.
!0+123&' 400$&'#%5*&1 / ,.,
+*&E*)'4,9
Quilo a fov consumor cooporalivos admillod onIy poopIo vill a corlain occu-
palion: raiIroad ompIoyoos, vorkors al a corlain faclory, of"cors, olc. WliIo
sucl lrado-basod cooporalivos voro oflon formod onliroIy voIunlariIy, lloy
somolimos rosuIlod from compoIIing circumslancos. Wlon miIIs or minos
voro far avay from llo lovns, vorkors al llo samo company noodod lo form
cooporalivos for Iack of any ollors IocaIIy. RaiIroad ompIoyoos rocoivod spo-
ciaI priviIogos from llo Company for lransporling lloir provisions. Tloroforo,
cooporalivos couId nol sol up slop for llom al ovory silo.
25
Sucl lrado-
basod consumor cooporalivos lavo advanlagos and disadvanlagos. Tlo voII-
dovoIopod loam spiril can bring aboul soIid organizalions, as rovoaIod by
llo succoss of consumor cooporalivos of civiI sorvanls or llo miIilary. A
disadvanlago is llal sucl consumor cooporalivos ordinariIy koop lloir dis-
lanco from gonoraI cooporalivo or Iabor movomonls, lloir molivos aro puroIy
oconomic. Ollor momborslip criloria incIudo poIilicaI conviclion (sociaIisl),
roIigious af"Iialion, and possibIy ollnicily. Of courso, gonoraI consumor
cooporalivos oxisl as voII.
UsuaIIy, onIy ono individuaI from oacl parlicipaling lousoloId vouId bo
a mombor of a consumor cooporalivo. A difforonl arrangomonl vouId lavo
boon imprudonl, boll for llo lousoloId and for llo consumor cooporalivo.
If addilionaI famiIy mombors vislod lo join llo consumor cooporalivo, lloy
vouId obviousIy lavo lo purclaso moro slaros villoul oblaining any maloriaI
bono"ls in rolurn. Ior ils parl, llo consumor cooporalivo vouId nol incroaso
ils saIos. In a groal many casos, llo load of llo lousoloId (i.o. llo man) vas
llo mombor. As a ruIo, llo man of llo louso vouId join a cooporalivo as llo
famiIy broadvinnor. Ho vouId rocoivo an inlorosl. AccordingIy, lo vas llo
onIy ono onlilIod lo co-dolorminalion riglls in llo cooporalivo.
26
A sludy
of a Iargo sugarcano pIanlalion in GualomaIa in llo 1970s domonslralos llal
vomon oflon proforrod lo do lloir slopping oIsovloro, sinco If llo dividond
is rolurnod lo llo lusband vlo koops il as 4,' saving, llon llo vifo las no
inconlivo lo slop lloro |al llo cooporalivoj. If slo buys for Ioss in llo markol-
pIaco, llo savings aro lors lo uso for ollor purclasos.
27
25
Gido, F*' '$;,I#I' ;$$9I)!#,A*' <* ;$%'$&&!#,$%, p. 101.
26
Hagomann, B)!"*%!--#!> "%< +M%%*)9$-,#,0, p. 140.
27
Bosson, N*<,A,',$% $( F!E$), p. 363.
,.< / !"#$%&' )&*&+
Ivon maIo obsorvors nolod llo paradoxicaI naluro of llis silualion a Iong
limo ago. Ior oxampIo, Valan Tolomianz, a Ioading lloorolician on coopora-
livos during llo inlorvar yoars, vrolo: Il is iIIogicaI for consumor coopor-
alivos |. . .j lo bo conlroIIod oxcIusivoIy by mon, as mosl mon novor do llo
slopping.
28
NovorlloIoss, in many casos llis oxcIusion appoars lo lavo por-
sislod in fuII forco unliI llo 1960s and 1970s, vlon llo vomons movomonls
gainod ground.
29
+!)0*#'
Consumor cooporalivos can in principIo parlicipalo in a vido varioly of
markols. IrosumabIy, lovovor, lloy voro mosl allraclod lo llo markol sog-
monls llal voro oasiosl lo onlor (bocauso roIalivoIy IillIo capilaI or skiII vas
roquirod) vill roasonabIy slabIo saIos, and a ligl lurnovor in invoslmonls.
HisloricaI oxporionco con"rms llis pallorn. Tlo originaI spociaIizalion in dry
goods of mosl consumor cooporalivos (o.g., llo RocldaIo Iionoors) is by no
moans coincidonlaI. Tlo foodsluffs soId (prosorvos, coffoo, loa, sugar, saIl,
poppor, olc.) aro parl of jusl aboul ovorybodys daiIy noods, roquiro virluaIIy
no procossing, oxcopl grinding coffoo, olc., and do nol spoiI quickIy, unIiko
moal, fruil, miIk, bullor, olc., llis soIoclions varioly roducos vuInorabiIily lo
prico !uclualions, roquiros IillIo slarl-up capilaI, and onabIos llo oporalion
lo oslabIisl a ropulalion roIalivoIy quickIy, bocauso poopIo slop daiIy.
Ior llo samo roasons }apanoso cooporalivos spociaIizod in llo saIo of koro-
sono, a fuoI considorod indisponsabIo in Norll }apan during llo vinlor. Koro-
sono aIso salis"os a nood, las a Iong sloIf Iifo, roquiros IillIo iniliaI invoslmonl,
and las a rapid lurnovor. Tlo mombors of Slimin Soikyo (Hokkaido inlabil-
anls consumor co-oporalivo) loId, vill prido, aboul lloir gravo rosponsibiIily
as a nalionvido prico Ioador for korosono. Tlo prico nogolialion for korosono
|. . .j is ono of llo groalosl mallors of concorn lo aII Hokkaido inlabilanls nol
roslriclod lo mombors of Slimin Soikyo. Il is said llal lloro aro somo inlabil-
28
Tolomianz, Io rIo dos fommos dans Ia coopralion, p. 413.
29
Ior oxampIo, llo gondor ralio in Svodisl cooporalivos las cIoarIy sliflod in
favor of vomon ovor llo pasl fov docados (ovor laIf llo mombors aro nov vomon),
aIllougl vomon romain undorroprosonlod among !;#,A* mombors. (Iosloff, ?*#L**%
+!)0*#' !%< C$-,#,;', pp. 35, 47.) Soo aIso BauIior, Iommos ol organisalions fmininos,
IIImoior, HandoI mil dor Zukunfl, Gaf"n, Womon and Cooporalion, Kog, Vrouv
on coporalio.
!0+123&' 400$&'#%5*&1 / ,.-
anls vlo bocomo mombors of co-oporalivos onIy for llo purposo of co-opora-
livo purclaso of korosono.
30

Bakorios voro probabIy llo socond mosl popuIar oplion.
31
Tlis soclor vas
moro dif"cuIl for consumor cooporalivos lo onlor llan llo dry goods busi-
noss, bocauso bakorios aro rosponsibIo for boll produclion and dislribulion.
Bakors boll mako and soII broad. Of aII produclion induslrios, broad is llo
oIdosl, llo bosl knovn, and llo mosl roulino, in many pIacos il romains a
lousoloId oporalion. Il roquiros vory IillIo capilaI and invoIvos no maclinory.
Sinco llo ingrodionls usod aro aIvays virluaIIy idonlicaI, and llo prico varios
IillIo, miscaIcuIalions aro oxcoodingIy unIikoIy.
32
Moroovor, broad is an indis-
ponsabIo foodsluff (al Ioasl in llo Wosl!), vill saIos llal may bo prodiclod
fairIy accuraloIy.
Bulclorios voro sliII moro dif"cuIl for consumor cooporalivos lo oslabIisl.
Moal is dif"cuIl lo prosorvo, llo prico of llo commodily (Iivoslock) !uclualos
dramalicaIIy, saIos vary, as doos llo quaIily of difforonl culs of moal (vlicl
Ioads lo disagroomonls vill cuslomors), and groal oxporliso is roquirod. Tlo
!uclualing cIionloIo makos roslauranls, cafos, and vino slops roIalivoIy dif-
"cuIl lorrilory for cooporalivos as voII. If lloir oslabIislmonl vas aullorizod,
cooporalivo plarmacios somolimos llrivod, bocauso lloir pricos provod con-
sidorabIy Iovor llan in privalo plarmacios.
Onco lloy lad amassod subslanliaI capilaI llrougl ollor moans, consumor
cooporalivos couId bocomo aclivo on llo proporly markol, by buiIding lomos
al lloir ovn oxponso for subsoquonl saIo or ronlaI.
O),>,% $( #4* >$$<'
Consumor cooporalivos oblainod lloir goods in various vays. IirslIy, lloy
couId obviousIy manufacluro producls llomsoIvos. OrdinariIy, llis approacl
vorkod onIy vill ovoryday producls llal lousovivos couId oflon mako al
lomo on lloir ovn, sucl as broad, paslrios, or jam. SocondIy, consumor coop-
oralivos couId purclaso producls from commorciaI vloIosaIors (an oplion
30
Nomura, Consumor Co-oporalivos in }apan, p. 9.
31
Soo o.g. Daud-BancoI, Originos ol dvoIoppomonl dos bouIangorios coopra-
livos, ZoilI, Gogon don Brolvuclor!
32
Gido, F*' '$;,I#I' ;$$9I)!#,A*' <* ;$%'$&&!#,$%, p. 124.
,.. / !"#$%&' )&*&+
llal raroIy appoaIod lo llo moro poIilicaIIy incIinod cooporalivos), from slalo
and municipaI companios, or from producor cooporalivos.
Onco llo consumor cooporalivos in a givon rogion or counlry accumuIalod
onougl capilaI lo issuo Iargo advancos, llo lransilion lo ;$$9*)!#,A* L4$-*'!-,%>
bocamo possibIo. Iurclasing fodoralions voro abIo lo purclaso moro cloapIy
llan individuaI consumor cooporalivos, duo lo oconomios of scaIo. Tloy
migll pursuo ollor objoclivos as voII, sucl as faciIilaling llo oslabIislmonl of
nov consumor cooporalivos, impoding iIIogilimalo or unaullorizod commis-
sions (bribos), provonling boycolls by commorciaI suppIiors, or sponsoring
oducalionaI Iocluros.
Tlo purclasing fodoralions oxislod in various lypos of organizalions, Iislod
loro in ordor of asconding povor: ;$&&*);,!- ,%($)&!#,$% E")*!"', vlicl passod
on llo pricos clargod by suppIiors lo llo consumor cooporalivos, and roporlod
llo rosuIling ordors back lo llo vondors, '5%<,;!#*', vlicl oporalod indopon-
donlIy as buyors for af"Iialod consumor cooporalivos, and voro consoquonlIy
abIo lo lrado on lloir ovn consumor cooporalivo accounl, and L4$-*'!-* '$;,*#6
,*', vlicl acluaIIy funclionod as consumor cooporalivos for ollor consumor
cooporalivos.
33
Tlo llird and "naI slop in llo oxpansion of consumor cooporalivos invoIvos
noulraIizing llo roIo pIayod by llo manufacluring companios and farmors, a
probIom vlicl arisos vlon llo cooporalion oblains conlroI ovor llis slago of
produclion.
34
Iargo-scaIo in-louso produclion couId gonoralo boll induslriaI
producls (soap, margarino, sloos, olc), mining producls (coaI, polroIoum), and
agricuIluraI produco (fruils, vogolabIos, olc.). Will rogard lo produco, various
Iuropoan WloIosaIo Sociolios acluaIIy purclasod pIols of Iand for cuIlivalion
and ovon bougll coIoniaI pIanlalions (o.g. for loa in CoyIon and India).
35
33
IarIy casos incIudo llo WloIosaIo Sociolios in Mancloslor (oslabIislod in 1864),
GIasgov (1868), Coponlagon (1888), BasIo (1892), Hamburg (1894), Moscov (1898),
Iaris (1900), and HoIsingfors (1904). (Gido, F*' '$;,I#I' ;$$9I)!#,A*' <* ;$%'$&&!#,$%,
p. 176.)
34
Ronnor, Skizzo oinor konomisclon Tloorio dos Gonossonsclaflsvosons.
35
An imporlanl bul as yol onliroIy unoxpIorod issuo concorns llo roIalionslip
bolvoon llo consumor cooporalivos in llo coIoniaI molropoIos and llo vorkors on
llo coIoniaI pIanlalions.
!0+123&' 400$&'#%5*&1 / ,.6
P,*)!);4,Q!#,$%
IconomicaIIy llriving consumor cooporalivos couId oxpand lloir slaff con-
sidorabIy. Bul oacl sucl onIargomonl incroasod llo sociaI dislanco bolvoon
slaff and managomonl. Ovor limo, consumor cooporalivo slaff oslabIislod
lloir ovn lrado unions, and inlornaI con!icls bocamo moro froquonl. A Brilisl
oxampIo iIIuslralos llis lrond: from 1913 lo 1931, llo numbor of ompIoyoos
in cooporalivo rolaiI sociolios roso from 101,832 lo 187,633, vliIo llo numbor
of ompIoyoos in cooporalivo vloIosaIo sociolios grov from 29,679 lo 51,917.
36

Yol al llo samo limo, many vorkors bocamo incroasingIy dissalis"od vill
llom. In 1891, llo AmaIgamalod Union of Cooporalivo ImpIoyoos AUCI lad
boon foundod, and bolvoon 1918 and 1926, sovoraI Iabor dispulos oruplod.
37

Ollor counlrios foIIovod llo Brilisl lrond somolimos docados Ialor. In
Svodon, for oxampIo, |duringj llo Ialo 1970s sovoraI dozon viId-cal or iIIo-
gaI slrikos voro inilialod by consumor co-oporalivo ompIoyoos.
38
Various
counlor- moasuros sorvod lo roduco llo lonsions bolvoon slaff and manago-
monl, sucl as assigning momborslip lo consumor cooporalivo ompIoyoos,
slaring llo surpIus vill llo ompIoyoos, and invoIving llo ompIoyoos in
managomonl of llo cooporalivo. Tloso offorls appoar lo lavo boon onIy mod-
oraloIy succossfuI.
39

8$&9*#,#,$%
As llo consumor cooporalivos incroasod lloir markol slaro, lloy promplod
moro inlonso rosislanco among llo slop ovnors. Ordinary rolaiIors oflon
viovod llo consumor cooporalivos as a llroal lo lloir ovn businoss. Around
1900 in BoIgium, for oxampIo, llo 9*#,#' 9!#)$%' |smaII businossmonj movo-
monl vas oslabIislod in rosponso lo llo riso of llo sociaIisl consumor coop-
oralivos.
40
Ovnors of dry goods sloros and ollor smaII rolaiIors froquonlIy
rogardod lloir slops as an uIlimalo moans of subsislonco. WinslanIoy cor-
roclIy nolos aboul Brilain:
36
CaIcuIalion basod on Carr-Saundors *# !-., 8$%'"&*)'1 8$6$9*)!#,$%, p. 43.
37
Ibid., p. 45.
38
Iosloff, ?*#L**% +!)0*#' !%< C$-,#,;', p. 103.
39
Gido, F*' s$;,I#I' ;$$9*)!#,A*' <* ;$%'$&&!#,$%, pp. 293304.
40
}aumain, Ios cIassos moyonnos boIgos, p. 20.
,.7 / !"#$%&' )&*&+
In a socioly in vlicl lloro voro minimaI voIfaro provisions unliI aflor llo
Socond WorId War, gonoraI slopkooping offorod ono of llo fov oponings
for vidovs, invaIids, llo unompIoyod and agod lo mainlain llomsoIvos
indopondonlIy. As lousoloId produclion rolroalod llrougloul llo nino-
loonll conlury, llo imporlanco of rolaiIing as ono of llo fov soclors of
llo oconomy in vlicl marriod vomon couId combino famiIy dulios vill
pro"labIo ompIoymonl grov. |. . .j Abovo aII, lovovor, slopkooping vas
soon by many onlranls as a vay of ro-oslabIisling porsonaI conlroI ovor
lloir Iivos, of assorling lloir indopondonco and slaking a cIaim lo onlancod
sociaI slalus villin llo IocaI communily.
41
IrosumabIy, llo roIalionslip bolvoon llo markol slaro of consumor coopora-
livos and llo rosislanco among slop ovnors vas curviIinoar: vloro consumor
cooporalivos voro insigni"canl, or lad allainod absoIulo dominanco (al cor-
lain poinls mosl of llo popuIalion boIongod lo a consumor cooporalivo in
somo cilios, o.g. in Ioods, BrosIau/WrocIav, and BasIo), rosislanco soomod
unnocossary or poinlIoss, bolvoon lloso lvo oxlromos, lovovor, aggrossion
lovard consumor cooporalivos somolimos ran ligl. Tlo rolaiI induslry lad
four main dofonso moclanisms: soIIing on crodil, llrougl savings slamps, olc.,
boycolling vondors vlicl aIso suppIiod consumor cooporalivos, dismissing
slaff mombors vlo boIongod lo a consumor cooporalivo, or in!uoncing llo
govornmonl, o.g. by domanding llal corlain Iavs appIy lo consumor coopora-
livos or by roquosling llal civiI sorvanls bo prolibilod from joining.
In Brilain, major rosislanco aroso among slop ovnors. Il vas, in parl, llo
rosuIl of llo consoIidalion of llo InduslriaI and Irovidonl Sociolios Acl of
1893, vlicl oxomplod consumor cooporalivos from incomo lax undor corlain
condilions.
42
Around 1930, lloir objoclions Iod lo llo founding of a NalionaI
41
WinslanIoy, Conconlralion and Compolilion, p. 251. Soo aIso: Iavson, Slops,
Slopkoopors and llo Working-CIass Communily, and comparo llo foIIoving passago
quolod from Iovy, G4$9' $( ?),#!,%, p. 10: |Ior llo smaII slopkooporj llo possossion
of a businoss is nol moroIy a mallor of caIcuIaling pro"ls. SocioIogicaI probIoms
aro invoIvod vlicl aro quilo aIion lo llo doparlmonl sloro or llo big muIlipIo slop
or clain. Tlo possossion of a smaII slop moans an indopondonl IivoIilood llougl
sucl indopondonco may moan any amounl of vorry, drudgory, voxalion and inso-
curily. |. . .j Tloro is a fooIing of prido in llo possossion vlicl may obscuro "nanciaI
considoralions.
42
Ono imporlanl aspocl of sucl IogaIizalion of consumor cooporalivos vas as foI-
Iovs: Tlo InduslriaI and Irovidonl Sociolios Acl incorporalod sociolios, i.o. do"nod
llom as soparalo IogaI onlilios dislincl from lloir mombors. Sociolios voro lo conlinuo
!0+123&' 400$&'#%5*&1 / ,.8
Organizalions Co-ordinalod Commilloo, vlicl inlondod lo croalo lroubIo for
llo cooporalivo sociolios. Tlo commilloos offorls succoodod, and llo govorn-
monl docIarod llo lrading surpIus of a cooporalivo socioly oquivaIonl lo llo
laxabIo pro"ls of a privalo businoss in 1933.
43
Somolimos businoss ovnors joinod forcos vill llo govornmonl in "gll-
ing vorkors cooporalivos. In llo 1930s, llis pallorn vas vory pronouncod in
Gormany, vloro slop propriolors losliIo lo consumor cooporalivos vioIdod
considorabIo in!uonco in llo Nazi movomonl. Aflor 1933 consumor coop-
oralivos sufforod from coordinalod 'sponlanoous lorror by NalionaI SociaIisl
organizalions of businoss ovnors and roslriclivo IogisIalion 'from abovo. Tlo
consoquoncos incIudod boycolls and infringomonls on llo riglls of slaff, mom-
bors, and inslilulions, Iiquidalion of aulonomy, and lransformalion according
lo llo aullorilarian BR4)*) principIo, |. . .j and uIlimaloIy of"ciaI dissoIulion
of llo sociolios llal voro mosl succossfuI oconomicaIIy and lad llo Iargosl
momborslip in 1935.
44
!"#*'#-(,-."#
IvonluaIIy consumor cooporalivos, Iiko aII businossos undor capilaIism, aro
forcod lo conlraIizo and conconlralo capilaI. Tlo coroIIary is a docIining num-
bor of cooporalivos, and an incroasing lolaI momborslip slrongll por coop-
oralivo.
45
In Brilain, llo avorago numbor of mombors por cooporalivo roso
from 564 in 1881 lo 8,185 in 1940, vliIo in SlockloIm llo avorago momborslip
por rolaiI unil incroasod from 235 in 1916 lo 1,472 in 1989.
46
lo funclion undor llo Iav indopondonlIy of clangos in Ioadorslip and momborslip.
Mombors voro granlod Iimilod IiabiIily in rolurn. Tloso voro, aIroady, Iimilalions on,
or parlicuIar do"nilions of, muluaIily. In lloso rospocls, co-oporalivo sociolios lad llo
samo IogaI slalus as joinl-slock companios vliIo nol in facl boing llo samo forms.
KiIIingback, Iimils lo MuluaIily, p. 210.
43
KiIIingback, Iimils lo MuluaIily, pp. 210, 217, 224.
44
Irinz, ?)$# "%< @,A,<*%<*, p. 176. On consumor cooporalivos and slalo roguIalion
in Nazi Gormany, soo: Dill, Konsumgonossonsclaflon im Drillon Roicl, Kurzor,
Konsumgonossonsclaflon, idom, S!#,$%!-'$Q,!-,'&"' "%< =$%'"&>*%$''*%';4!(#*%.
45
On Brilain in llo oarIy docados of llo lvonlioll conlury, Carr-Saundors *# !-.,
8$%'"&*)'1 8$6$9*)!#,$%, p. 45, nolo llal llo incroaso in momborslip |1901: 1,789,358,
1931: 6,531,834j vas accompaniod by a docroaso in llo numbor of sociolios |1901:
1,455, 1931: 1,159j ovidonco of llo cIosing of llo ranks and groalor conconlralion of
rosourcos lo mool llo clangod condilions of llo prosonl day.
46
Gurnoy, 8$6$9*)!#,A* 8"-#")*, p. 242, Iosloff, ?*#L**% +!)0*#' !%< C$-,#,;', p. 234.
,.9 / !"#$%&' )&*&+
Ono faclor nocossilaling conconlralion vas llo lransformalion of infraslruc-
luro, ospociaIIy llo lransporlalion induslry (counlry busos, privalo cars, and
inoxponsivo raiI lravoI). Tlo rosuIl vas nol onIy a cIosor nolvork of rolaiI-
ing sorvicos smaII privalo slops, clain sloro branclos, groalIy incroasod
doIivory sorvicos and door-lo-door lavking, bul aIso a sorious Ioss of busi-
noss by sloros in smaII lovns or viIIagos, ospociaIIy in 'dry goods Iinos.
47

Anollor faclor, somovlal roIalod lo llo "rsl, vas llo omorgonco of nov lypos
of rolaiIing.
48
IvonluaIIy, oxpansion bocamo llo onIy vay lo avoid going oul
of businoss, bul llis soIulion roducod commilmonl among mombors. Oflon
llo avorago ago of mombors roso, as oIdorIy mombors romainod IoyaI lo lloir
cooporalivos, and youngor onos faiIod lo maloriaIizo. Tlo soIulion of aIIoving
non-mombors lo slop al cooporalivo sloros furllor orodod llo originaI prin-
cipIos llo cooporalivos lad. WliIo sucl mollods onabIod cooporalivos lo slay
in businoss in somo counlrios, oIsovloro lloir lopoIoss silualion forcod many
organizalions lo disband. Tloso cooporalivos vlicl survivod, acquirod many
of llo claraclorislics of convonlionaI capilaIisl businossos.
GonoraIIy, llo consumor cooporalivos voro doomod by inlibilions arising
from lloir pionooring roIo. IslabIislod in an ora vlon smaII slop-ovnors
conlroIIod rolaiIing, lloy iniliaIIy lad an advanlago. Tloir Iargor opora-
lions affordod bollor Iogislics and oconomios of scaIo. Bul vlon slopkoop-
ors joinod forcos in clain sloros, conlraI purclasing organizalions, olc., nov
saIos sysloms incIuding soIf-sorvico sloros, supormarkols, slopping conlors
and llo Iiko omorgod. Tloso nov, Iargo-scaIo commorciaI vonluros foalurod
brand namos, sysloms of accumuIalod rodoomabIo crodils, Iov pricos, and
onlicing advorlisomonls. As a rosuIl, llo compolilivo advanlago of llo con-
sumor cooporalivos dolorioralod visibIy. Tlo surpIus baso (surpIus dividod
by saIos) docroasod, aIong vill llo dividonds for mombors and opporluni-
lios for innovalion and invoslmonl. Many consumor cooporalivos bogan lo
oncounlor "nanciaI dif"cuIlios, and facod a sorious diIomma in lloir offorl lo
avoid bankruplcy:
49
47
Carr-Saundors *# !-., 8$%'"&*)'1 8$6$9*)!#,$%, p. 84.
48
On oarIy capilaIisl compolilion, soo IurIougl, 8$%'"&*) 8$$9*)!#,$% ,% B)!%;*,
Claplor 3. Ior probIoms llal aroso Ialor, soo Dosroclo, IrobImos do dvoIoppo-
monl, and Brazda and Sclodivy, Konsumgonossonsclaflon. An inlorosling caso
sludy appoars in Gandonborgor, =$%Q*%#)!#,$% ,& ?*)*,;4 <*) <*"#';4*% =$%'"&>*%$'6
'*%';4!(#*%.
49
Soo o.g., Bk and IImonon, IrobIoms of Conlomporary Cooporalivos, Damsma
and WioIing, Do Coporalio, daar lad jo larl voor, NiIsson and Sclodivy, Konsum
!0+123&' 400$&'#%5*&1 / ,.:
- oillor lloy couId morgo vill a roguIar capilaIisl businoss, bocomo a Iim-
ilod IiabiIily company, or borrov subslanliaI amounls from banks in oacl
caso, lloy coasod lo bo aulonomous cooporalivos,
- or, lloy couId counlor llo rising compolilion llrougl modornizalion and
oporalionaI oxpansion lloroby incroasing llo considorabIo sociaI dislanco
bolvoon mombors and adminislralors, as voII as furllor roducing invoIvo-
monl among llo mombors and lloroby undormining llo organizalions
cooporalivo ollos.
50

In }apan, an inlorosling inilialivo vas impIomonlod lo mainlain ligl mombor
invoIvomonl dospilo progrossivo conconlralion. Rallor llan purclasing indi-
viduaIIy from llo cooporalivo, mombors of llo consumor cooporalivo form
so-caIIod P!% groups: Tlo Han group is llo basic unil of llo Co-op |. . .j. In
llo Han group, mombors discuss sucl probIoms as safoly of food, cliIdrons
oducalion, loaIll lips and improvomonl of llo quaIily of Iifo.
51
Han groups
purclaso coIIoclivoIy, ono mombor coordinalos llo oporalion by conducling
a vookIy invonlory of llo iloms roquirod by llo group mombors, and passos
llo Iisl on lo llo consumor cooporalivo slaff. Tlo goods ordorod aro llon
doIivorod lo llo Han coordinalor, or a group dopol, and dislribulod among
llo mombors. As ordoring, dislribuling, coIIocling monoy aro dono by llo
mombors llomsoIvos, 2 of purclaso amounl is paid back as dividond.
52

Horo, llo oId dividing socioly is roinlroducod, bul in llo guiso of a buroau-
cralizod consumor cooporalivo. Brazda and Sclodivy allribulo llo succoss of
llo P!% groups in parl lo llo opprossod silualion of }apanoso lousovivos,
llo P!% groups vouId bo dif"cuIl lo ropIicalo in Ioss palriarclaI sociolios.
53
Aulriclo, Irinz, Indo dor Konsumvoroino, Soumagno, Io commorco coopralif
on Iranco.
50
Basod on lloir rosoarcl on Brilisl rolaiI cooporalivos, C.-N. Oslorgaard and A.H.
HaIsoy lavo aIroady monlionod llo possibIo incompalibiIily of businoss of"cioncy
and domocralic conlroI. Soo Oslorgaard and HaIsoy, Domocracy in Brilisl RolaiI
Cooporalivos, p. 72.
51
Nomura, Consumor Co-oporalivos, p. 15, nolo.
52
Ibid., 14, nolo. Tlo cily cooporalivos in llo Unilod Slalos voro simiIar in somo
rospocls.
53
Brazda and Sclodivy, Konsumgonossonsclaflon, p. 75.
!"#$%&' )*+"%
!"#$%&'" &##)'"*+,-'.
In lloory, froo vorkors lavo llroo main oplions if
lloy vanl lo gain moro conlroI ovor lloir vork. Tloy
can Ioavo llo ompIoyor for anollor ompIoyor offor-
ing bollor lorms of ompIoymonl (Iabor mobiIily and
migralion), lloy can lako up llo cudgoIs and onlor
diroclIy inlo con!icl vill llo ompIoyor vill llo
aim of vinning moro povor, conlroI or aulonomy,
or, lloy can lry lo buiId a nov businoss llomsoIvos.
Tlo socond oplion invoIvos slralogios sucl as slrikos
and unionizalion, discussod in claplors 9 and 11,
llo llird slralogy incIudos producor cooporalivos,
vlicl I discuss in llis claplor. I rofor lo froo vork-
ors doIiboraloIy, bocauso onIy lloso vlo aro nol
bound lo llo ompIoyor by plysicaI coorcion, dobls,
or ollor forms of bondago lavo llo oplion of form-
ing producor cooporalivos. Moro cIoarIy llan in llo
caso of consumor cooporalivos, llis is oxcIusivoIy an
oplion for froo vago oarnors, slaro-croppors and
soIf-ompIoyod vorkors.
Wlal llo corrocl do"nilion of producor coopora-
livos ougll lo bo, is somolling llal las aIroady boon
dobalod oxlonsivoIy in llo Iiloraluro. According lo
llo InlornalionaI Cooporalivo AIIianco, for oxampIo,
!"#$"#%&' !")&#"* +, -"#.'#/ &0'1/'*2'/ is docisivo. Sucl
conlroI may lako llroo forms: domocralic docision-
making villin llo company (incIuding managoriaI
appoinlmonls), pro"l-slaring, or dirocl ovnorslip.
,-. / !"#$%&' )*+"%
Mosl rosoarclors lovovor "nd sucl a doscriplion loo broad. Tloy oflon con-
sidor onIy llo "rsl crilorion lo bo docisivo. Tlus, companios llal appIy llo
pro"l-slaring principIo, bul dony ompIoyoos a say in managomonl, aro nol
viovod as lruo producor cooporalivos.
1
According lo llo slriclosl do"nilion, a
producor cooporalivo is (i) an oconomicaIIy indopondonl company llal pro-
ducos for llo markol, (ii) is ovnod joinlIy and oxcIusivoIy by llo ompIoyoos,
and (iii) is basod on llo ono (vo)man, ono volo docision-making syslom.
Bul in roaIily vory fov cooporalivo onlorprisos fuIIy malcl llis do"nilion.
Iroducor cooporalivos oflon rocoivo parliaI co-funding from pliIanllropisls
or banks. During poak poriods, many liro addilionaI slaff mombors vlo
do nol slaro in llo pro"ls, and froquonlIy lavo no voling riglls. Discard-
ing oxcossivo purism, I viII lloroforo do"no producor cooporalivos simpIy as
')&'#$#3/'/ -0'#' $"*3!, 3/ 4'&'#13)'4 *%#5'*, +, &0' $'"$*' -0" -"#. &0'#'. Clris
DoucouIiagos las rigllIy nolod: Workor "-)'#/03$ is nol suf"cionl. Tloro
musl bo vorkor !")&#"*. A "rm ovnod by vorkors is nol Iabor-managod if ils
oporalions aro conlroIIod by managomonl or oxlornaI "nanciors.
2
6/&%+*3/01')&
Tlo oslabIislmonl of producor cooporalivos appoars lo lavo boon molivalod
by any of "vo main roasons. IirslIy, cooporalivos lavo boon a lomporary
moans lo prossuro llo ompIoyor or ompIoyors lo !")!'4' 47#3)5 % *%+"# 43/8
$7&'. Ior oxampIo, during a slriko of coaI minors in llo noiglborlood of
NovcaslIo, AuslraIia, in 1861, a co-oporalivo mino vas oslabIislod: A syndi-
calo of 15 vas formod |. . .j. A Ioaso of 1,280 acros vas oblainod al IIallsburg
on an undorlaking lo pay 6d. por lon royaIly on aII coaI producod. Working
capilaI vas lo bo providod by llo issuo of 6,000 slaros al 5 oacl and an
appoaI vas mado lo aII minors lo parlicipalo in llo vonluro. Iroduclion lad
1
Bonin, }onos, and Iullorman, TloorolicaI and ImpiricaI Sludios, pp. 12912.
2
DoucouIiagos, Wly CapilaIisl Iirms Oulnumbor Iabor-Managod Iirms, p. 46.
Workors lond lo bo vory sonsilivo lo oulsido in!uonco. Wlon lobacco vorkors in
ManiIa, for oxampIo, oponod lloir ovn faclory in 1909, lloy docidod llal 'ricl poopIo
|. . .j voro lo bo aIIovod lo invosl onIy up lo 10,000 posos lovard llo subscribod capilaI.
Workors voro supposod lo bo rosponsibIo for llo rosl of llo capilaI (20,000 posos).
KorkvIiol, 9%)3*% :"#.'#/; <)3")/, p. 26.
0'1234&' 411$&'#%*5&6 / ,-7
bogun boforo llo slriko ondod bul llo mino pIayod no parl in dolormining
llo oulcomo.
3
SocondIy, producor cooporalivos can bo a moans of '*313)%&3)5 "# %2'#&3)5
7)'1$*",1')&. Sucl unompIoymonl may, for oxampIo, bo llo oulcomo of an
unsuccossfuI slriko. Tlo IliIadoIplia cordvainors vlo in 1806 dovnod looIs
onIy lo bo found guiIly of conspiracy by llo courl oponod a bool and sloo
varolouso |. . .j vloro lloy inlond|odj lo carry on llo businoss, vloIosaIo and
rolaiI.
4
Of courso, unompIoymonl may aIso rosuIl from oconomic faclors, as
vas llo caso vill llo loxliIo vorkors in Huddors"oId (IngIand), aboul vlom
llo =''4/ >31'/ prinlod an accounl on 24 May 1834: Tlo mon of Huddors"oId
aro forming llomsoIvos inlo a socioly for llo oxpross purposo of manufaclur-
ing on lloir accounl. Indood, il may bo a consoIalion lo lloso vlo llink a
rodundancy of lands an oviI, llal many mon vlo lavo lurnod oul of ompIoy-
monl lavo cIubbod lloir savings, and commoncod on lloir ovn accounl, and
lavo ordors from various parls of llo counlry for moro cIoll llan lloy vill
lloir prosonl arrangomonls can suppIy.
5
Tlo llroal of unompIoymonl duo lo
imponding bankruplcy may bo avorlod, if llo slaff buys llo company from
llo curronl ovnor and conlinuos llo oporalion on lloir ovn sloam.
TlirdIy, producor cooporalivos may bo oslabIislod as a moans of %+"*3/03)5
1344*'1'). Tlo piano buiIdors in Iaris, for oxampIo, vlo in 1849 oslabIislod a
producor cooporalivo, did so oul of annoyanco vill llo oviI saIosmanslip by
llo middIomon, vlo roducod daiIy oarnings lo 2 or 3 francs, vill noarIy llo
samo amounl going lo llo inlormodiary.
6
IourllIy, producor cooporalivos
may sorvo lo %42%)!' &0' '1%)!3$%&3") "? % 5#"7$ sufforing from discrimina-
lion on llo Iabor markol. During llo 1970s and llo oarIy 1980s, llo numbor
of vomons producor cooporalivos in llo buiIding soclor in Brilain incroasod
3
Ross, @3/&"#, "? &0' 93)'#/; A'4'#%&3") "? B7/&#%*3%, p. 24.
4
Saposs, CoIoniaI and IodoraI Boginnings, p. 129.
5
Tlornos, Clango and Conlinuily, p. 38. Anollor good oxampIo is from llo
Unilod Slalos during llo 1920s, and concorns a producor cooporalivo slarlod by llo
formor ompIoyoos of a cigar faclory vlicl doaIl aImosl oxcIusivoIy vill saIoons. Will
llo advonl of prolibilion, llis oulIol for llo producl vas cIosod, saIos foII, and moro
llan 300 ompIoyoos Iosl lloir posilions. Somo of llo dispIacod vorkors organizod llo
cooporalivo company, vill llo lopo of providing ompIoymonl for lloir mombors,
and of disposing of llo producl llrougl cigar and confoclionary sloros. Anon.,
Cooporalivo Workslops, pp. 2412.
6
Hubor, Skizzon, p. 928.
,-8 / !"#$%&' )*+"%
bocauso vomon lad dif"cuIly "nding vork in llal soclor any ollor vay.
7

IinaIIy, producor cooporalivos may bo inlondod as % 2'03!*' &"-%#4 /"!3%* #'?"#1,
al llo inilialivo of llo vorkors llomsoIvos, or ollors. TypicaIIy, an ompIoyor
lands lis company ovor lo lis slaff in sucl casos. Tlo procoss usuaIIy slarls
vill a pliIanllropic onlropronour vlo "rsl sols up a pro"l-slaring sclomo,
llon a joinl-managomonl syslom, and "naIIy lransfors ovnorslip of llo com-
pany lo llo ompIoyoos upon lis roliromonl, or in lis viII. Ono sucl caso is llal
of llo Iargo Iaris 9%5%/3)/ 47 C") 9%#!0D, vloro llo ovnors, llo Boucicauls,
lransforrod ovnorslip lo llo slaff in llis mannor al llo ond of llo ninoloonll
conlury.
8
Many producor cooporalivos oxislod onIy for a slorl limo. To succood, lloy
lad lo mool al Ioasl four proroquisilos: capabIo managomonl, skiIIfuI slaff
vill a slrong domocralic impuIso, suf"cionl capilaI, and adoqualo opporluni-
lios for soIIing llo producl. I viII nolo loro somo saIionl aspocls of oacl.
9%)%5'1')&
A managor noods sovoraI quaIilios. Ho or slo is rosponsibIo possibIy assislod
by ollor mombors for idonlifying ono or sovoraI markol oulIols for llo
nov onlorpriso, purclasing llo rigll commodilios and Iabor oquipmonl as
inoxponsivoIy as possibIo, coordinaling llo companys aclivilios, and sproad-
ing llo risks. Moroovor, lo or slo slouId lavo onougl aullorily lo oncour-
ago llo ollor cooporalivo mombors lo salisfy llo oxpoclalions of llom. Sucl
skiIIs roquiro laIonl and oxporionco, vlicl aro nol nocossariIy allribulos of
producor cooporalivo mombors insofar as lloy aro ordinary vorkors. Ivon if
somo mombors lavo sucl skiIIs, lloy viII bo incIinod oxcopl if lloir sociaI-
moraI molivalion is parlicuIarIy slrong oillor lo vork for a loloronomous
company, or lo opl for soIf-ompIoymonl. In boll casos, lloir incomo vouId
probabIy bo liglor.
9
Tloro aro many oxampIos of producor cooporalivos vlicl faiIod for Iack
of managoriaI skiIIs. In 1896, Opponloimor obsorvod: Tlo maclino buiId-
7
TayIor, Ixpansion of Workor Co-oporalivos, p. 277.
8
Gido, Iroduclivo Co-oporalion in Iranco, p. 45.
9
Bon-Nor, Iifo CycIo of Workor-Ovnod Iirms, p. 290. }amos IIolclor, llo Ioador
of llo producor cooporalivo of coaI minors in NovcaslIo, AuslraIia in llo 1860s, Ialor
bocamo a capilaIisl managor and subsoquonlIy llo ovnor of a privalo onlorpriso. Ross,
@3/&"#, "? &0' 93)'#/; A'4'#%&3"), p. 24.
0'1234&' 411$&'#%*5&6 / ,--
ors of Clomnilz lad lo disband bocauso lloy ran lloir company villoul any
businoss skiIIs. Tlo samo loId lruo for IndIor & Co., llo oIdosl valcl faclory,
as voII as for Kosa und Gonosson, llo BrosIau laiIors producor cooporalivo,
for forgolling lo doducl lloir maloriaIs, and llo Magdoburg pollors coopora-
livo, sinco 95 porconl of lloir cIionls consislod of insoIvonl buiIding spocuIa-
lors, olc.
10
E)&'#)%* 4'1"!#%!,
In addilion lo boing oxporls in lloir lrado, producor cooporalivo mombors
lavo lo bo abIo lo lranscond lloir aullorilarian primary and socondary
sociaIizalion (in llo famiIy, al sclooI, al loloronomous companios) and lo
adopl a pormanonl %)&3803'#%#!03!%* viov, villoul lloroby obslrucling llo
managomonl.
11
Tlis Iosson is oflon dif"cuIl lo Ioarn, as llo abiIily lo parlici-
palo domocralicaIIy in llo vork solling is unIikoIy lo bo croalod by sclooIs
llal funclion in a slriclIy liorarclicaI faslion vloro ruIos, roguIalions and
buroaucralic conlroI claraclorizo llo Ioarning and sociaI procoss.
12
Tlo Iack
of onlropronouriaI and anli-liorarclicaI quaIilios oflon lompls producor coop-
oralivo mombors lo mainlain smaII, simpIo organizalionaI slrucluros, and lo
mislrusl any organizalionaI oxpansion. AIlornalivoIy, a mombor vill slrong
onlropronouriaI skiIIs may, vlon foIIov mombors aro insuf"cionlIy anli-lior-
arclicaI, bo lomplod lo lijack llo organizalion.
13
F%$3&%*
ObviousIy, a producor cooporalivo roquiros suf"cionl funding for invosl-
monls in circuIaling and "xod capilaI (rav maloriaIs, buiIdings, looIs and
maclinos, volicIos). Savings, or llo duos coIIoclod from llo organizalions
mombors, aro llo mosl obvious sourco of "nanco. Sucl assols lond lo bo vory
10
Opponloimor, G3'4*7)5/5')"//')/!0%?&, pp. 5960.
11
Oflon, con!icls of aullorily vouId ariso in producor cooporalivos. A vorkor
migll loII lis or lor suporvisor: You cannol ordor mo around. I am nol undor your
conlroI. Hofmann, Doulsclo Masclinonbau-Arboilor-Kompanio, p. 96.
12
Iovin, Issuos in Assossing llo Comparalivo Iroduclivily, p. 57.
13
Tlis courso of ovonls sooms, for inslanco, lo lavo lakon pIaco al llo G!"&&3/0 H%3*,
I'-/ in llo 1970s. BradIoy, Comparalivo AnaIysis of Iroducor Cooporalivos.
,-9 / !"#$%&' )*+"%
modosl lovovor.
14
Ior llal roason, producor cooporalivos lavo oflon boon
conconlralod in Iabor-inlonsivo induslrios, vlicl roquirod IillIo in llo vay
of oxponsivo maclinory or ollor oquipmonl. Acquiring compolilivo slrongll
gonoraIIy domands addilionaI rosourcos oblainod from oxlornaI parlios.
Holoronomous companios usuaIIy roIy in parl on sucl moans as voII (issuo
of slaros and bonds, bank crodils, olc.).
15
Iroducor cooporalivos ordinariIy
lavo a vido rango of oplions for addilionaI oxlornaI funding, many of vlicl
Ioad lo diIulion.
IirslIy, producor cooporalivos may bo abIo lo caII on poopIo sympallolic lo
lloir causo, vloso conlribulions mako llom offoclivoIy slaroloIdors in llo
company. Tlis londoncy is fairIy common. In many inslancos, llo oslabIisl-
monl of a producor cooporalivo foIIovod a major campaign lo rocruil llis
lypo of slaroloIdor. SocondIy, supporl is avaiIabIo from Iabor movomonl
organizalions (lrado unions, consumor cooporalivos, and llo Iiko). Tlo suc-
coss of sucl supporl doponds IargoIy on llo alliludo sucl inslilulions lako
lovard llo vory idoa of aulonomous produclion, many lrado unions lavo in
facl boon Ioss llan onllusiaslic aboul producor cooporalivos, bocauso lloy
boIiovod sucl aclivily vouId 43/&#%!& vorkors from miIilanl aclion rallor llan
supporl il.
16

Ollor possibiIilios for oxlornaI "nanco incIudo pliIanllropisls, IocaI and
nalionaI slalo inslilulions, pubIic uliIilios companios (o.g. llrifl cIubs) and llo
Iiko.
17
AIllougl a slraigllforvard bank Ioan vouId soom lo bo a IogicaI pos-
sibiIily, banks oflon lavo IillIo con"donco in cooporalivo "rms run by vork-
ors llomsoIvos. A "naI possibiIily is lo oIicil aid from capilaIisls, by issuing
bonds or slaros. Slaros onlaiI llo dislincl disadvanlago llal lloy lurn oxlor-
naI slaroloIdors inlo foIIov ovnors, vlicl impIios an immodialo diIulion of
soIf-managomonl, vliIo bond issuos obIigo llo producor cooporalivo lo pay a
"xod amounl in inlorosl annuaIIy, rogardIoss of llo "rms pro"labiIily.
14
I.g.: Tlo vorkors possossod so fov rosourcos llal villoul govornmonl assis-
lanco, llo primary dif"cuIly concornod capilaI accumuIalion. Sclnappor, Ios socils
ouvriros do produclion, p. 172.
15
Ginlis, IrincipIo of IxlornaI AccounlabiIily.
16
Ior oxampIo Iisonborg, A#J0' B#+'3&'#+'-'57)5 7)4 K')"//')/!0%?&').
17
Gido, ='/ "+/&%!*'/, pp. 1634.
0'1234&' 411$&'#%*5&6 / ,-:
G%*'/
A company can rocruil ils cIionloIo in lvo vays: ono vory Iov-koy and grad-
uaI, llo ollor suddon and Iargo-scaIo. Tlo socond mollod is possibIo onIy
if a givon company loIds a monopoIy (or a palonl) for a producl vlicl is
cIoarIy suporior lo aII ollors, or if il is capabIo of invosling considorabIy in
manufacluring producls al a Iovor cosl and/or producls of bollor quaIily
llan compolilors. Sinco boll lloso oplions aro usuaIIy boyond llo roacl of
producor cooporalivos, lloy usuaIIy dopond on 5#%47%**, !%$&7#3)5 % 1%#.'&
/0%#', usuaIIy a smaII ono.
18
Doponding on llo producl or sorvico providod and llo oconomys ovoraII
slrucluro, a producor cooporalivo can lavo various lypos of cuslomors. Tloy
couId incIudo proIolarian famiIios, if llo producl is a roIalivoIy inoxponsivo
consumor ilom, buyors from llo bollor circIos aIllougl llis possibiIily
doponds groalIy on llo cuIluraI claraclorislics of sociaI cIassos,
19
ollor pro-
ducor cooporalivos,
20
various Iabor organizalions (lrado unions, consumor
cooporalivos), loloronomous companios, and, of courso, IocaI and nalionaI
slalo inslilulions.
Onco producor cooporalivos aro oslabIislod, lloy viII oflon oporalo jusl
as of"cionlIy or ovon moro of"cionlIy llan loloronomous companios.
21
Ono
roason is llal a producor cooporalivo roquiros comparalivoIy *'// /7$'#23/3")
llan a convonlionaI onlorpriso. Iroducor cooporalivos lavo inlornaIizod llo
conlradiclion bolvoon capilaI and Iabor, and lloroforo suffor considorabIy
fovor asymmolrios of informalion, mislrusl and suclIiko llan loloronomous
18
Opponloimor, G3'4*7)5/5')"//')/!0%?&, p. 5.
19
Gido, ='/ "+/&%!*'/, p. 13, doscribos a producor cooporalivo knovn as =% L%#3/3'))',
vlicl producod loiIols. Tlis company vas unabIo lo bocomo a sorious businoss.
Wly` Bocauso loo many vomon Iackod llo courago lo lavo loiIols buiIl by vork-
ors from cooporalivos and lo lako prido in palronizing a sociaI omancipalion projocl.
Tloy foarod boing ridicuIod in llo saIons.
20
IngIndor doscribos llo caso of a Iaris producor cooporalivo of Iasl cullors
(ca. 1850). In ils oarIy days, llo mombors of llis cooporalivo producod a fov Iasls
and offorod llom lo a sloomakors producor cooporalivo: llo sloomakors obviousIy
supporlod llo onlorpriso. AII sloomakor associalions promisod lo bocomo cIionls |of
llo Iasl cullors producor cooporalivoj. IngIndor, K'/!03!0&' 4'# ?#%)MN/3/!0') B#+'3&'#8
B//"!3%&3")'), IV, p. 159.
21
An accumuIaling body of ovidonco suggosls llal producor cooporalivos oflon
onjoy liglor IovoIs of produclivily llan do ollorviso simiIar convonlionaI "rms.
Iullorman and SkiIIman, RoIo of Ixil Cosls, p. 596.
,-; / !"#$%&' )*+"%
"rms.
22
In aclivilios in vlicl conlraIizod moniloring is dif"cuIl lo carry oul,
muluaI moniloring and bollor inconlivos for vorkor-mombors loIp ovorcomo
slirking and mako for suporior porformanco of producor cooporalivos.
23

In lis sludy of conlomporary pIyvood manufacluring cooporalivos in llo
Amorican Wosl, Clrisloplor Gunn vrilos: Tlo co-ops uso signi"canlIy
fovor suporvisors llan lloir convonlionaI counlorparls, llo avorago in llo
co-ops is ono or lvo por slifl of 60 lo 70 poopIo as opposod lo "vo lo sovon in
convonlionaI "rms.
24
In addilion, llo /&#")5'# -"#. '&03! in producor coopora-
livos onlancos gonoraI of"cioncy. Various aullors lavo nolod llal producor
cooporalivos oflon yioId suporior oulpul, and vaslo fovor rav maloriaIs llan
in llo caso of produclion by loloronomous "rms.
25
Moroovor, llo )")8$#"47!8
&32' !")/71$&3") "? '1$*",'#/ 3/ '*313)%&'4.
26
AII lloso faclors combino lo koop
producor cooporalivos oporaling cosls signi"canlIy boIov lloso of lolorono-
mous "rms.
9'1+'#/03$
BoIonging lo a producor cooporalivo las boll advanlagos and disadvanlagos
for vorkors. Tlo main advanlago is probabIy llal llo company is nol run
by a boss, bul by llo acluaI ompIoyoos llomsoIvos. Workors, Iiko anybody
oIso, groalIy approcialo sucl indopondonco. Harry Davos indood arguos llal
llo dosiro lo bo indopondonl is oflon llo main aim in Iifo of a vorkor.
27

Anollor advanlago of a producor cooporalivo is llal vlon businoss is good,
mombors can oarn roIalivoIy ligl incomos.
Tlo main disadvanlago of a producor cooporalivo is llo lromondous risk
invoIvod. IirslIy, somoono vlo joins a producor cooporalivo noods lo invosl
a subslanliaI amounl of lis or lor ovn savings. Irom a slriclIy oconomic
poinl of viov, sucl an aclion sooms unviso: if candidalo mombors of a pro-
ducor cooporalivo aclod onIy as ralionaI, soIf-inloroslod invoslors, lloy vouId
22
RussoII, ImpIoyoo Ovnorslip and InlornaI Govornanco.
23
Bon-Nor, Iroducor Cooporalivos, p. 436.
24
Gunn, :"#.'#/; G'*?89%)%5'1')& 3) &0' <)3&'4 G&%&'/, p. 111.
25
Opponloimor, G3'4*7)5/5')"//')/!0%?&, p. 55, IngIndor, K'/!03!0&' 4'# ?#%)MN/3/!0')
B#+'3&'#8B//"!3%&3")'), IV, pp. 1601.
26
I am roforring lo llo =7O7#, moans of consumplion, vlicl onlor llo consump-
lion onIy of llo capilaIisl cIass Marx, F%$3&%*, II, p. 479.
27
Davos, Iabour MobiIily in llo SlooI Induslry, p. 86.
0'1234&' 411$&'#%*5&6 / ,-<
sproad lloir funds, and lloy vouId corlainIy nol invosl in llo company vloro
lloy vorkod. Moroovor, vorkors joining a producor cooporalivo lavo lo givo
up any job lloy may lavo loId proviousIy.
Tlo docision by vorkors lo join a producor cooporalivo lloroforo ro!ocls
individuaI doIiboralion (porlaps rosuIling from nogolialions villin llo louso-
loId) voigling up llo oxpoclod incomo and aulonomy al llo nov vorkpIaco
on llo ono land, and oxpoclalions of risk on llo ollor land. Tloso consid-
oralions invoIvo on sovoraI Iifo-cloicos. Tlo Iabor markol offors individuaI
vorkors four main aIlornalivos: liro oul lloir Iabor povor lo an ompIoyor
(vago Iabor), slarl a businoss on ovn accounl (soIf-ompIoymonl), oslabIisl
a company vill ollors (a producor cooporalivo), or bocomo/romain unom-
pIoyod. Tlis Iasl oplion is gonoraIIy llo Ioasl allraclivo of llo four. Tlo ollor
llroo may doponding on llo spoci"c silualion aII lavo lloir morils. WliIo
llo aulonomy and oxpoclod incomo of a soIf-ompIoyod vorkor may bo roIa-
livoIy ligl, llo oxpoclod risk is oquaIIy signi"canl. Wago Iabor, on llo ollor
land, llougl oflon Ioss Iucralivo and moro roslriclivo, onlaiIs a Iovor risk as
voII. So an individuaI vorkors cloico is dolorminod by sovoraI spoci"c facls.
In addilion lo llo monlionod soIoclion criloria (incomo, aulonomy, risk), ollor
considoralions can bo invoIvod (o.g. llo $#'/&35' of an oplion). OvoraII, llo
docision lo join or rofuso momborslip of a producor cooporalivo is a mallor of
porsonaI laslo and idooIogy, conslrainod by llo roaIily llal vorkors lypicaIIy
lond lo avoid major risks, and lloroforo profor a Iovor avorago of sloadior
incomos ovor a liglor avorago of moro variabIo incomos.
28
C7/3)'// /'!&"#/
Tlo imporlanco of risk avoidanco causos producor cooporalivos lo focus on
aclivilios vill llo Iovosl possibIo risk. Mombors viII invosl as IillIo of lloir
scarco rosourcos as possibIo in conslanl capilaI. In ollor vords, lloy viII
sook lo minimizo purclasos of oxponsivo moans of produclion (maclinos,
looIs, olc.) and lo mainlain llo smaIIosl possibIo invonlory of unsoId "nislod
producls.
29
Dislinguisling branclos of induslry according lo lloso criloria
yioIds llo foIIoving diagram:
28
Bon-Nor, Iifo CycIo, p. 290, Conlo, Inlry of Workor Cooporalivos, p. 44.
29
Tlo porsislonco of commodily capilaI as a commodily slock roquiros buiIdings,
sloros, conlainors, varolousos, i.o. an oulIay of conslanl capilaI, il oquaIIy roquiros
,9= / !"#$%&' )*+"%
Iiguro 8.1
Businoss soclors and risks
Conslanl capilaI
Iov ligl
VaIuo Iov Iov modium
Commodily Slock ligl modium ligl
Silualions vill a Iov risk aro obviousIy mosl conducivo lo producor coop-
oralivos, vliIo silualions vill a ligl risk aro Ioasl favorabIo. Tlo difforonco
bolvoon lypos vill a Iov and a ligl commodily slock vaIuo oflon corro-
sponds lo llo difforonco bolvoon companios llal "II spociaI ordors, and lloso
llal do nol. Companios llal "II spociaI ordors incIudo conslruclion (arcli-
locls, masons, carponlors, and painlors), llo molaI induslry, and llo graplic
soclor.
30
Tlo difforonco bolvoon companios vill a Iov and a ligl conslanl
capilaI is oflon idonlicaI lo llo difforonco bolvoon companios llal rondor sor-
vicos (o.g. a bookkooping coIIoclivo) and companios llal produco goods (o.g.
prinlors). Moroovor, groups of vorkors oarning roIalivoIy ligl vagos viII bo
in a bollor posilion lo oslabIisl a producor cooporalivo llan lloir Ioss voII-
paid coIIoaguos. Rogarding llo Doulsclo Masclinonbau-Arboilor-Kompanio
(Clomnilz, 18637), Hofmann las nolod: llo roIalivoIy ligl incomo of molaI
vorkors vill rospocl lo ollor groups of proIolarians vas an ossonliaI condi-
lion for lloir parlicipalion in llo slaro company.
31
Iov-risk producor cooporalivos oxislod in many variolios in llo pasl. In
IlaIy and Iranco, sovoraI groups of vorkors ronlod lloir sorvicos coIIoclivoIy
lo municipaI aullorilios, llus circumvonling paymonl of a middIoman or sub-
conlraclor. Many voro pavors and carriors. Iulling-oul vorkors formod sucl
llal paymonl bo mado for llo Iabour povor ompIoyod in pIacing llo commodilios in
lloir conlainors. Iurllormoro, commodilios docay, and aro subjocl lo llo damaging
in!uonco of llo oIomonls. AddilionaI capilaI musl llus bo oxpondod lo prolocl llom
from llis, parlIy in objoclivo form as moans of Iabour, and parlIy in Iabour-povor.
Marx, F%$3&%*, II, pp. 2156.
30
Tloy do nol lavo slops bul simpIy oporalo from vorkpIacos. Gido, ='/ "+/&%8
!*'/, p. 10.
31
Hofmann, Doulsclo Masclinonbau-Arboilor-Kompanio, p. 85.
0'1234&' 411$&'#%*5&6 / ,9,
producor cooporalivos as voII. In 1923, ClarIos Gido doscribod a vomons
cooporalivo, knovn as <)3") '& >#%2%3*.
Tlis cooporalivo vas formod during llo var for slirl-making. Tlo vomon
vorkors voro ompIoyod from lloir lomos and mado soIdiors slirls al
a ralo of 25 conlimos oacl boforo llo var, lloir daiIy oulpul vas Iov.
Tlo inlormodiary onlropronour, vlo assignod produclion of lloso slirls,
rocoivod 45 or 50 conlimos from llo Army Sorvico Corps, lo llus kopl laIf
llo rovonuo for limsoIf.
Tloso vomon vorkors oillor llougll of forming a producor cooporalivo
or loard llo suggoslion from ollors. Insload of rocoiving 25 conlimos a slirl,
lloy oblainod llo 45 conlimos proviousIy paid lo llo inlormodiary, lloroby
doubIing lloir saIarios.
32
Considoring llo aforomonlionod faclors conducivo lo oslabIisling producor
cooporalivos, llo provaIonco of producor cooporalivos in Iabor-inlonsivo
induslrios slouId como as no surpriso. }oan Orizol, for oxampIo, obsorvod
a conconlralion in conslruclion, prinling, cIolling, and foolvoar. Iroducor
cooporalivos of scavongors aro aIso commonpIaco.
33
Tlo naluro of llo Iabor procoss is anollor imporlanl aspocl. In soclors vloro
vorkors lavo a ligl moasuro of Iabor aulonomy (i.o. llo soclors vill formaI
subsumplion of Iabor undor capilaI, sucl as lradilionaI craflsmon, inlornaI
subconlracling, olc.),
34
forming a producor cooporalivo is oflon Ioss compIi-
calod llan in soclors vloro llo Iabor procossos aro liglIy loloronomous
(TayIorism, convoyor boIl vork, olc.). NonolloIoss, somo producor coopora-
livos voro basod on an oxlonsivo division of Iabor. In llo oarIy 1850s, V.A.
Hubor visilod llo associalion of furniluro makors in Iaris: Vory Iong rooms
32
Gido, ='/ 432'#/ &,$'/, simiIar producor cooporalivos voro oslabIislod by Ironcl
soamslrossos, vaslorvomon and midvivos during llo "rsl laIf of llo ninoloonll
conlury. Grubilzscl, Womons Irojocls and Co-oporalivos in Iranco.
33
Orizol, Co-oporalivo Movomonl sinco llo Iirsl WorId War, p. 36, Iorry, G%)
A#%)!3/!" G!%2')5'#/.
34
|CapilaIj subsumos llo Iabour procoss as il "nds il, llal is lo say, il lakos ovor an
'O3/&3)5 *%+"7# $#"!'//, dovoIopod by difforonl and moro arclaic modos of produclion.
|. . .j If clangos occur in lloso lradilionaI oslabIislod *%+"7# $#"!'//'/ aflor lloir lakoovor
by capilaI, lloso aro nolling bul llo graduaI consoquoncos of llal subsumplion. Tlo
vork may bocomo moro inlonsivo, ils duralion may bo oxlondod, il may bocomo moro
conlinuous or ordorIy undor llo oyo of llo inloroslod capilaIisl, bul in llomsoIvos lloso
clangos do nol affocl llo claraclor of llo acluaI Iabour procoss, llo acluaI modo of
vorking. Marx, P'/7*&/ "? &0' E11'43%&' L#"!'// "? L#"47!&3"), pp. 1021, 1027.
,9. / !"#$%&' )*+"%
or gaIIorios, vloro aboul a lundrod poopIo voro saving clair Iogs, backs,
and framos in vory divorso and somolimos vory oIaboralo mannors, vood
lurning, carving, poIisling, and in somo casos assombIing and allacling llo
individuaI parls. |. . . Tlo division of Iabor isj lakon lo sucl an oxlromo llal
ono vorkor makos onIy Iogs, llo ollor onIy backs, llo llird ono onIy framos,
and so on.
35

Iranz Opponloimor las arguod combining llo abovo considoralions llal
lrados unaffoclod by llo InduslriaI RovoIulion voro llo mosl conducivo lo
succossfuI producor cooporalivos. Aflor aII, nol onIy do sucl branclos roquiro
roIalivoIy modosl invoslmonl, bul lloy aro nol llroalonod by major corpora-
lions oillor and can acliovo a domocralic slrucluro roIalivoIy oasiIy.
36
6O&'#)%* F")43&3")/
In addilion lo inlornaI faclors (managomonl, slaff, capilaI, cIionloIo), oxlornaI
faclors dolormino llo IikoIilood of succoss of producor cooporalivos, i.o. fac-
lors nol diroclIy subjocl lo llo in!uonco of cooporalivos mombors.
Tlo "rsl aspocl concorns llo %+7)4%)!' "# /!%#!3&, "? "#5%)3M%&3")/ %?!*3%&'4
vill llo producor cooporalivo lo bo oslabIislod. A doarll of aIroady oxisl-
ing producor cooporalivos may bo an 3)&#3)/3! obslacIo, by raising llo cosls
of oslabIislmonl of a nov ono. IogaI, organizalionaI, and "nanciaI knovI-
odgo aboul oslabIisling a producor cooporalivo is oflon lard lo oblain for an
isoIalod group of vorkors, provaiIing roguIalions oflon faiI lo accommodalo
cooporalivo onlilios, banks may bo roIuclanl lo suppIy crodil, bocauso of lloir
Iack of famiIiarily vill producor cooporalivos.
37
SocondIy, /0'*&'# "#5%)3M%&3")/, vlicl coordinalo llo aclivilios of producor
cooporalivos, buiId oxporliso and arrango funding, olc. can roduco risks. In
somo counlrios, sucl organizalions go back a Iong vay, for oxampIo in Iranco
and IlaIy.
38
MiclaoI Conlo las allribulod llo scarcily of producor cooporalivos
in llo Unilod Slalos and Wosl Gormany vis--vis IlaIy, Iranco, and llo Unilod
Kingdom lo llo absonco of supporling organizalions:
35
Hubor, Skizzon, p. 919.
36
Opponloimor, G3'4*7)5/5')"//')/!0%?&, p. 64.
37
Bon-Nor, Iifo CycIo, p. 290.
38
TlornIoy, :"#.'#/; F"8"$'#%&32'/, pp. 133, 151, IarIo, E&%*3%) F""$'#%&32' 9"2'1')&,
pp. 3260.
0'1234&' 411$&'#%*5&6 / ,97
|In IlaIy, Iranco, and llo Unilod Kingdomj llo cooporalivo supporl organ-
izalions provido loclnicaI advico (simiIar lo llal providod by oconomic-
dovoIopmonl agoncios) lo cooporalivos, coIIocl slalislics on llo cooporalivo
soclor, and, porlaps mosl imporlanlIy, pross for llo adoplion of IogisIalion
do"ning cooporalivos in llo conloxl of lloir counlrys corporalion Iavs. Tlo
conlraI roIo of lloso aclivilios is lo docroaso llo uncorlainly surrounding llo
founding and oporalion of cooporalivo corporalions. In conlrasl, subslanliaI
uncorlainly oxisls in llo Unilod Slalos and Wosl Gormany concorning llo
slalus of sucl corporalions.
39
A llird aspocl is llo '!")"13! %)4 $"*3&3!%* ')23#")1')&. IubIic aullorilios and
onlropronours couId croalo major obslacIos for producor cooporalivos. SoIig
IorIman las doscribod lov a raiIroad company in llo Unilod Slalos lriod lo
undormino a producor cooporalivo of llo Kniglls of Iabor and llo Union
Mining Company of CannoIburg, Indiana around 1880:
Aflor oxponding $20,000 in oquipping llo minos, purclasing Iand, Iaying
lracks, culling and saving limbor on llo Iand, and mining $1,000 vorll of
coaI, lloy voro compoIIod lo Iio idIo for nino monlls boforo llo raiIroad
company sav "l lo connocl lloir svilcl lo llo main lrack. Wlon lloy voro
roady lo slip lloir producl, il vas Ioarnod llal lloir coaI couId bo uliIizod
for llo manufacluro of gas onIy, and llal conlracls for sucl coaI voro Iol
in }uIy, nino monlls from llo limo of connocling llo svilcl vill llo main
lrack. In addilion, llo company vas informod llal il musl suppIy ilsoIf vill
a svilcl-ongino lo do llo svilcling of llo cars from ils mino lo llo main
lrack, al an addilionaI cosl of $4,000. |. . .j Having oxlauslod lloir funds and
nol sooing lloir vay cIoar lo socuro addilionaI funds for llo purclaso of a
Iocomolivo and lo lido ovor llo nino monlls boforo any conlracl for coaI
couId bo onlorod inlo, lloy soId oul.
40

Iroducor cooporalivos voro oflon subjocl lo poIico larassmonl, or agilalion
by lradosmon vlo sav lloir IivoIilood llroalonod. In IlaIy, producor coop-
oralivos voro llo largol of fascisl aggrossion from aboul 1920 onvard. In
39
Conlo, Inlry of Workor Cooporalivos, p. 45.
40
IorIman, UploavaI and Roorganisalion, p. 437.
,98 / !"#$%&' )*+"%
SvilzorIand during llo 1970s, maloriaIs boycolling, bIackIisling, and prico
dumping porsislod againsl producor cooporalivos in llo buiIding lrados.
41
IourllIy, llo llrosloId for oslabIisling a producor cooporalivo is Iovorod,
if llo foundors fooI a slrong !"117)3&, /$3#3&, for oxampIo bocauso lloy lavo
a slrong sonso of occupalionaI idonlily and prido in lloir crafl (as las somo-
limos boon llo caso vill lypograplors), or bocauso lloy porlain lo llo samo
ollnic minorily.
42
H3*7&3")
GonoraIIy, four lypos of diIulion of producor cooporalivos oxisl: silualions
vloro oxlornaI capilaI suppIiors oulnumbor vorkors-ovnors, silualions
vloro vorkors oulnumbor vorkor-ovnors, silualions vloro llo vorkor-
ovnors Ioso lloir say in managomonl, and various combinalions of lloso
llroo diIulions. DiIulod producor cooporalivos can ariso in sovoraI vays.
A lypo of major lisloricaI imporlanco is llo corporalo associalion, llal is
a producor cooporalivo vloro llo capilaI is IargoIy suppIiod by ollor Iabor
organizalions, sucl as lrado unions, consumor cooporalivos, and llo Iiko. Tlo
gIass-vorks oslabIislod in AIbi (Iranco) in 1895 is a voII-knovn oxampIo.
Ils principIo vas llal: Tlo vorkors gIass-vorks slaII bo run 'O!*7/32'*, by
llo cooporalivo and syndicalod organizalions.
43
Tlo foundrios oslabIislod
by llo Amorican MoIdors Union in llo poriod 18661906 probabIy porlain lo
llis calogory as voII.
44
Anollor lypo of diIulod producor cooporalivo is llo ompIoyoo-ovnod "rm
or ompIoyoo buyoul, vlicl is bocoming quilo common in llo Unilod Slalos
and Argonlina.
45
A llird lypo of diIulion occurs if llo producor cooporalivo
bocomos moro buroaucralic, vill managomonl groving moro indopondonl
41
Cummings, Co-oporalivo Iroduclion in Iranco and IngIand, p. 378, IarIo,
>0' E&%*3%) F""$'#%&32' 9"2'1')&, pp. 247, SiogonllaIor, Iroducors Cooporalivos in
SvilzorIand, p. 22.
42
RussoII, <&"$3% 3) Q3"), pp. 167, aIso soo Bon-Nor, Comparalivo ImpiricaI
Obsorvalions.
43
Iavorgno, Ia vorrorio ouvriro dAIbi, p. 49. AIso soo Gido, Iroduclivo Co-
oporalion in Iranco, pp. 414. Tlo ovonls procoding llis gIass-vorks appoar in }oan
Scolls K*%//-"#.'#/ "? F%#1%7O.
44
Slocklon, Iroduclivo Cooporalion in llo MoIdors Union.
45
}onos, Amorican Iroducor Cooporalivos, p. 39, Slryjan, E1$"//3+*' R#5%)3M%&3")/,
p. 21. AIso soo Gundorson '& %*., ImpIoyoo Buyouls in Canada.
0'1234&' 411$&'#%*5&6 / ,9-
from llo slaff. Tlis lrond vas apparonl in llo congIomoralo of cooporalivos
in Mondragn (Basquo counlry), rogardod by somo as llo vorIds Ioading
oxporimonl vill soIf-managomonl in capilaIisl socioly. Tlo vorkors lloro
do nol considor llo "rms &0'3#/ in any moaningfuI vay
46
a consoquonco
of llo conlrasl bolvoon managors and Iovor-IovoI slaff llal las causod con-
!icls (incIuding a slriko!) in llo oarIy 1990s, and rosislanco by vorkors ospo-
ciaIIy againsl a vidoning of llo vago difforonliaI bolvoon llo Iovosl and llo
liglosl-paid mombors.
AII lloso forms of diIulion may oillor Ioad lo +7#'%7!#%&3M%&3") of a producor
cooporalivo, so llal il bocomos a sorl of lybrid company vlicl is noillor
domocralic nor capilaIisl, or lransform llo cooporalivo inlo a 0'&'#")"1"7/
oporalion. AIlogollor, a producor cooporalivo may lloroforo ovoIvo in any of
four vays, in llo Iong lauI: consoIidalion of llo "rm according lo llo originaI
principIos, buroaucralizalion, lransformalion inlo a capilaIisl "rm, or dissoIu-
lion. In llo pasl, sovoraI oxporls lavo cIaimod llal llo "rsl oplion is unro-
aIislic in llo Iong run, and llal '2'#, producor cooporalivo viII ovonluaIIy
oxporionco diIulion. Cummings, for oxampIo, considors llo socond and llird
oplions (buroaucralizalion or lransformalion) inovilabIo: In vlalovor plaso
llo co-oporalivo probIom prosonls ilsoIf, llo samo dif"cuIlios rocur. In Ing-
Iand, as in llo Unilod Slalos and Iranco, llo londoncy of associalod produc-
lion lo gravilalo lovard a joinl-slock form of smaII capilaIisls, or lo sving sliII
furllor lovards oxlromo conlraIizalion, manifosls ilsoIf vill llo conslancy of
a naluraI Iav.
47
In IngIisl-spoaking counlrios, llis inlorprolalion bocamo knovn mainIy
llrougl llo vork of Boalrico Iollor (Wobb). In lor cIassic book >0' F"8"$'#%8
&32' 9"2'1')& 3) K#'%& C#3&%3) (1891), slo oxaminod a sampIo of 54 producor
cooporalivos, concIuding llal vanl of capilaI, vanl of cuslom and absonco
of adminislralivo discipIino consislonlIy croalod a fundamonlaI diIomma:
WliIo govornmonl by llo vorkors provod a polonl causo of commorciaI
faiIuro, commorciaI succoss promplIy doslroyod llis pocuIiar form of gov-
ornmonl |. . .j by subsliluling (vill or villoul llo vorkors Ioavo) llo oul-
sido capilaIisl for llo vorking slaroloIdor.
48
In Gorman-spoaking counlrios
46
Kasmir, 9,&0 "? 9")4#%5"), p. 197.
47
Cummings, Co-oporalivo Iroduclion in Iranco and IngIand, p. 378.
48
Iollor, F"8"$'#%&32' 9"2'1')& 3) K#'%& C#3&%3), p. 131. Ialor Boalrico and Sidnoy
Wobb rocon"rmod llis viov: In llo roIalivoIy fov inslancos in vlicl sucl onlorprisos
,99 / !"#$%&' )*+"%
Iranz Opponloimor popuIarizod llo samo idoa. In lis book H3' G3'4*7)5/8
5')"//')/!0%?& (1896) basod in parl on Iollors vork lo formuIalod lis
Iav of Transformalion: Vory raroIy doos a producor cooporalivo prospor.
Onco il doos, il slops boing a producor cooporalivo.
49
Irom llo 1890s onvard,
llis idoa bocamo in!uonliaI, and il vas adoplod by lislorians as voII. In llo
Ialo 1920s, for oxampIo, llo Amorican Iabor lislorian Norman Waro vrolo:
No slop or faclory las boon abIo lo mainlain of"cioncy vloro llo vorkors
llomsoIvos ovn and oporalo llo pIanl. If llo businoss succoods llo originaI
vorkors bocomo managors and slockloIdors, ompIoying nov mon in a puroIy
vago capacily, or somo sorl of palornaIism is sol up as pro"l slaring and
coparlnorslip. Bul usuaIIy llo businoss faiIs.
50

Sinco llo oarIy 1970s, lovovor, povorfuI argumonls lavo boon advancod
againsl llis dogonoralion lloory. Boforo oxamining llo aIlornalivo lloorios,
Iol us considor llo lurdIos facing producor cooporalivos upon lloir oslabIisl-
monl. Iconomic aspocls pIay an imporlanl roIo. Wo aIroady obsorvod llal
producor cooporalivos aro oflon foundod during oconomic sIumps, llal is,
vlon condilions aro Ioasl auspicious and capluring a slaro of llo markol is
llo lardosl.
51
Bul lloro aro moro lurdIos llan a ligll markol. Domand for
llo producl suppIiod by llo producor cooporalivo may docroaso slrucluraIIy,
or loclnoIogicaI innovalions may aIlor llo Iabor roIalionslips dramalicaIIy
in llo brancl of induslry. Tlo coopor cooporalivos, found in MinnoapoIis
bolvoon llo 1860s and llo 1930s, facod a combinalion of boll claIIongos. Tlo
coopors mado barroIs for sloring grain. WliIo llo producor cooporalivos lad
dominalod llis soclor for a vliIo (al ono poinl, lvo llirds of aII IocaI coopors
lavo nol succumbod as businoss concorns, lloy lavo coasod lo bo Domocracios of
Iroducors managing lloir ovn vork, and lavo bocomo, in offocl, associalions of
capilaIisls, llougl oflon capilaIisls on a smaII scaIo, making pro"l for llomsoIvos by
llo ompIoymonl al vagos of vorkors oulsido lloir associalion. Wobb and Wobb,
F")/&3&7&3") ?"# &0' G"!3%*3/& F"11")-'%*&0 "? K#'%& C#3&%3), p. 155. Ior a crilicaI ro-
anaIysis of Boalrico Wobbs maloriaI in >0' F"8"$'#%&32' 9"2'1')& 3) K#'%& C#3&%3), soo
}onos, Brilisl Iroducor Co-oporalivos. }onos concIudos llal llo Wobbs conlonlion
llal producor cooporalivos 3)'23&%+*, dogonoralo inlo non-parlicipalory inslilulions
is faIso (p. 58).
49
Opponloimor, G3'4*7)5/5')"//')/!0%?&, p. 45. AIso soo Kruck, 'Transformalion-
sgosolz.
50
Waro, =%+"# 9"2'1')& 3) &0' <)3&'4 G&%&'/, pp. 3212.
51
Miyazaki roinforcos llis viov by slaling llal llo oxislonco of a bona "do IMI
|Iabor-Managod Iirmj is consislonl onIy vill an onvironmonl in vlicl llo IMI
|Iro"l-Maximizing Iirmj is oxpoclod lo bocomo insoIvonl. Miyazaki, Succoss and
DissoIulion, p. 917.
0'1234&' 411$&'#%*5&6 / ,9:
vorkod in producor cooporalivos), llo domand for barroIs docroasod, vlon
ollor packing maloriaIs (o.g. sacks) bocamo popuIar.
52
Moro imporlanlIy, locl-
noIogicaI clangos in llo induslry curlaiIod llo dulios of llo skiIIod coopors,
and oxpandod llo roIo of co-vorkors vill difforonl quaIi"calions.
In llo oarIy days barroI making vas vloIIy land vork, ovon llo making
of llo lickory loops llon in uso vas duII-soason vork for llo coopor.
WindIassing llo !aring slavos inlo barroI slapo, forcing llo loavy iron lross
loops inlo pIaco, bovoIIing llo onds (clamforing) of llo slavos and making
llo groovo lo lako llo load (crozing) aII lloso procossos voro porformod
by llo coopor. Bul voII boforo llo ond of llo conlury povor maclinos voro
inlroducod vlicl gavo sucl spood and procision lo lloso procossos llal
llo cooporalivos voro compoIIod lo inslaII maclinos for lrossing, crozing
and clamforing, and lo liro oulsido loIp lo oporalo llom. Tlo vork of llo
coopor vas llus narrovod lo "lling llo load, adjusling and appIying llo
pormanonl loops, and "nisling off llo barroI.
53
Sinco boing a coopor vas a proroquisilo for joining a producor cooporalivo, llis
loclnoIogicaI clango nocossariIy onlaiIod a roduclion of momborslip. Tlo
claraclor of llo undorlaking las boon considorabIy modi"od by llo onforcod
uso of maclinory.
54
Sucl circumslancos forcod llo coopors producor coop-
oralivo lo clooso bolvoon rovising ils principIos, and disbanding.
An addilionaI probIom, ospociaIIy in liglIy compolilivo markols, is llal il
is mucl moro dif"cuIl for producor cooporalivos lo koop lrado socrols llan
for ollor companios. Tlo domocralic inlornaI moclanism of producor coop-
oralivos makos imporlanl informalion avaiIabIo lo aII mombors, and llis
may joopardizo lloir posilion roIalivo lo lloir moro socrolivo capilaIisl com-
polilors.
55
Moroovor, inlornaI dissonl is a groalor llroal lo llo oxislonco of
producor cooporalivos llan lo mosl loloronomous companios. Difforoncos of
opinion may ariso, rogarding nocossary invoslmonls, pIanning of llo vork, or
llo ompIoymonl poIicy. Sucl conlrovorsios can oasiIy causo a corporalo crisis,
52
Virluo, Co-oporalivo Coopors of MinnoapoIis, pp. 52832.
53
Virluo, Tlo Ind of llo Coporalivo Coopors, pp. 5412.
54
Virluo, Co-oporalivo Coopors of MinnoapoIis, pp. 5389.
55
DoucouIiagos, Wly CapilaIisl Iirms Oulnumbor, p. 54, BradIoy, Comparalivo
AnaIysis of Iroducor Cooporalivos.
,9; / !"#$%&' )*+"%
bocauso oacl spoci"c brancl of induslry gonoraIIy las fov producor coopora-
livos. Dissidonls aro llus unabIo lo lransfor lo a Iiko-mindod organizalion.
56
A producor cooporalivo succooding againsl lloso odds is sliII subjocl lo lvo
major forcos vlicl llroalon lo undormino llo onlorprisos dirocl-domocralic
naluro. Tlo "rsl is llo aforomonlionod londoncy among succossfuI producor
cooporalivos (obsorvod by MiklaiI Tugan-Baranovsky) lo liro moro and
moro vago vorkors villoul voling riglls.
57
}arosIav Vanok las doscribod llis
proponsily as a soIf-oxlinguisling forco.
58
ClarIos Gido providod an oxampIo
of llis porvorsion of produclivo cooporalion, namoIy llal of llo spoclacIo-
makors socioly (*;%//"!3%&3") 4'/ *7)'&3'#/) in Iaris around 1900: Tlis socioly
lo-day comprisos aboul "fly mombors vlo lavo bocomo voaIlly, aboul an
oquaI numbor of associalo candidalos for momborslip, knovn as %40D#')&/,
and lvoIvo lundrod lirod vorkmon. Undor llo circumslancos il is cIoar llal
lloro is nolling of co-oporalion loro moro llan llo namo. Il is simpIy an asso-
cialion of smaII ompIoyors.
59
A socond llroal lo a succossfuI producor cooporalivo is llo dosiro of a lolor-
onomous company for a lakoovor. Tlo pIyvood cooporalivos in llo Norllvosl
of llo Unilod Slalos aro a caso in poinl. If a producor cooporalivo prospors, llo
vaIuo of ils individuaI slaros incroasos considorabIy. A mombor of a producor
cooporalivo vlo considors roliromonl may lavo dif"cuIly "nding anollor
vorkor inloroslod in laking ovor lis or lor slaro. In sucl casos, llo oplion
of soIIing onos slaro lo a compoling loloronomous "rm bocomos lompling.
60
Boll londoncios (a groving numbor of oxlornaI ompIoyoos, and a groving
slaro of slocks undor capilaIisl conlroI) oflon coincido. CIoarIy, llo succoss-
fuI producor cooporalivo viII in llal caso bo undor considorabIo prossuro lo
clango ils naluro. Bul is llis silualion an 3)'23&%+*' dovoIopmonl, or a !")/&%)&
56
IroIand and Iav, 6!")"13!/ "? =%+"7#89%)%5'4 6)&'#$#3/'/, p. 105.
57
Tugan-Baranovskii, G"&/3%*),3% R/)"2, S""$'#%&/33. AIso soo Gorsclonkron, Gonos-
sonsclaflslloorio Tugan-Baranovkis. Raymond RussoII and Roborl Hannoman lavo
rovoaIod llis londoncys aggrogalo among a groving numbor of lirod vorkors in
IaIoslino/IsraoI. In 1933 aboul 20.6 porconl of llo Iabor forco of aII producor coopora-
livos vas lirod. By 1988, llo slaro lad rison lo 55.3 porconl. RussoII and Hannomann,
Uso of Hirod Iabor, p. 99.
58
Vanok, =%+"#89%)%5'4 6!")"1,, pp. 1889. Soo aIso Miyazaki, Succoss and Dis-
soIulion, p. 912, DoucouIiagos, Wly CapilaIisl Iirms Oulnumbor, pp. 53, 62.
59
Gido, Iroduclivo Co-oporalion in Iranco, p. 38.
60
BoIIas, E)47/&#3%* H'1"!#%!, %)4 &0' :"#.'#8R-)'4 A3#1, Borman, Unilod Slalos
of Amorica.
0'1234&' 411$&'#%*5&6 / ,9<
pallorn` }im TomIinson rigllIy nolos llal, aIllougl llo capilaIisl onviron-
monl puls onormous prossuro on producor cooporalivos lovard slrucluraI
diIulion, dogonoralion nood nol bo inovilabIo.
61
Tloso producor cooporalivos
vlicl porsislod vliIo succossfuIIy uploIding lloir originaI principIos con-
"rm llis llosis.
62
Tvo condilions soom cruciaI lo avoid diIulion. IirslIy, llo
domocralic cuIluro villin a cooporalivo musl bo kopl aIivo conlinuaIIy.
63
Tlis
is mosl IikoIy if llo slaff slrongIy idonli"os vill llo cooporalivos producl,
for oxampIo bocauso of prido in lloir crafl, or poIilicaI idoaIs. If llo numbor of
slaff oxcoods a corlain llrosloId ("floon lo lvonly poopIo), dirocl domocracy
slouId bo compIomonlod vill offoclivo indirocl forms of roprosonlalion.
64
A
socond roquiromonl is a broad sociaI and poIilicaI basis (of vlicl sloIlor orga-
nizalions aro onIy ono manifoslalion), as obsorvod, for oxampIo, in counlrios
vill a rovoIulionary-syndicaIisl pasl Iiko IlaIy, Iranco, or Spain.
65
61
TomIinson, Brilisl IoIilics and Co-oporalivos.
62
Soo o.g.: Androao and Nioluos, Iroduklivgonossonsclaflon aIs aIlornalivo Unlor-
nolmonsform, Cornforll, Iallorns of Cooporalivo Managomonl.
63
Slryjan, E1$"//3+*' R#5%)3M%&3")/.
64
Idvard S. Groonborg, Iroducor Cooporalivos and Domocralic Tloory, Gunn,
Hoodads Co-op, Cornforll, Iallorns of Cooporalivo Managomonl, pp. 51620.
65
Soo o.g. Igan, Tovard a Marxisl Tloory of Iabor-Managod Iirms. SiogonllaIor,
Iroducors Cooporalivos in SvilzorIand, p. 22, las nolod llal slrong and spoci"c
domand for llo producls of producor cooporalivos can aIso bo vory imporlanl.
!"#$% "' #(%)%*+,-(
!"#$%&' )*+&
.*#)/(%
Wloro lloro is povor, lloro is rosislanco, MicloI
IoucauIl rigllIy obsorvod.
1
As soon as subaIlorn
vorkors aro subordinalod lo a loloronomous Iabour
roIalionslip vlicl lloy aro by do!nilion an
uninlorruplod ballIo vill llo ompIoyors and lloir
roprosonlalivos is llo rosuIl, carriod on somolimos
oponIy and somolimos socrolIy, somolimos individu-
aIIy and somolimos coIIoclivoIy.
2
Vory unfroo vork-
ors, Iiko clalloI sIavos, aIvays rosislod sIavory and
llo pIanlalion syslom, roboIIing vloro lloy couId or
lad lo.
3
Bul froo vago oarnors aIso ongago in a
conslanl ballIo vill lloir ompIoyors, bolvoon llom
an invisibIo fronlior of conlroI aIvays oxisls, a
fronlior vlicl is do!nod and rodo!nod in a ccniinu-
cus procoss of prossuro and counlor-prossuro.
4
SubaIlorn vorkors may rosorl lo a vido rango
of slralogios. }usl oxaclIy vlal forms of prolosl
aro usod doponds on many faclors, bul in aII casos
1
IoucauIl, Vc|cnic !c s.tcir, pp. 1256.
2
Tlo roIalionslip bolvoon subaIlorn vorkors and lloir ompIoyors las llroo pos-
sibIo slagos. Iirsl llo vorkors aro subordinalod lo llo povor of llo ompIoyors, noxl,
llo ompIoyors uso llis povor lo pul vorkors lo vork, and !naIIy llo roIalionslip
bolvoon vorkors and ompIoyors is brokon again. Tloso llroo plasos aro oflon oasiIy
rocognizabIo among froo vago oarnors, slaro-croppors, indonlurod Iaborors, olc.
Will clalloI sIavos llings aro moro compIox, bocauso lloy aro oflon ompIoyors
proporly from birll and romains so unliI lloy dio. In llis claplor, I focus on llo
middIo plaso.
3
Cralon, 1csiing i|c C|.ins, p. 16.
4
Hyman, |n!usiri.| Rc|.iicns, p. 26. Soo aIso Carlor Goodricls cIassicaI sludy 1|c
Ircniicr c| Ccnirc|.
,-. / !"#$%&' )*+&
llo slrongll of llo vorkors bargaining posilion is imporlanl. Ivon llo voakosl
sogmonls of llo subaIlorn vorking cIass can rosorl lo mollods sucl as prolond-
ing lo misundorsland assignmonls, doIivoring subslandard vork, slirking, or
coIIoclivo llofl.
5
VioIonl mollods lavo oflon boon a moans lo oxorl prossuro.
Arson occurrod on many pIanlalions in llo Nov WorId, bul aIso in Iuropo.
In Iasl AngIia (in IngIand) sucl incidonls incroasod dramalicaIIy aflor 1830,
during llo agrarian prolosl movomonl of Caplain Sving and foIIoving llo
invonlion of llo slriko-anyvloro malcl.
6
Maclino broaking (Iuddism) vas
a voII-knovn praclico in oarIy ninoloonll-conlury Iuropo
7
and Ialor occurrod
in llo Olloman Impiro, BraziI and Clina.
8
Somolimos dynamilo vas usod,
if avaiIabIo. In 1890, goId minors al llo AngIo-Tlaris mino (in Soull Africa)
rospondod lo a cul in pay by bIoving up llo managors louso.
9
IlysicaI and
soxuaI vioIonco vas aIso usod againsl lalod ompIoyors, lloir famiIy mom-
bors, or lloir roprosonlalivos among aII groups of subaIlorn vorkors. NoarIy
ovory yoar, in virluaIIy ovory slalo in llo Soull |of llo Unilod Slalosj, sIavos
voro indiclod for kiIIing lloir ovnors.
10
In Soull Africa around 1900, a ZuIu-
5
Saundors, 'TroubIosomo Sorvanls, p. 169, Colon, Rosislanco, Colon, Ncu
Hc|cis, pp. 2006, Iround, Tlofl and SociaI Irolosl, Gonovoso, Rc||, jcr!.n, Rc||,
p. 602, Ilonvboro, Rosislanco, Gupla, I.ocur .n! Wcr|ing C|.ss, p. 310, KoIclin,
Un|rcc I.ocr, pp. 242, 271, IoGrand, InformaI Rosislanco.
6
Arclor, B . I|.s| .n! . Sc.rc, pp. 2514, soo aIso KulIkon, Sollin llo Woods
on Iiro. Idvard Tlompson mado llo foIIoving obsorvalion: Il is oxaclIy in a ruraI
socioly, vloro any opon, idonli!od rosislanco lo llo ruIing povor may rosuIl in inslanl
rolaIialion Ioss of lomo, ompIoymonl, lonancy, if nol viclimizalion al Iav llal
ono londs lo !nd llo acls of darknoss: llo anonymous Iollor, arson of llo slack or
oullouso, louglling of callIo, llo slol or brick llrougl llo vindov, llo galo off ils
lingos, llo orclard foIIod, llo !slpond sIuicos oponod al nigll. Tlo samo man vlo
louclos lis foroIock lo llo squiro by day and vlo may go dovn lo lislory as an
oxampIo of doforonco may kiII lis sloop, snaro lis ploasanls or poison lis dogs al
nigll. Tlompson, Ialricians and llo IIobs, p. 66.
7
In counlrios sucl as IngIand (Nollinglamsliro, Ioicoslorsliro, Dorbysliro in
18111812), Gormany (Iupon 1821, SiIosia 1844), Bolomia 1844, Vionna 1848. Soo
o.g. ManuoI, Iuddilo Movomonl in Iranco, Tlomis, Iu!!iics, HonkoI and Taubor,
M.sc|incnsirmcr, Moosor, Masclinonslurm und Assozialion, Hodonborg, Au|si.n!
!cr Wcocr, KIma, Arboilorunrulon in Blmon, WaIlor, Dio blmisclon Arboilorun-
rulon, HusIor, Von dor Manufaklur zum Masclinonslurm. Soo aIso Hobsbavm,
Maclino Broakors.
8
Qualaorl, Maclino Broaking, Moado, 'Iiving Worso and Cosling Moro , Ing,
Iuddism and Iabor Irolosl.
9
Riclardson and van HoIlon, Iabour in llo Soull African GoId Mining Induslry,
p. 92, Colon, Ncu Hc|cis, p. 204.
10
IrankIin and Sclvoningor, Run.u. S|.tcs, p. 78.
0%'*1&2 / ,-3
dominalod socrol socioly oxislod, llo Izigobongu, vloso adloronls rapod
vlilo mislrossos lo punisl llom for abusing bIack lousoboys.
11
Tlo prolosl can aIso bo IargoIy symboIic. In conlomporary Soulloasl Asia,
faclory girIs roguIarIy oxpross lloir disconlonl by crying, scroaming or lav-
ing opiIoplic !ls logollor.
12
Mock lriaIs voro aIso vory popuIar in llo pasl,
sucl as llo courl loaring doscribod by Roborl Darnlon, vloro oiglloonll-
conlury Iarisian journoymon punislod sovoraI cals, lo consuro lloir maslor
and lis vifo vloso conducl lloy considorod unjusli!od.
13
Sucl symboIic
prolosls voro a froquonl aIlornalivo lo oconomic aclion. Irior lo 1917,
Iolrograd molaI vorkors lad fov formaI moans for slaging prolosls. Tloy
lloroforo rosorlod lo a kind of c|.rit.ri, and lumiIialod lloir dospisod supo-
riors by vlooIing llom oul of llo faclory in a vlooIbarrov.
14
Somo vorkors
prosonlod polilions, lo vlicl lloy somolimos addod bribos lo svoolon llo
polilion-rocoivors lomporamonl.
15
A spoclacuIar form of prolosl vas llo coIIoclivo oxil, vloro a group of sub-
aIlorn vorkors Iofl llo vorkpIaco vill llo inlonlion novor lo rolurn. Sucl
oxils soom lo lavo occurrod ospociaIIy among vorkors vlo voro unabIo lo
assorl lloir inlorosls in llo vorkpIaco coIIoclivoIy, or couId do so onIy al groal
porsonaI risk. Tlo mosl imporlanl oxampIos aro found among sIavos, indon-
lurod Iaborors, journoymon, and vago oarnors vorking in lolaI inslilulions,
Iiko saiIors. An oarIy oxampIo is llo rovoIl of llo Z.nj, llo Iasl-African sIavos
vlo lad lo vork in llo Soull-Iraq saIl marslos and in 869 slagod a roboI-
Iion. Tloy sollIod in aI-Mukllara, a vory Iargo lovn, compIoloIy conslruclod
by llo roboIs, |. . .j in a spol closon for ils inaccossibiIily vloro lloy ovon
minlod lloir ovn coins.
16
In llo oiglloonll and ninoloonll conlury, Russian
11
van OnsoIon, Siu!ics, II, pp. 545.
12
Soo o.g. Mallor, InduslriaIizalion in llo Tangorang Rogoncy, p. 14, Smyll and
Grijns, Unju| R.s., p. 20.
13
Darnlon, Grc.i C.i M.ss.crc, pp. 79104.
14
Smill, Rc! Pcircgr.!, pp. 567.
15
Tlis lapponod during llo rickslav puIIors slriko in Clangsla, Hunan Irovinco,
Clina, in 1918. McDonaId, }r., Uro.n Origins c| Rur.| Rctc|uiicn, p. 148. McCroory
roporls, llal on coffoo pIanlalions in GualomaIa around 1900 polilions voro by far
llo mosl common modo of rosislanco. McCroory, Hogomony and Roprossion, p. 228.
Soo aIso Hoorma van Voss, Pciiiicns in Scci.| Hisicr.
16
Iopovic, aI-Mukllara (quolo), idom, aI-Zandj, idom, Rctc|ic !cs csc|.tcs. Tlo
roboIIion vas cruslod in 883.
,-4 / !"#$%&' )*+&
sorfs (vloso condilions of Iifo rosombIod lloso of clalloI sIavos) roguIarIy
dosorlod in Iargo numbors from lloir Iandovnors, somolimos onliro viI-
Iagos migralod, Ioaving and sollIing logollor in nov surroundings.
17
In
Africa loo, Iargo oxils by sIavos occurrod. On llo coasl of uppor Guinoa, llo
BiIaIi RoboIIion look pIaco from aboul 1838 lo 1872, during vlicl a sollIomonl
(Iaminyal) vas oslabIislod, vloro fugilivos and onsIavod porsons from llo
surrounding Soso and Tomno counlry sougll rofugo.
18
On vlal is nov llo
mainIand coasl of Tanzania, a mass of sIavos oscapod in 1873. Tloy buiIl a
nov viIIago caIIod Makorora, liddon in a llickol of llorny buslos and vill
loavy forli!calions.
19
In 19058 lons of llousands of sIavos in do MiddIo
Nigor vaIIoy dosorlod lloir maslors, many of llom rolurnod lo lloir oarIior
lomos, ollors sougll vork in llo cily.
20

In llo acadomic Iiloraluro, lovovor, by far llo mosl allonlion las boon givon
lo llo sIavo oxils in llo Amoricas. Mucl allonlion las focusod on llo Nogro
RopubIic of IaImaros (BraziI), vlicl spannod aImosl llo onliro sovonloonll
conlury, and bolvoon 167294 villslood on llo avorago ono Iorluguoso
oxpodilion ovory !floon monlls.
21
Anollor voIIknovn caso is llo oiglloonll-
conlury Boni Wars in Surinam.
22
Bul llo lolaI numbor of occurroncos is mucl
Iargor.
23
Nol jusl sIavos, bul aIso froo vorkors roguIarIy docidod lo oscapo
coIIoclivoIy from llo cIulclos of lloir ompIoyor. In llo oiglloonll conlury,
dosorlion of saiIors vas ono of llo mosl clronic and sovoro probIoms facod
by llo morclanl capilaIisls of llo slipping induslry in llo Norll AlIanlic
and oIsovloro.
24
Hov sucl oxils voro proparod and organizod is somolling vo knov IillIo
aboul, aIllougl il can bo assumod llal oscapoos in many casos lad a rudi-
monlary organizalion and acknovIodgod Ioadors vlon lloy pIannod and
17
KoIclin, Un|rcc I.ocr, p. 279.
18
Raslid, Iscapo, RovoIl, and Marronago, pp. 6734.
19
GIassman, Bondsmans Nov CIollos, p. 308.
20
Roborls and KIoin, Banamba SIavo Ixodus.
21
Konl, IaImaros, p. 162. An ovorviov of llo novor rosoarcl aboul IaImaros is
providod by Andorson, QuiIimbo of IaImaros.
22
Hira, V.n Pri.r ici cn mci Dc Kcm, pp. 13860, Hoogborgon, Bcni M.rccn W.rs.
23
Soo, for oxampIo, CarroII, Mandinga, Dobbascl, Io Marronago, Dobion,
GabrioI, Io marronago aux AnliIIos franaiso, Kopyloff, IarIy IoIilicaI DovoIop-
monl, MuIIin, I|ig|i .n! Rcoc||icn, Irico, Gui.n. M.rccns, Tlornlon, A|ric. .n! A|ric.ns,
pp. 28292.
24
Rodikor, Bciuccn i|c Dcti| .n! i|c Dccp B|uc Sc., p. 100, Do VIioglor, Dosorlio.
0%'*1&2 / ,--
carriod oul lloir oscapo.
25
In gonoraI, llo aclions soom lo lavo boon dofonsivo
in purposo, boing diroclod againsl imponding dolorioralions in vorking and
Iiving condilions. Wloro vorkors lavo a pIaco of origin vlicl is accossibIo
vill avaiIabIo moans of lransporlalion, lloy can upon Ioaving lloir ompIoyor
coIIoclivoIy lry lo rolurn lo llal pIaco. Tlal vas llo caso for oxampIo in 1921,
vlon cooIios al sovoraI loa pIanlalions in llo ClargoIa VaIIoy in Assam
dovnod looIs, bocauso llo aullorilios rofusod a vago riso:
Tlis vas foIIovod by a dosorlion of llo pIanlalions by llo cooIios, on masso.
Tloy rosoIvod lo go back lo lloir lomo dislricls, clanling viclory crios lo
Malalma Gandli and cIaiming lo lavo sorvod undor lis ordors. Having
slarlod from ono or lvo gardons, by llo middIo of }uno, llo onliro ClargoIa
vaIIoy Iookod dosorlod, vill lvo gardons roporlod lo lavo 'Iosl virluaIIy
lloir onliro Iabour forco, and on an avorago, mosl gardons lad sufforod Iossos
of around llirly lo sixly porconl. Tlo cooIios of ClargoIa VaIIoy marclod
rigll llrougl Karimganj, llo subdivisionaI loadquarlors, conlinuing lloir
onvard journoy oillor by lrain or on fool, and aIso by sloamor lloy mado
lloir vay back lo lloir lomo dislricls.
26
In ollor casos, rolurning lo llo formor pIaco of rosidonco is nol an oplion,
bocauso il is loo far avay, or bocauso lloro aro no Iongor any sociaI or
omolionaI lios. In llal ovonl, a nov coIIoclivo rosidonco las lo bo found.
Doponding on goograplic condilions, lloro aro difforonl possibiIilios loro.
A lomporary soIulion is lo lido on llo proporly of llo ompIoyor limsoIf,
vlicl sIavos somolimos did on sugar pIanlalions in llo Danisl Wosl Indios.
As soon as llo sugarcano grov laII onougl so llal ono couId lido in il, lloy
buiIl lomporary sloIlors amidsl llo cano vloro lloy slayod boforo llo crop
vas roapod. A conlomporary obsorvor doscribos lov sucl runavay sIavos
pul dovn poIos of aboul a molor and a laIf and mako a bovor ovor lloso
vill llo Ioavos of llo noarosl canos pIaidod logollor. In llis vay lloy form a
IillIo lul aboul four and a laIf fool ligl by six lo sovon fool around. Having
cIoarod llo ground in llo lul of dry Ioavos and Iofl an oponing, lloy llon
25
ScluIor, Illnic SIavo RoboIIions, p. 380, Kopyloff, DovoIopmonl of }amaican
Maroon Illnicily.
26
Varma, ClargoIa Ixodus, p. 34.
,-5 / !"#$%&' )*+&
uso llo pIaco lo Iio up, lo sloro vlalovor ground provisions lloy can, and
as a !ropIaco.
27
If lloro aro svamps or baroIy accossibIo mounlainous aroas, a band of fugi-
livos can lido lloro. Runavays can aIso lry lo disappoar in llo anonymily of
a Iargo cily, aIllougl llis is obviousIy oasior for a smaII group llan a Iargo
ono. And, !naIIy, runavays can buiId lloir ovn moans of lransporl, and lry
lo oscapo vill il. In 1819, oigll sIavos sovon mon and ono voman prob-
abIy crov on llo sovonloon-lon inlorisIand scloonor W.icr|cc, sloIo llo slip
vlon il arrivod in Sl. Vinconl in llo Brilisl Windvards.
28
In llo Caribboan
somolimos SIavos socrolIy buiIl canoos Iargo onougl lo accommodalo vloIo
famiIios.
29
Wlon runavays coIIoclivoIy sollIod somovloro in a nov pIaco, lloir Iogis-
licaI probIoms voro obviousIy quilo oxlonsivo. Tloro vas a conslanl dangor
of punilivo oxpodilions by lloir formor ompIoyors. Yol llo fugilivos voro
forcod lo buiId lloir sollIomonls in inlospilabIo aroas procisoIy bocauso lloso
voro dif!cuIl lo accoss by punilivo oxpodilions. Tlo moro ruggod llo lor-
rain, llo moro Sparlan ovoryday Iifo bocamo. Iiglloonll-conlury maroons on
llo Caribboan isIand of Sl Tlomas vlo rolroalod lo inaccossibIo cavos aIong
llo coasl vonl nakod and subsislod on !sl, fruil, smaII gamo sucl as Iand
lurlIos, or sloIon provondor.
30
Wloro possibIo, communilios of fugilivos lloroforo oflon sollIod in llo
vicinily of lloir provious vork silos. Il is, for oxampIo, nol accidonlaI llal llo
vasl majorily of mcc.mocs (rofugoo sollIomonls) in BraziI voro Iocalod quilo
noar lo lovns and farms. Tlo mosl imporlanl roason vas llal llo inlornaI
oconomy of llo mcc.mocs mado proximily lo sollIod aroas a proroquisilo for
succoss. Rallor llan a rolurn lo African pasloraI or agricuIluraI pursuils,
mcc.moc oconomios voro oflon parasilic, basod on liglvay llofl, callIo rus-
lIing, raiding, and oxlorlion. Tloso aclivilios migll bo combinod vill agri-
cuIluro as voII, bul raroIy did mcc.mocs bocomo vloIIy soIf-suf!cionl and
compIoloIy isoIalod from llo coIoniaI socioly llal gonoralod, and al llo samo
limo foarod llom.
31
27
Cilod in: HaII, Marilimo Maroons, p. 488.
28
HaII, Marilimo Maroons, p. 492.
29
Ibid., p. 485.
30
Ibid., p. 483.
31
Sclvarlz, S|.tcs, Pc.s.nis, .n! Rcoc|s, p. 109!
0%'*1&2 / ,-6
A vory imporlanl form of slruggIo usod by aII calogorios of subaIlorn vorkors
is llo siri|c. In a sonso, a slriko moans a coIIoclivo oxil nol vill llo inlonlion
of Ioaving for good, bul lo oxorl prossuro lomporariIy. Tlo lransilion bolvoon
running avay and !glling for bollor vorking condilions is in roaIily
rallor "uid. Il is lloroforo nol surprising llal somo forms of marronago by
sIavos voro in facl spoci!caIIy inlondod as a kind of slriko: lloy oscapod from
llo pIanlalions lo forco llo maslor lo llink again, nol lo sollIo pormanonlIy
oIsovloro. Tlo moaning of sucl dosorlions is cIoar: lloy invoIvod slrikos,
inilialod by parl or llo vloIo of a vorkslop.
32
Undor vory difforonl circum-
slancos, Dulcl loxliIo vorkors from llo fourloonll conlury onvards appIiod a
simiIar laclic. Iiving in a limo vlon llo cilios sliII possossod groal aulonomy,
lloy organizod iIIogaI uiig.ngcn (oxils) vlicl occurrod according lo a lypicaI
pallorn. Tloy Iofl llo cily in vlicl Iabor roIalions voro unaccoplabIo, and
vonl lo anollor cily, in ordor lo ronogolialo lloir posilion from lloro.
33
Conlrary lo a slubborn projudico, Iargo and succossfuI slrikos aro porfoclIy
possibIo uii|cui unions. Workors unions cannol oxisl villoul (llo uIlimalo
llroal of) llo slriko voapon, bul llo convorso is nol lruo, as slovn by llo oxam-
pIos of llo uiig.ng and llo marronago-slriko (doscribod by Yvan Dobbascl).
Ivon oxlondod Iabor con"icls may broak oul villoul unions, as rovoaIod by
llo improssivo slriko of loxliIo vorkors in Mumbai (Bombay) in 19823. Will
somo 240,000 parlicipanls, and Iasling oiglloonll monlls, llis vork sloppago
may in facl loId llo rocord of llo Iargosl singIo induslriaI prolosl ovor in llo
vorId. A considorabIo proporlion of llo vorkors invoIvod rolurnod lo lloir
viIIagos of origin, lo avoid slarving in llo cily.
34
Irodorick Coopor las domon-
slralod lov major con"icls in Konya, sucl as llo GonoraI Slriko in Mombasa
in 1947, rovoIvod around domocralic mass gallorings draving llousands of
parlicipanls, vloro a consonsus vas roaclod. Rallor llan roIying on a slriko
fund, llo slrikors subsislod from llo larvosl of lloir smaII pIols of arabIo Iand,
and from donalions mado in soIidarily by sympallizors.
35
U.S. and Iuropoan
32
Dobbascl, Io Marronago, I, p. 28.
33
Dokkor, Iabour Con"icls, pp. 38791. Tlo Dulcl oxampIo slovs onco again
llal slrikos aIso oflon occurrod in non-induslriaI or pro-induslriaI condilions. Soo
among ollors Grioingor, D.s smoc|isc|c K.pii.| !cr ||rc, Rodikor, Bciuccn i|c Dcti|
.n! i|c Dccp B|uc Sc., pp. 22734, Van HoosvoIdo, Grvos ol con"ils du lravaiI, Iis,
Iucasson, and SoIy, Bc|crc i|c Unicns, Iucasson, Brickmakors Slrikos.
34
van Worscl, Bcmo. 1cxii|c Siri|c.
35
Coopor, On i|c A|ric.n W.icr|rcni, pp. 7982.
,57 / !"#$%&' )*+&
lislory abounds vill casos of slrikos in vlicl unions voro oillor insigni!-
canl or subordinalo oporalors. Tlo groal Iabor uprising of 1877 in llo Unilod
Slalos vas sponlanoous and unorganizod il lad nolling in llo naluro of
conlraI Ioadorslip and diroclion.
36
Slrikos and unions boll sorvo lo oslabIisl povor al loloronomous vork-
pIacos vloro llo parlios in conlroI aro nol llo vorkors. Iroduclion procossos
occur on lloso silos: Iaborors uso moans of Iabor (rav maloriaIs, somi-manufac-
luros, oquipmonl, maclinos and llo Iiko) lo gonoralo Iabor producls. Iroduc-
lion procossos may sorvo lo gonoralo and dislribulo slockabIo commodilios or
lo rondor sorvicos. In llo !rsl caso, produclion, dislribulion and consumplion
aro soparalo, consoculivo procossos. In llo socond caso, llo produclion poriod
gonoraIIy coincidos vill llo dislribulion poriod (and llo consumplion poriod
in many casos as voII). Iroduclion procossos consislonlIy occur in a broador
sociaI conloxl (soo Iiguro 9.1) lovovor, invoIving !nanciaI slrucluros (o.g.
crodil moclanisms) and IogaI roIalionslips (Iavs and lloir impIomonlalion).
Tlis !guro rovoaIs llo coorcion slralogios avaiIabIo lo subaIlorn vorkors
vlo aim lo oxpross lloir coIIoclivo disconlonl by disrupling produclion.
IirslIy, lloy may mako llo acluaI produclion procoss |css prc!uciitc in any
of llroo vays. Ono vay is uniIaloraI, and onlaiIs coordinalod roduclion of
llo oulpul. Tlo purposo may bo lo provido a Iargor numbor of vorkors vill
ompIoymonl, or lo improvo piocovork ralos, or prossuro llo ompIoyor or
managomonl in somo ollor vay. Tlis mollod is aIso knovn as go-sIov,
cacanny, or goId-bricking,
37
and il vas usod boll by froo and unfroo
vorkors. During a llroo-day prolosl aclion in 1904, llo indonlurod Clinoso
lammor-mon on llo Norll Randfonloin goId-mino in TransvaaI, driIIod no
moro llan llirloon inclos of rock or driIIod Ioss llan lvoIvo inclos.
38
In
Clicago, boforo llo Iockoul of 1900, llo Iallors Iimilod lloir days vork lo
lvonly-!vo bundIos and voro paid llroo doIIars, vliIsl formorIy lloy lan-
dIod llirly-!vo bundIos a day for ono doIIar and sovonly-!vo conls. Tlo gas
!llors, sloam !llors, pIaslorors and pIumbors in llo samo cily lad roducod
lloir oxorlion in a simiIar vay. Tlo pIumbors lad a spociaIIy Iov slandard of
36
Ionor, Grc.i I.ocr Uprising, p. 9.
37
Ior a cIassicaI sludy, soo Roys Quola Roslriclion. Soo aIso DougIass, Iil TaIk,
pp. 3101, Hammoll, Soidman and Iondon, SIovdovn as a Union Taclic, and of
courso, Buravoy, M.nu|.ciuring Ccnscni.
38
Riclardson, CooIios and RandIords, pp. 1667.
0%'*1&2 / ,5,
oxorlion, lloir days vork boing onIy suf!cionl lo koop a man busy for laIf
or lvo-llirds of a day. In Iondon llo mombors of llo brickIayors union, il
is aIIogod, nov Iay onIy !vo lundrod bricks in a day of nino lours, vliIo in
Nov York a llousand in a day of oigll lours is llo minimum.
39
In 1946, min-
ors in Inugu (Nigoria) Iaunclod a cacanny, lloir Ioador Isaial OkvudiIi
Ojiyi indigonizod llo lorm by caIIing il 'uc|u nu.c in Igbo and sponl days
in llo minos loacling llo mon.
40
SocondIy, vorkors may rosorl lo s.oci.gc. Aflor Iaurio TayIor and IauI
WaIlon, I vouId do!no llis form of aclion as llal ruIo-broaking vlicl lakos
llo form of conscious aclion or inaclion diroclod lovards llo muliIalion or
doslruclion of llo vork onvironmonl.
41
If llo sabolago largols maclinory,
39
Marlin, Do Trado Unions Iimil Oulpul`, p. 371.
40
Brovn, Wc Wcrc A|| S|.tcs, p. 295.
41
TayIor and WaIlon, InduslriaI Sabolago, p. 219. A far broador do!nilion is
appIiod in Brovn, S.oci.gc. Brovn aIso incIudos aII non-vioIonl and non-doslruclivo
Iiguro 9.1
Holoronomous Iroduclion
Iabor
Iovor
Moans of
Iabor
Holoronomous
Iabor
Irocoss
Iabor
Iroducls
Conloxl:
Iav, crodil, olc.
,58 / !"#$%&' )*+&
llis diffors IillIo from cIassicaI maclino-broaking. MoIanosian vorkors on
sugar pIanlalions in QuoonsIand (AuslraIia) lid rocks in llo cano going
lo llo miIIs, vill disaslrous offocls on maclinory.
42
Sabolago may aIso bo
diroclod againsl Iabor producls. Aboul Iranco, Iiorro Dubois vrilos:
Iroduclion may bo sabolagod in various vays: al Iaux do VilloI in 1970,
sovoraI vals of valor voro immorsod in soap, pIaslic bollIos voro punclurod
and arrivod omply al lloir doslinalion. Al llis ollor pIanl, a lon of loollpaslo
spiIIod around llo bollom of llo procossor and vas Iosl. Iosl maloriaI
foIIoving a vork sloppago: in May 1971 llo vorkors al ono of llo Sainl-
Irros pIanls disconlinuod oporalions sovoraI limos a day, oacl limo llo
maclinos voro sloppod, llo pIaslic soIidi!od and bocamo un!l for uso. In
llo spring of 1975, doIivory vans lransporling llo P.risicn |iocrc novspapors
voro allackod, and llo novspapors voro doslroyod. IIsovloro, slovards
doIiboraloIy burnod llo slirls of passongors vliIo ironing llom.
43
TlirdIy, llo oxclango vaIuo of llo Iabor producl may bo doslroyod by pro-
viding il lo llo cuslomors froo of clargo, ospociaIIy vlon llo ompIoyoos
produco consumor goods, or provido sorvicos. In 1960, for oxampIo, Miami
bus drivors did nol clargo lloir passongors, and voro nol supposod lo accopl
lips oillor.
44
If sucl mollods aro insuf!cionlIy succossfuI, slrikos aro llo noxl voapon.
In addilion lo vorkors nol vorking for llo ompIoyor, il is imporlanl for llis
purposo llal ollors (slriko-broakors or scabs) do nol lako ovor llo vork
of llo slrikors.
.*#)/(%0 1(,(#+2 '(+*3#(%
Slrikos can bo do!nod as |crms c| sirugg|c, cccrcicn .n! pcucr in u|ic| . grcup
c| ucr|crs cc||cciitc| sicps ucr|ing ic cn|crcc cccncmic, scci.| .n!/cr pc|iiic.|
oporalions llal compIicalo produclion. Tlis Iasl do!nilion doos conform vill llo
ono cuslomary in Iranco. Tloro, il covors, for oxampIo, doing bollor vork llan is
domandod as voII as vorso, in ordor lo pul up ompIoyors cosls. Il aIso covors vlal
is knovn as llo vork-lo-ruIo slriko. Anon., SyndicaIism.
42
Mooro, CounlorcuIluro of SurvivaI, p. 86.
43
Dubois, S.oci.gc, pp. 289. Tlofl of goods obviousIy affocls onlropronours in a
simiIar vay by causing considorabIo Ioss of vaIuo as voII.
44
McCaImonl, Somi-Slriko. Soo aIso Sosnick, Non-Sloppago Slrikos.
0%'*1&2 / ,59
!cm.n!s i|.i m.iicr ic i|csc !ircci| ccnccrnc! .n!/cr ci|crs.
45
Iol us oxamino
llis do!nilion moro cIosoIy.
- As forms of slruggIo, coorcion and povor, slrikos prosumo a con"icl, a
silualion of opposing inlorosls, in vlicl ono of llo parlios (a group of
vorkors) appIios loavy prossuro lo svay llo oulcomo in ils favor.
- Sucl loavy prossuro is oxorlod llrougl a joinl vork sloppago. Tlis lom-
porary or pormanonl rofusaI lo vork for an ompIoyor puls prossuro on llo
ompIoyor, vlo is unabIo lo suppIy cuslomors vill llo oulpul ordinariIy
producod or suppIiod via llo usuaI clannoIs. Bocauso llo aim of a slriko is
lo in"icl oconomic damago on llo ompIoyor, slrikors may lako addilionaI
moasuros as voII, monlionod proviousIy as isoIalod mollods of aclion:
lloy may bIock llo uso of moans of Iabor, oillor by culling off llo suppIy
of rav maloriaIs, somi-manufacluros and llo Iiko, or by lamporing vill
oquipmonl, lloy may bIock llo saIo of Iabor producls by provonling lloir
lransporl, llrougl a consumor boycoll or by rondoring goods or sorvicos
usoIoss,
46
lloy may lako courl aclion, lloy may lry lo in"uonco llo crodil
Iino avaiIabIo lo llo !rm,
47
and lloy may commil porsonaI acls of vioIonco
againsl llo ompIoyor, llo slaroloIdors or lloir roprosonlalivos.
48
Tloso
45
Tlis do!nilion is basod on llo ono in KIooborg, Boilrag zur Rovision, pp. 10607.
In somo lypos of vork sloppagos, vorkors do nol mako domands. SlriclIy spoaking,
lloso incidonls aro nol slrikos. RaiIvay conslruclion vorkors in ninoloonll-conlury
India voro nol advorso lo villloIding lloir Iabour from onginoors and conlrac-
lors in silualions vloro lloy boIiovod llo raiIvays dosporaloIy noodod llom ovon
somi-proIolarians sav llo vaIuo of liglor vagos and undorslood llo Iovorago llal a
ligl domand for Iabour in a parlicuIar aroa providod. IarIy in llo 1860s, cooIios in
llo TriclonopoIy dislricl of Madras and lloso aIong llo Iino-of-vorks of llo Iasl-
orn BongaI RaiIvay voro abIo lo combino suf!cionlIy and slay avay cn m.ssc from
llo raiIvay vorks, in llo lopo of raising oarllvork ralos. Tloir abiIily lo do so, of
courso, dopondod on llo facl llal lloy did nol nood llo raiIvay vork lo subsisl.
Korr, Bui|!ing i|c R.i|u.s, p. 173.
46
As slalod, in llo sorvico soclor llis corrosponds vill bIocking moans of Iabor.
47
Clrislona Turnor iIIuslralos sucl an offorl lurnod inlo coIIoclivo aclion by roporl-
ing lov, in llo oarIy 1980s in }apan, llousands of ompIoyoos al !rms on llo vorgo
of bankruplcy organizod a joinl domonslralion, in vlicl lloy sponl many lours
marcling pasl llo difforonl banks onco ovory llroo monlls lo prolosl llo roslriclion
of crodil. Soo llo dolaiIod doscriplion of sucl a S$|$!$ in Turnor, j.p.ncsc Wcr|crs in
Prcicsi, pp. 418.
48
Tlo Scolcl CallIo movomonl invoIving llo minors in Soull WaIos from 1822 lo
1850 is a caso in poinl. I.}. }onos las vrillon: Anyono suf!cionlIy inlropid lo ignoro
llo docroos of llo Iodgos |of llo 'Scolcl CallIoj rocoivod a varning vlicl, if disro-
gardod, vas foIIovod by a noclurnaI visil from somo noiglbouring band of 'Scolcl
,5. / !"#$%&' )*+&
mollods can obviousIy nol bo appIiod in aII casos. Tlo oplions dopond on
llo broador poIilicaI and IogaI conloxl. If usod, lloso mollods may coincido
vill a slriko, aIllougl lloy may aIso procodo or foIIov ono.
49
- Tlo group of vorkors concornod appIios sovoro prossuro lo oblain oco-
nomic, sociaI and/or poIilicaI domands mol llal mallor lo lloso diroclIy
invoIvod and/or lo ollors. Tlis formuIalion impIios llal slrikos may
addross llroo lypos of parlios: llo ompIoyor or ompIoyors of llo slrikors,
llo ompIoyor or ompIoyors of ci|cr slrikors, or of vorkors vlo cannol slriko
llomsoIvos (in vlicl caso lloy bocomo knovn as sympally slrikos), or
llird parlios, usuaIIy pubIic aullorilios. In llis caso, lloy aro aIso roforrod
lo as poIilicaI slrikos, aIllougl llo appIicabiIily of llis lorm doponds on
llo conloxl. Madlavan IaIal rigllIy obsorvos llal in poIilicaI sysloms vill
oslabIislod civiI Iiborlios, and vloro llo rigll lo slriko is boyond dispulo,
an oconomic slriko vas an af!rmalion of llo poIilicaI syslom and as sucl
poIilicaI, vloroas a 'poIilicaI slriko assauIlod llal samo syslom, in poIili-
caI sysloms villoul civiI Iiborlios, lovovor, llo samo 'oconomic slriko
vas a cIaim lo llo domocralic froodom lo slriko and llus a dirocl assauIl on
llo poIilicaI syslom.
50
In mosl slrikos, llo slrikors Ioavo lloir pIaco of vork. Tloy may do so in
various vays. Rc||ing siri|cs invoIvo a consoculivo sorios of briof vork slop-
pagos al many !rms. Minors in llo Norllorn Rlodosian CopporboIl appIiod
CallIo. Tlo lransgrossors louso and furniluro vas oflon doslroyod, bodiIy injury
in"iclod, and somolimos ovon murdor vas rosorlod lo |. . .j. To provonl idonli!calion
llo 'Scolcl CallIo nol onIy bIackonod lloir facos and assumod disguisos, bul arrangod
llal a lransgrossor in ono dislricl slouId bo visilod by a lord from anollor dislricl. Tlo
lorrorisls voro usuaIIy Iod by a 'buII, llo slrongosl and mosl pugnacious scoundroI
in llo lord, and loraIdod lloir approacl by Iovings and grovIings. On arrivaI al llo
louso of lloir unviIIing losl, lloy doslroyod ils conlonls vill a llorouglnoss llal
vas appaIIing. A viclim vlo slovod any signs of rosislanco or allomplod lo roason
vill llom vas immodialoIy claslisod. }onos, 'Scolcl CallIo, p. 386.
49
CounlIoss incidonls of sucl compIomonlary aclions como lo mind. Considor llo
KIang slrikos on MaIay rubbor pIanlalions in 1941: Al ono oslalo, a group of vorkors
assombIod al llo faclory in ordor lo provonl llo lransporl of a consignmonl of rubbor
lo Iorl Dickson, vliIo foIIov vorkors voro busiIy ongagod in culling dovn lroos
vlicl voro llon pIacod across llo approacl road and a bridgo, lloroby offoclivoIy
laIling lraf!c. Wlon poIico allomplod lo romovo llo obslruclion, lloy voro mol by
a 'fusiIIado of bricks, bollIos and Iumps of oarll. In llo onsuing cIasl, four Iabourors
voro injurod by llo poIico, vlo usod lloir riol slicks. WiIson, K|.ng Siri|cs, p. 19.
50
IaIal, IoIico SociaIism, p. 81.
0%'*1&2 / ,53
llis slralogy in 1955: Iacl mino slul dovn for llroo days: !rsl a big mino,
llon a smaII mino, and so forll.
51
A socond form consisls of occcii siri|cs,
vloro onIy somo of llo producls or sorvicos aro nol producod. Boycolls by
Iongsloromon of goods from corlain counlrios aro a lypicaI oxampIo. In 1905,
Iongsloromon al Clinoso slipyards boycollod Amorican goods lo prolosl
immigralion Iavs prolibiling llo onlry of Clinoso vorkors inlo llo Unilod
Slalos.
52
Tlo inlornalionaI boycoll slrikos againsl llo Aparlloid rogimo in
Soull Africa during llo oarIy 1980s rocoivod mucl allonlion. Gc-s|cu siri|cs
aro a llird oplion. Horo, onIy vorkors in koy posilions go on slriko, vliIo
llo rosl of llo Iabor forco prolonds lo vork. A fourll (bul corlainIy nol llo
Iasl) aIlornalivo is llo gcncr.| siri|c, inlondod lo paraIyzo oconomic aclivily
llrougloul a cily, brancl of induslry, a rogion, or ovon a vloIo counlry.
WliIo lruIy gonoraI slrikos lavo novor roaIIy maloriaIizod, llo Brilisl
GonoraI Slriko of 1926, llo Ironcl May 68, and llo so-caIIod Ccr!co.zc in
Argonlina llo noxl yoar camo quilo cIoso lo il.
53
Bul ompIoyoos do nol aIvays Ioavo llo vork-"oor during a slriko. Tloro
aro al Ioasl llroo kinds of slrikos vloro lloy slay pul. Tlo !rsl kind is icmpc-
r.r s|cu-!cun .ciicn. In Norll Sumalra during llo 1950s, pIanlalion vorkors
vouId bo on lloir jobs, 'vorking fuII-limo, llougl producing ono-llird lo
ono-laIf lloir 'normaI oulpul and sliII domanding a fuII-days pay.
54
Tlis
form of prolosl obviousIy ovorIaps vill llo aforomonlionod forms of liddon
rosislanco. A socond varianl is llo sii-!cun or si.-in, vloro vorkors occupy
llo vorkpIaco villoul vorking. Tlis slralogy vas appIiod from llo nino-
loonll conlury. Il vas vidosproad during llo IlaIian oicnnic rcssc (191920)
and bocamo a vorilabIo inlornalionaI lrond during llo 1930s.
55
In 1934, coaI
minors al TorbovIyo, YugosIavia, in Iocs, Hungary, and in Kalovico, IoIand,
51
Iarparl, I.ocr .n! C.pii.|, p. 148. Slplano Sirol corroclIy obsorvos llal llis ballIo
laclic roquiros llal llo Iabor organizalion bo suf!cionlIy in"uonliaI lo mainlain llo
discipIino roquirod for sucl a praclico. Sirol, I. grctc cn Ir.ncc, p. 97.
52
Closnoaux, C|incsc I.ocr Mctcmcni, p. 132.
53
Tlo idoa of a gonoraI slriko is far from nov. Soo Dommangol, Ido do grvo
gnraIo, Irolloro, WiIIiam Bonbov. IIizaboll Iorry (Slanglais Slriko Wavo)
corroclIy poinls oul llal gonoraI slriko and slriko vavo aro oflon incorroclIy
oqualod vill oacl ollor.
54
SloIor, C.pii.|ism .n! Ccn|rcni.iicn, p. 128. Tlo roason for llis slralogy vas llal
union duos voro dif!cuIl lo coIIocl and slriko funds aImosl nonoxislonl (Ibid.).
55
Tloso faclory occupalions aro addrossod in a voaIll of Iiloraluro. Tlo mosl impor-
lanl pubIicalions incIudo: MicloIs, Ubor dio Vorsuclo oinor Bosolzung dor Bolriobo,
Sclvarlz, Occupalions dusinos, Irouloau, Occup.iicns !usincs, Spriano, Occup.zicnc
,54 / !"#$%&' )*+&
slayod dovn in llo pils in dosporalo aclions llal von viclorios. Grook lobacco
vorkors look ovor a faclory llal samo yoar. Somo 3,000 Spanisl coppor min-
ors in 1935 romainod in llo HuoIva pils for lon days. CoaI minors in WaIos,
ScolIand and Iranco adoplod llo laclic succossfuIIy. In Iondiclorry, India,
loxliIo vorkors appIiod il vill compIolo offocl. And in Iranco during 1936, a
miIIion vorkors sal dovn al ono limo in llo koy induslrios.
56
Tlo sil-dovns occurring in llo Unilod Slalos during llo samo poriod aro
voIIknovn. Sil-dovn slrikos lavo llroo advanlagos ovor roguIar slrikos:
lloy aro a non-vioIonl form of aclion, and il is impossibIo for poIico or lroops
lo provoko vioIonco villoul cIoarIy inilialing il llomsoIvos,
57
llo mollod
offoclivoIy provonls slriko-broakors from laking ovor llo vork, and il pro-
molos group colosion among llo slrikors. WliIo parlicipanls in roguIar
slrikos simpIy slood al llo galos of lloir pIaco of ompIoymonl, in advorso
voallor condilions lloy vouId gallor al llo vorkpIaco. Tlo dravback vas,
llal llis laclic soparalod llo slrikors from lloir famiIios, and moanl llal food
and llo Iiko lad lo bo brougll in from oulsido.
Tlo ucr|-in is llo llird form. Horo, produclion conlinuos during llo occu-
palion of llo !rm. In IlaIy llis praclico is knovn as a rovorso slriko (scicpcrc
. rctcscic). In addilion lo occupying llo promisos, vorkors lako conlroI of llo
produclion procoss i.o. lloro is a "uid lransilion lo a produclion coopora-
livo. Tlis laclic incroasos boll llo bono!ls and llo dravbacks of sil-dovn
slrikos. On llo ono land, llo saIo of Iabor producls gonoralos incomo, and
lloroforo sIovs dovn llo dopIolion of llo slriko fund. On llo ollor land, in
addilion lo laving lo forago for food, llo parlicipanls nood lo organizo llo
suppIy of rav maloriaIs and somi-manufacluros (al Ioasl if llo suppIios on silo
aro dopIolod, and llo !rm is an induslriaI oporalion) and !nd vays lo soII llo
Iabor producls. Sucl vorkpIaco occupalions aro lloroforo simpIosl lo arrango
in somo oxlraclivo induslrios (o.g. coaI minos) and al !rms llal produco roa-
sonabIy pricod consumor goods.
58
Tlo bosl-knovn oxampIo of occupiors in
induslry vlo conlinuod produclion voro probabIy llo ompIoyoos vlo look
!c||c |.ooric|c, Badio, Grvos du Ironl IopuIairo. Moro roconl faclory occupalions
aro roviovod in: Bonsclop and Koo, Bc!rij|soczciiing, Bourd, CGT argonlino.
56
Irois, I.ocrs Gi.ni Sicp, p. 62.
57
Iino, Sii-Dcun, p. 63.
58
Vissor, Bc!rij|soczciiing, Wondl, Bciricosocscizung. A spoclacuIar caso occurrod in
llo oarIy 1970s. In 1971, llo Brilisl govornmonl docidod lo cIoso llo Uppor CIydo
SlipbuiIdors Company, vlicl vouId lavo Iofl 6,000 vorkors villoul jobs. Irom }uIy
0%'*1&2 / ,5-
ovor llo III valcl faclory in Bosanon, Iranco, from ApriI 1973 unliI }anuary
1974, and soId llo valclos lloy mado al llo faclory galos and via a supporl
nolvork.
59
Many simiIar occupalions lavo occurrod, for oxampIo in }apan.
60
45( 6"3#%( "' .*#)/(%
Ioaving asido puroIy sponlanoous sloppagos and go-sIovs, slrikos lypicaIIy
procood llrougl four IogicaI slagos. Tlo !rsl is mobiIizalion and proparalion
of llo slriko. Tlon llo ompIoyoos slop vorking. Noxl, llo slriko conlinuos
for a briof or oxlondod poriod. In llo !naI slago, llo con"icl onds, rogard-
Ioss of ils oulcomo, and domobiIizalion foIIovs. Subjoclivo (i.o. cuIluraI and
psycloIogicaI) in"uoncos aro imporlanl in oacl of lloso four slagos, as aro
maloriaI (i.o. !nanciaI and organizalionaI) faclors. Tlo subjoclivo and maloriaI
aspocls, llougl idonli!abIo, aro nol aIvays oasy lo soparalo.
Prcp.ring |cr siri|cs
GonoraIIy, slrikos dopond boll on llo subjoclivo viIIingnoss of llo polon-
liaI slrikors, and on llo maloriaI opporlunily lo impIomonl llom. Subjoclivo
viIIingnoss lo organizo and parlicipalo in a slriko invoIvos a combinalion of
llroo criloria: llo issuos, llo lriggors and llo domands. Tlo issuos aro llo
Iongslanding sourcos of disconlonl among llo ompIoyoos. Tlo lriggors aro
llo spoci!c incidonls llal cryslaIIizo fooIings of disconlonl. IinaIIy, domands
aro llo arlicuIalod dosiros vill vlicl llo dissalis!od slaff mombors llon
confronl lloir oppononl or oppononls. A fov saIionl aspocls of oacl can bo
nolod:
1971 unliI Novombor 1972, llo slaff organizod a vork-in and forcod llo govornmonl
lo rovorso ils docision. Soo Ioslor and WooIfson, Pc|iiics c| i|c UCS Wcr|-|n.
59
A fov of llo mosl imporlanl pubIicalions on llo incidonl aro: Anon., I|P, do
Viriou, Iip, Iourau, An.|scur Iip, Munslor, K.mp| oci I|P, MoIdoIosi, R.ppcric ccn |.
Iip, Willonborg, III. Aboul laIf llo aclivisls al III voro vomon. Tloy pubIislod:
CoIIoclif do fommos, Iip .u |cmininc. Soo aIso Baumgarlnor, Burns, and DoViIIo, Con-
"icl RosoIulion and Con"icl DovoIopmonl, osp. pp. 12536.
60
Ono voII-knovn oxampIo vas llo vork-in al llo }apanoso novspapor Ycmiuri S|in-
oun in Oclobor 1945. Soo Mooro, j.p.ncsc Wcr|crs, and Tasuko, Arboilskmpfo.
,55 / !"#$%&' )*+&
- |ssucs. Disconlonl may lavo many causos, and may ariso from coursos of
ovonls al llo vorkpIaco or oulsido. IoIilicaI, roIigious or ollnic lonsions
may oxisl in socioly gonoraIIy or onIy villin llo vorkpIaco. Bocauso lol-
oronomous Iabor procossos inovilabIy onlaiI an unoquaI baIanco of povor
and sociaI conlrasls al llo vorkpIaco, vorkors may vory voII fooI porpolu-
aIIy dissalis!od vill lloir silualion. SliII, llis omniprosonl disconlonl, if il
oxisls, is manifoslod difforonlIy in oacl Iabor roIalionslip. Iabor psycloIo-
gisls and oxporls on induslriaI roIalions lavo vrillon oxlonsivoIy aboul llis
procoss and llo faclors invoIvod. Sinco llis aspocl is nol my main focus, I
viII moroIy nolo loro llal llo gonoraI viIIingnoss lo slago a slriko doponds
on an inlricalo compIox of faclors, incIuding vlollor or nol a griovanco pro-
coduro oxisls, llo oaso of forming a group idonlily, and llo gonoraI poIilicaI
and oconomic circumslancos.
61
- 1riggcrs. Tlo acluaI ovonl or ovonls llal mako llo fal lil llo !ro vary
groalIy. WliIo in many casos lloy diroclIy affocl llo vorkors concornod
(rodundancios, mismanagomonl and llo Iiko), somo concorn ci|cr vorkors
vill vlom lloy sympallizo, or a pubIic conlrovorsy.
- Dcm.n!s. Slrikors may dirocl lloir domands lovard llo managomonl or an
ompIoyors associalion, as voII as lovard llo pubIic aullorilios. Tlis Iisl of
domands may compriso a broad rango of griovancos, or jusl a singIo issuo.
62

Tlo vay in vlicl llo domands aro convoyod lo llo advorsary is ossonliaI.
In mosl casos, slrikors aro roprosonlod by oIoclod spokospoopIo or lrado-
union of!ciaIs. If sovoro roprossion is imminonl, lovovor, and llo slrikors
do nol vanl lo discIoso llo idonlily of lloir Ioadors, lloy may invoko ollor
mollods. In llo round robin, for oxampIo, slrikors sign lloir namos in a
circIo bonoall llo domands lo concoaI vlo signod !rsl.
63
Tlo samo consid-
61
Tlo loloronomous docision-making procoss al llo !rm appoars lo bo ossonliaI.
A syslom of uniIaloraI docision-making |. . .j inlonsi!os vork griovancos nol onIy
bocauso of rosonlmonls aboul procoduro bul bocauso il las major impIicalions for
subslanlivo vork probIoms, incIuding llo form of managoriaI conlroI ovor llo vork
procoss. Al llo samo limo, sinco il providos a roIalivoIy inoffoclivo moans for llo
rosoIulion of probIoms al faclory IovoI, il londs lo Ioad lo an accumuIalion of griov-
ancos. GaIIio, Scci.| |ncu.|ii, pp. 1578.
62
Riclard Biornacki arguos llal Gorman loxliIo vorkors around 1900 londod lo
formuIalo an oxlonsivo Iisl of domands rallor llan lo slriko ovor a singIo issuo, vliIo
lloir Brilisl poors londod lo do llo opposilo. Biornacki, I.oric.iicn c| I.ocr, p. 457.
63
Rodikor, Bciuccn i|c Dcti| .n! i|c Dccp B|uc Sc., pp. 2345, Davids, Soamons
Organizalions, pp. 1601.
0%'*1&2 / ,56
oralions may Ioad nogolialions lo bo conduclod coIIoclivoIy (by aII slrikors
logollor) or by a fov roprosonlalivos. Irosonlalion of llo domands may
procodo, coincido vill or foIIov llo nogolialions. Domands aro cruciaI for
a slriko according lo llo abovo do!nilion. A slriko villoul any domands
is probabIy inlondod onIy lo punisl llo ompIoyor.
64
WliIo slrikos villoul
issuos aro dif!cuIl lo imagino, lloy lavo aIso occurrod villoul spoci!c lrig-
gors, as in llo caso of caIcuIalod, promodilalod aclions lo incroaso vagos.
Tlo llroo aspocls molivaling subjoclivo viIIingnoss I monlion may bo
diroclIy roIalod, bul lloy may aIso bo quilo unroIalod in somo casos.
65
To iIIus-
lralo, in Ialo Novombor 1965 a slriko broko oul al a Iondon rubbor faclory.
66

Al issuo voro vago ralos and vorking condilions, a Iongslanding sourco of
dissalisfaclion among llo slrikors (ninoly-!vo porconl of vlom voro Iunjabi
Sikls). Tlo lriggor vas a roIalivoIy minor incidonl, doscribod as foIIovs in a
dolaiIod sludy: On Monday, 29 Novombor 1965, Mr Muklliar Singl vas sus-
pondod by llo managomonl and sonl lomo aflor lo lad roporlod for duly al
llo faclory lon minulos Ialo from lis Iuncl broak. Tlo managomonl cIaim|odj
llal llo |manj lad lakon limo off villoul pormission and llo union llal lis
susponsion vas conlrary lo llo IrocoduraI Agroomonl in llal no slop slov-
ard vas prosonl vlon lo vas suspondod and llal lo vas suspondod villoul
pay.
67
Tlo slop slovards llon usod llis lriggor as a look lo lang lvo ollor
domands and caII oul noarIy 600 Iunjabis on unof!ciaI slriko.
68
Slrikos by ollor vorkors may in"uonco llo omorgonco of a Iabor con"icl.
IirslIy, slrikos oIsovloro may Ioad vorkors lo porcoivo lloir ovn silualion,
and consoquonlIy llo roIovanl issuos, in a difforonl Iigll. SocondIy, slrikos
64
Sucl slam slrikos occurrod undor Iuropoan foudaIism. WiIIiam Roddy, for
oxampIo, nolos llal llo coIIoclivo aclions of Ironcl journoymon ro"oclod llo lradilion
of guiId discipIinary moasuros unliI 1830. }ournoymon vouId pronounco an 'inlordicl
or 'condomnalion on a maslor, on a group of maslors, or ovon a vloIo lovn and llon
lloy vouId Iook for vork oIsovloro, llal is |.irc |. grctc. Tlo maslor vas punislod,
lo vas nol offorod nogolialions. Roddy, Risc c| M.r|ci Cu|iurc, p. 129.
65
KoIIy and NicloIson lypollosizo llal llo groalor llo dissocialion bolvoon issuos,
lriggors and domands llo Iongor llo slriko is IikoIy lo Iasl, ollor llings boing oquaI.
KoIIy and NicloIson, Causalion of Slrikos, p. 873.
66
My accounl is basod on llo roconslruclion in: Marsl, An.icm c| . Siri|c.
67
Ibid., p. 45.
68
Ibid.
,67 / !"#$%&' )*+&
oIsovloro may sorvo as a lriggor. In llis rospocl, CaroI ConoII and SamuoI
Coln rofor lo slimuIi slrikos, vlicl slov ollor ompIoyoos llal llo limo
lo slriko is nov.
69
And, of courso, ollor slrikos oIsovloro may in"uonco llo
domands mado. If vorkors succood in vinning, or faiI lo vin, a corlain lypo of
domand acliovod in ono con"icl, ollor vorkors may bo oncouragod lo mako,
or bo discouragod from making simiIar domands. Domands and issuos from
sovoraI groups of vorkors may aIso bo mixod or combinod, making llo Iisl of
domands Iongor or moro compIox. Tlis is usuaIIy llo caso vill fairIy Iargo
slriko vavos, vloro inlricalo pallorns of soIidarily may omorgo. In lis sludy
of llo Iargo TISCO slriko in Clola Nagpur (India, 1928), DiIip Simoon vrilos
of a sociaI avaIanclo, vill soparalo griovancos and inilialivos fooding ono
anollor.
70
Wlal aro llo procondilions for llo subjoclivo viIIingnoss lo p.riicip.ic in
slrikos` In many casos vorkors lavo do!nilo griovancos, bul aro novorllo-
Ioss nci incIinod lo lako induslriaI aclion. CoIIoclivo inlorprolalion of issuos
and lloir lransIalion inlo domands is faciIilalod or compIicalod by a sorios
of loclnicaI, organizalionaI and !nanciaI faclors. In llo 1830s, for oxampIo,
Androv Uro obsorvod llal Brilisl prolo-induslriaI loxliIo vorkors voro scal-
lorod ovor a vido lrack of llo counlry. Bocauso lloy voro aIso muluaI com-
polilors for vork and vagos, lloy raroIy managod lo conspiro vill ono
anollor, and novor vill offocl againsl lloir ompIoyors.
71
Uros obsorvalion liglIigllod boll llo divorgonl inlorosls of difforonl
Iabor groups and vlal }on IIslor rofors lo as communicalionaI dislanco.
72

ObviousIy, ompIoyoos viII nood lo concIudo llal lloy lavo common inlor-
osls vorll dofonding by going on slriko. Tlo concopl of inlorosls is moro
compIicalod llan oflon boIiovod, sinco subjoclivo and objoclivo aspocls aro
mixod in il. Tlo inlorosls al issuo nood lo bo difforonlialod according lo slorl
and Iong-lorm concorns.
73
In addilion, common inlorosls nood nol ariso oxcIu-
sivoIy from Iabor roIalionslips, bul can aIso incIudo ollor mallors, sucl as
ollnic lios or poIilicaI viovs.
69
ConoII and Coln, Ioarning from Ollor IoopIos Aclions, p. 369.
70
Simoon, Pc|iiics c| I.ocur, p. 59.
71
Uro, P|i|cscp| c| M.nu|.ciurcs, p. 281.
72
IIslor, M.|ing Scnsc c| M.rx, p. 355.
73
I Ioarnl mucl from llo cIoar anaIysis in: WoIf, Bodurfnis und Inlorosso.
0%'*1&2 / ,6,
Wlicl inlorosls aro formuIalod as conlraI, and vlollor lloso inlorosls aro
indood causo for a slriko, doponds IargoIy on llo parlicipalion idonlily llal
ompIoyoos form. I do!no llis concopl Iiko Rogor GouId as llo sociaI idonli!-
calion vill rospocl lo vlicl an individuaI rosponds in . gitcn insi.ncc c| scci.|
prcicsi lo spoci!c normalivo and inslrumonlaI appoaIs.
74
In any coIIoclivo
aclion, llo parlicipanls nood lo bo convincod il porlains lo an idonli!abIo coI-
Ioclivily llal morils lloir supporl, and is IikoIy lo bono!l llom as voII. Iormu-
Ialing llo parlicipalion idonlily as vorkors-viIIing-lo-slriko bocomos oasior
vill cIosor lios lo oslabIislod nolvorks, sucl as communily slrucluros, kin-
slip nolvorks and llo Iiko. IslabIislod union slrucluros aro obviousIy liglIy
conducivo lo formuIaling a parlicipalion idonlily as voII, sinco lloy oIiminalo
llo obslacIo lo forming organizalions.
75
CommunicalionaI dislanco doponds on goograply, as voII as on avaiIabIo
moans of lransporl and communicalions. Group soIidarily may bo forgod
on fool, as slriking poasanls did in oarIy-lvonlioll conlury Ukraino, or ovon
by bicycIo, as lapponod during llo groal slrikos of Indian vorkors on rub-
bor pIanlalions in MaIaysia in 1941, vlon bands of bicycIo-riding vorkors
voro roporlod far a!oId sooking lo porsuado Iabour from dislanl oslalos lo
join llo vork sloppago.
76
Doponding on llo loclnoIogy avaiIabIo, far moro
soplislicalod slralogios may obviousIy bo appIiod, incIuding llo Inlornol.
77

In somo casos, lovovor, communicalionaI dislanco is so vasl llal coIIoclivo
aclion bocomos oxcoplionaIIy dif!cuIl, or ovon impossibIo lo organizo. Tlis
appoars lo lavo boon llo caso on llo Argonlino p.mp., vloro ruraI vorkors
voro isoIalod plysicaIIy from ono anollor and voro unabIo lo buiId ovon
llo rudimonlary inslilulions of coIIoclivo Iifo.
78
Hovovor, ompIoyors somo-
limos doIiboraloIy incroaso llo isoIalion of groups of vorkors. In llo }apanoso
loxliIo induslry during llo 1920s, many faclory girIs Iivod in company dor-
milorios. A conlomporary obsorvor nolod: If a slriko is caIIod, llo dormilory
74
GouId, |nsurgcni |!cniiiics, p. 13.
75
Clrislman, KoIIy and GaIIo, Comparalivo Iorspoclivos, p. 72, Slorlor and TiIIy,
Siri|cs in Ir.ncc, p. 9, TiIIy, Ircm Mcoi|iz.iicn ic Rctc|uiicn, Brill and GaIIo, InduslriaI
Con"icl and Unionizalion, Brill and GaIIo, SlrucluraI Anlocodonls.
76
IdoIman, RuraI IroIolarians, p. 264, WiIson, K|.ng Siri|cs, p. 19.
77
Ioo, I.ocur Mctcmcni .n! i|c |nicrnci. KIaus TonfoIdo discussos sovoraI aspocls
of communicalionaI dislanco in: Arboilorsclafl.
78
Borgquisl, I.ocr in I.iin Amcric., p. 102.
,68 / !"#$%&' )*+&
vorkors aro Iockod in llo faclory grounds and cul off from aII communicalion
vill llo slrikors oulsido.
79
ImpIoyors compIicalo slriko mobiIizalion in ollor vays as voII. Tloy viII
lry lo raiso llo cosl of coIIoclivo aclion, for oxampIo by pIaying groups of
vorkors off againsl oacl ollor, or by llroaloning lo dismiss llom. IubIic
aullorilios may inlonsify sucl roprossion by prolibiling moolings, suspond-
ing novspapors or rosorling lo ovorl vioIonco.
80
ConvorsoIy, pubIic aullori-
lios lavo somolimos aIso supporlod slrikos. During lis !rsl lorm (191622),
Argonlino Irosidonl HipIilo Yrigoyon oncouragod or al Ioasl provonlod
llo poIico from inlorvoning if llo vorkors concornod voro polonliaI volors
for lis ovn RadicaI Iarly: Yrigoyon supporlod slrikors nol bocauso of lis
idoaIs bul in lopo of vinning volos.
81
Many slralogios from abovo sorvo
diroclIy or indiroclIy lo dolor polonliaI slrikors. Tlo slrikors aro oflon al groal
risk, and may in somo casos ovon joopardizo lloir onliro fuluro Iifo. Tlis facl
may in parl oxpIain vly lloy lako anxioly supprossanls, sucl as aIcoloI. In
Russia, lovards llo ond of llo ninoloonll conlury, aIcoloI consumplion vory
oflon procodod a vorkors rovoIl: Drunkonnoss aclod as a lriggor for vio-
Ionco, roIoasing angor or roprossing llo foar of punislmonl.
82
Slrikos migll
in facl aIso bo inlorprolod (llougl nol oxcIusivoIy) as a coIIoclivo dofonso
againsl foar.
83
1|c ocginning c| i|c siri|c
Wlon llo limo arrivos lo slop vork, llo procoduro adoplod by llo slrikors
doponds in parl on llo naluro of lloir vork. In many produclion procossos
(o.g. unIoading a slip, buiIding a vaII or loacling sclooI), llo vork is sim-
pIy disconlinuod abruplIy. In somo casos, lovovor, llis provos dif!cuIl. In
conlinuous procoss induslrios, sucl as llo polroclomicaI induslry, suddon
79
Orclard, j.p.ns |ccncmic Pcsiiicn, p. 344.
80
TiIIy, Ircm Mcoi|iz.iicn ic Rctc|uiicn, p. 100. An accounl of a vory oarIy caso of
brulaI and cynicaI roprossion of a Iabor dispulo by pubIic aullorilios appoars in:
Bonocko, Auslrian Iabour RoIalions, p. 115.
81
Horovilz, Argonlinas IaiIod GonoraI Slriko, p. 60.
82
Brovor, Iabor VioIonco in Russia, p. 421. Somolling simiIar soomod lo appIy
lo llo bismull minors in llo Gorman Domocralic RopubIic in 1951. Soo Iorl, Dor
orslo Arboiloraufsland in dor DDR.
83
IuIs, 'Iin im ganzon gularligor Slroik, p. 195.
0%'*1&2 / ,69
inlorruplion of faclory oporalions may causo sorious maloriaI damago, and
slulling dovn produclion safoIy is a Ionglly procoss. CompIolo slrikos aro
raro in llis brancl of induslry. Oflon ollor slralogios aro usod loro, sucl as
rofusing lo do ovorlimo.
84
On llo ollor land, vorkors may aIso doIiboraloIy
uso llo loclnoIogicaI foaluros of llo produclion procoss lo bring aboul a |.ii
.cccmp|i. Tlo slriko of 1842 in Iancasliro and Yorksliro bocamo knovn as
llo IIug IIol Riols, bocauso llo slrikors puIIod pIugs from faclory boiIors,
oxlinguislod !ros, slopping llo onginos and making an oarIy rosumplion of
vork impossibIo.
85
Tloso moasuros provonlod slrikors vlo docidod lo go
back lo vork from rosuming lloir dulios immodialoIy, and forcod llo vork-
ors nol yol on slriko lo join. Oulrigll sabolago, lo vlicl I roforrod aIroady,
is llo noxl slop.
M.inicn.ncc c| i|c siri|c
SovoraI inlordopondonl faclors dolormino vlollor, lov and for lov Iong
llo slriko conlinuos.
1. Tlo vay in vlicl llo slriko is organizod doponds in parl on llo gcn-
!cr ccmpcsiiicn c| i|c siri|crs. Margarol Maruani rovoaIs lov, in a sorios of
invorlod slrikos (vloro llo vorkors look conlroI of produclion) during
19751978, Ironcl vomon loxliIo vorkors pIannod lloir slruggIo lo accom-
modalo lloir famiIy noods:
Tlo gonoraI faclory moolings, llo rlyllms of vork, and llo slriko moolings
corrospondod lo cliIdrons sclooI scloduIos and lusbands vork lours. |. . .j
Tlo gonoraI moolings, vloro aII docisions voro lakon, look pIaco during
vorking lours bocauso vomon lad lo allond lo domoslic lasks aflor vork.
No Ioador aroso from llo union communily bocauso no ono couId lako povor
by invosling mucl moro limo llan ollors in union aclivism: as a consoquonco
of lloir subordinalion in famiIy Iifo, llo vomon slrikors did nol lavo llo
moans, opon lo mosl mon, lo bocomo buroaucrals and polly bossos in union
Iifo. Tlo rolalion of funclions and llo slaring of lasks among llo slrikors
84
Kaln ci .|., Pic|ciing, p. 59.
85
ClaIIinor and RipIoy, Mincrs Asscci.iicn, p. 27.
,6. / !"#$%&' )*+&
voro aImosl inovilabIo. Tlo slrikos mollods voro a domocralic ansvor lo
llo gonoraI sociaI probIom of vomons Iack of froo limo.
86
2. Going on slriko moans laving lo copo vill |csi u.gcs. Workors Ioso incomo
al Ioasl for llo duralion of llo slriko, and musl !nd an aIlornalivo moans
of subsislonco. Ivon slrikors boIonging lo a union vill a subslanliaI slriko
fund, or vlo lavo formod a coIIoclivo fund on lloir ovn, viII !nd llal
lloir slriko-bono!ls aro Ioss llan llo vagos lloy ordinariIy rocoivo. Tloro aro
various oplions. Slrikors can for inslanco lry lo coIIocl monoy, or soII goods,
among sympallolic foIIov vorkors and llo broador pubIic. During a slriko
Iasling !vo vooks al llo Islikavajima slipyard in Tokyo (Oclobor-Novombor
1921) |sjovoraI lundrod vorkors spIil inlo !vo-man groups, sol up ouldoor
slaIIs or puslcarls, and soId loollbruslos, soap, and ollor sucl iloms, raising
monoy for llo slriko fund and gaining IocaI sympally.
87
Anollor aIlornalivo
vas common in coIoniaI and posl-coIoniaI counlrios. SoasonaI and pormanonl
migranls from ruraI aroas vouId rolurn lo lloir viIIagos in llo lopo of sup-
porling llomsoIvos lloro. In 1931, for oxampIo, virluaIIy aII non-pormanonl
raiIvay vorkors in Sokondi-Takoradi (GoId Coasl/Glana) rolurnod lo lloir
lomo viIIagos and lovns for lvo monlls.
88
A llird possibiIily is llal an
af"uonl individuaI providos llo slrikors vill llo moans lo subsisl. Wlon llo
carlors in CoIombo (CoyIon/Sri Ianka) vanlod lo rosisl a nov municipaI by-
Iav in 1906, llo popuIar carl conlraclor }oln KoloIavaIa, vlo foIl porsonaIIy
invoIvod, aclod as llo slriko Ioador. During llo slriko, KoloIavaIa fod aII llo
carlors and lloir buIIs, vlo crovdod inlo lis fronl gardon.
89
Tlo slriking
saiIors in Hong Kong (1922) usod yol anollor mollod. Tlo union loadquar-
lors and mosl of llo slrikors voro lransforrod lo a silo of rofugo in Canlon. In
addilion lo ovading llo prossuro from llo Hong Kong Govornmonl and lloir
ompIoyors, llis slralogy kopl lloir cosl of Iiving dovn. WliIo iniliaIIy onIy
86
Tlis vas llo slriko al llo Confoclion InduslrioIIo du Ias-do-CaIais. Maruani,
Iranco, p. 130, a moro dolaiIod accounl appoars in Maruani and Borzoix, Ic icmps
!cs c|cmiscs.
87
Gordon, I.ocr .n! |mpcri.| Dcmccr.c, p. 169.
88
}offrios, C|.ss, Pcucr .n! |!cc|cg, pp. 301.
89
}ayavardona, Risc c| i|c I.ocr Mctcmcni, p. 127. Ior an inlorosling caso sludy
aboul llo communicalion bolvoon llo cily-basod slriko Ioadorslip and llo slrikors vlo
lad rolurnod lo lloir viIIagos during llo groal Iabor con"icl in Bombay, 19821983,
soo: van Worscl, IIying a Kilo.
0%'*1&2 / ,63
a fov llousand soamon voro invoIvod, llo sympallolic slrikos llal onsuod
incroasod llo numbor of omigranls lo noarIy ono lundrod llousand.
90
3. During llo slriko, kooping up mcr.|c .mcng i|c siri|crs is ossonliaI. Tlo
vorkors nood lo romain invoIvod in llo procoss, and musl nol Ioso lopo. To
llis ond, aII slrikors may bo invilod lo allond roguIar mass gallorings, vloro
llo slriko Ioadors inform supporlors aboul llo courso of ovonls, and loucl
baso vill llom. Tlis slralogy foaluros in numorous slrikos, ospociaIIy in
viIdcal onos sucl as llo Rollordam larbor slriko of 1979.
91
Songs roinforco
group colosion as voII. Tlo Ioador of a coppor minors slriko in Norllorn Rlo-
dosia in 1955 nolod: Tvo or llroo of lloso songs sung and ropoalod al gonoraI
moolings voro onougl lo consoIidalo vorkors opinions.
92
Slriko oppononls
viII of courso lry lo undormino slrikor moraIo from oulsido, sucl as by laving
mombors of llo cIorgy lurn roIigious vorkors againsl llo causo.
93
4. Tlo soIulion lo llo !cmccr.c !i|cmm. (}oan HarlIoys lorm) roIalos lo llo
moraIo probIom. On llo ono land, ovory con"icl vill ompIoyors roquiros
slrong discipIino, unanimily and cIoar Ioadorslip. On llo ollor land, llo
nood lo invoIvo llo slrikors in llo courso of ovonls may Ioad lo dobalo and
consoquonlIy lo disagroomonl.
94
5. Auxi|i.rics aro groups of non-slrikors (for oxampIo sludonls from a noarby
univorsily, or famiIy mombors of slrikors) providing slrikors vill moraI and
maloriaI supporl, vlicl can affocl llo courso a slriko lakos. During llo slrikos
of Zambian maIo coppor minors in 1935 and 1940, llo slrikors voro joinod by
lloir vivos. Tloy grov oxlra food, organizod noiglborloods, vonl lo union
moolings, and buIIiod lusbands inlo foIIoving union diroclivos.
95
In many
slrikos, llo rosoIvo of llo vomon loIpod llo mon provaiI. During llo Brilisl
gonoraI slriko of 1842, an oulsidor (vlo considorod llo domands of llo slrikors
90
Clan, Iabor and Impiro, p. 276.
91
van dor Iindon, Dor 'viIdo Rollordamor Hafonslroik. Somo moro gonoraI
idoas aboul llis issuo appoar in: Bosc, Dmocralio ol consonsus, and Bourdiou,
Ia dIgalion.
92
Iarparl, I.ocr .n! C.pii.|, p. 149.
93
Ior oxampIo during llo minors slriko in Uppor SiIosia of 1889. IuIs, 'Iin im
ganzon gularligor Slroik, p. 192.
94
HarlIoy, Ioadorslip and Docision Making, p. 243.
95
Iarparl, Womon, p. 244. Doscriplions of ollor casos appoar in: Ribordy, Ia
grvo du nickoI, Slono, 'Iron Iadios , Camoron, Broad and Rosos Rovisilod,
Scalos, Gondor, Collias-Dumoix, Ios fommos, Moriarly, 'Wlo WiII Iook aflor
llo Kiddios`.
,64 / !"#$%&' )*+&
lo bo oxlorlionalo) obsorvod: Tlo vomon, parlicuIarIy, voro oxcoodingIy
involoralo in urging lloir lusbands lo loId oul, saying lloy vouId rallor Iivo
on polaloos and saIl llan givo in.
96
6. Ccnirc| c| siri|c-orc.|crs. Tlo succoss of ompIoyors in !nding slriko-broak-
ors doponds in parl on llo roquisilo IovoI of skiII, llo suppIy of vorkors vill
llal IovoI of skiII, and llo lransaclion cosls.
97
In caslo sociolios (o.g. in Soull
Asia), llo caslo slrucluro may como inlo pIay. During llo Iaundrymons slriko
in CoIombo in 1896, ompIoyors lad onormous dif!cuIly !nding IocaI ropIaco-
monls, sinco Iaundry vork vas a caslo monopoIy.
98
In somo casos, ompIoyors
anlicipalod slrikos by rocruiling a pooI of polonliaI slriko-broakors in advanco.
Tlis lapponod in San Irancisco vloro, aflor dofoaling lvo slrikos of Iong-
sloromon (in 1916 and 1919), llo Walorfronl ImpIoyors Union sol up a Iabor
oxclango inlondod lo suppIy slriko-broakors lo ompIoyors in nood of lloir
sorvicos. Ivon vlon a slriko is nol in progross, llo |Marino Sorvicoj Buroau
mainlains up-lo-dalo !Ios of polonliaI slriko-broakors, nolod an obsorvor in
1935.
99
Tlo abiIily of slrikors lo dolor scabs doponds on lloir povor of porsua-
sion lovards ompIoyors and slriko-broakors. Tlroals of mass vioIonco aro
ono vay lo prossuro ompIoyors. In Clangsla (Hunan Irovinco, Clina), in
ApriI 1917, slriking Iongsloromon announcod: If llo aullorilios daro liro
nov vorkors lo do llo unIoading, vo viII boal llom lo doall immodialoIy
and uso korosono lo burn up |llo boalsj.
100
Tlo llroo IogicaI slops in dolorring
slriko-broakors aro porsuading llo slriko-broakors lo roconsidor, using (llo
llroal of) forco lo koop llom avay from llo vorkpIaco, and provonling llom
from golling any vork dono lloro. Bocauso slriko-broakors aro lypicaIIy Ioss
forlunalo mombors of llo vorking cIass (o.g. bocauso lloy aro unompIoyod,
or rocoivo inforior ralos of pay), ono slralogy for convincing llom nol lo broak
a slriko is lo loIp llom organizo, and lo porsuado llom llal lloy slouId nol
acl as scabs. BoIslovik vorkors usod llis approacl vlon lloy sol up unom-
pIoymonl counciIs in Sl. Iolorsburg and Moscov in 19057.
101
Anollor caso in
96
97
Soo aIso McIvor, ImpIoyors Organisalion, Sloarns, Againsl llo Slriko
Tlroal.
98
}ayavardona, Risc c| i|c I.ocr Mctcmcni in Cc|cn, p. 105.
99
Hopkins, ImpIoymonl Ixclangos, p. 255.
100
McDonaId, }r., Uro.n Origins, p. 146.
101
Rozina, Rukovodslvo boIslovikov.
0%'*1&2 / ,6-
llo Ialo ninoloonll conlury invoIvod llo induslriaI associalion of bIacksmills
in Donmark, vlo acluaIIy paid unompIoymonl bono!ls lo lloir unompIoyod
poors spoci!caIIy lo provonl llom broaking slrikos.
102
Slrikors lavo ovon boon
knovn lo offor pay-offs lo pcicnii.| slriko-broakors lo slop llom from broak-
ing a slriko.
103
DiscIosuro of informalion is oflon imporlanl as voII, ospociaIIy
if slriko-broakors aro nol avaro aboul llo roaI roasons vly lloy aro boing
rocruilod.
104

If offorls lo dolor slriko-broakors aro unsuccossfuI, acls of rovongo vlicl
omplasizo vioIonco and slaming viII oflon occur. Somo of lloso acls lavo
boon vory cruoI indood. Androv Uro, for oxampIo, monlionod llo uso of llo
corrosivo oiI of vilrioI, vlicl vas daslod in llo facos of individuaIs, vill
llo offocl of dis!guring lloir porsons, and burning lloir oyos oul of llo sock-
ols vill droadfuI agony.
105
Tloro aro many accounls of lradilionaI c|.rit.ri
mollods inlondod lo loap pubIic dislonor on llo slriko-broakors, sucl as by
pIacing llo dislonorod porson on a poIo and riding lim or lor around llo
cily.
106
In somo colosivo communilios (o.g. of minors or dockors), slriko-broak-
ors voro sligmalizod for yoars, or ovon gonoralions.
107
Many Ianguagos lavo
spociaI opprobrious IaboIs for slriko-broakors.
108
7. Hov do rc|.iicns uii| i|c cppcncni (llo ompIoyor, llo slalo or anollor por-
son or inslilulion) ovoIvo` WiII llo con"icl oscaIalo, for oxampIo bocauso llo
102
slorgaard ScluIlz, SoIidarilolon, osp. pp. 725.
103
During a slriko in 1848, llo Brilisl Unilod IIinl GIass Makors Socioly offorod
llo Ironclmon |slriko broakorsj 26s por vook oacl, if lloy vouId join llo slriko and
undorlook lo pay lloir oxponsos back lo Iranco, if lloy proforrod lo go, bul lloy aII
rofusod. Mcrning C|rcnic|c, 23 Docombor 1850, quolod loro aflor Malsumura, I.ocur
Arisiccr.c Rctisiic!, p. 88.
104
Soo o.g. RssIor, Immigranls.
105
Uro, P|i|cscp| c| M.nu|.ciurcs, pp. 2823.
106
Soo, for oxampIo: Gorsky, }amos Tuck!oIds 'Rido
107
Burgo, In Soarcl of Harry BIounl, slorgaard ScluIlz, 'Arbojdsspaorrin-
gon.
108
In Iranco, in llo days of Iouis IliIippo, lloy voro caIIod ocurmcni and r.gus..
Al llo prosonl day lloy aro in Gormany lormod Sirci|orcc|cr, in IlaIy, |rumiri, in Ing-
Iand, o|.c||cgs, in Amorica sc.os, in HainauiIl, g.mocs !c ocs, in Iranco, j.uncs, rcn.r!s,
or oc!cuins, in HoIIand, cn!cr|ruipcrs, and so on. MicloIs, Pc|iiic.| P.riics, p. 292.
Many of lloso lorms appoar lo lavo racisl ovorlonos. Iooson, for oxampIo, boIiovos
llal llo IngIisl vord bIackIog omorgod in llo oarIy ninoloonll conlury and vas
cIoarIy raciaI. In llo masons rocords lloy aro spokon of as 'Africans and a union
pamplIol slovs a bIack !guro in 'sorviIo clains, llo impIicalion boing llal llo anli-
union man is a sIavo. Iooson, 1r.tc||ing Brci|crs, p. 154. Soo aboul llis sloroolypo
aIso Arnoson, Quicksands of Iconomic Insocurily.
,65 / !"#$%&' )*+&
ompIoyors procIaim a Iockoul` Aro nogolialions conduclod, and, if so, lov do
lloy procood` Nolo llal in somo casos slrikors lavo acluaIIy rc|usc! aIlogollor
lo nogolialo vill lloir oppononl. Ior oxampIo, Roborl }ackson obsorvos in
lis sludy of carponlors and lypograplors in llo Unilod Slalos, llal ompIoy-
ors and vorkors in llo oarIy ninoloonll conlury considorod lloir ovn posi-
lions lo bo non-nogoliabIo, and aimod for nolling Ioss llan llo lolaI dofoal of
lloir oppononl. Il look many yoars boforo boll sidos grov moro "oxibIo, and
bocamo invoIvod in compIox nogolialions.
109
Oflon, oulsido modialors aro invilod lo rosoIvo llo con"icl. Tloir clancos
of succooding dopond on llroo faclors, namoIy llo baIanco of povor bolvoon
llo managomonl and llo vorkors, llo sland of llo pubIic aullorilios, and llo
abiIily of modialors lo lako llo posilions of aII advorsarios soriousIy.
110
1crmin.iicn .n! cuiccmc c| i|c siri|c
Al somo poinl aflor a fov lours, or porlaps a fov monlls llo confron-
lalion viII ond, bocauso llo slrikors aro forcod lo do so llrougl (llo llroal
of) vioIonco, bocauso lloy voIunloorod lo do so, or bocauso llo movomonl
oxpirod. Oflon llo rosumplion of vork is procodod by oxlonsivo and !ory
dobalos. Wlon, in }uno 1972, llo Ioadors of a Iargo and bIoody slriko in
Karacli caIIod on vorkors lo ond llo slriko, lloy noodod lvo vloIo days of
discussion lo porsuado llo rank and !Io. OnIy aflor a vory popuIar slop"oor
Ioador loId a spoocl of noarIy llroo quarlors of an lour and svoro on lis
cliIdron llal lo vouId novor bolray llo Iaborors and vouId aIvays vork
for lloir bono!l, llo vorkors agrood lo rolurn lo vork.
111
Wlon slrikos aro dofoalod by llo succossfuI uso of slriko-broakors, con"icls
bolvoon scabs and slrikors may ariso. Doponding on llo naluro of llo opposi-
lion, difforonl kinds of oulcomos aro aIso idonli!abIo. Will slrikos diroclod
againsl llird parlios (o.g. pubIic aullorilios), llo oulcomo doponds nol pri-
mariIy on llo ompIoyors of llo slriking vorkors, bul on llo llird parlios
indiroclIy addrossod by llo slriko. Will sympally slrikos, llo oulcomo again
doponds nol primariIy on llo ompIoyors of llo slriking vorkors, bul on llo
dirocl or indirocl in"uonco brougll lo boar on ollor ompIoyors. IinaIIy, vill
109
}ackson, Icrm.iicn c| Cr.|i I.ocr M.r|cis, p. 97.
110
111
AIi, Slrongll of llo Slrool, p. 97.
0%'*1&2 / ,66
slrikos largoling llo acluaI ompIoyor or ompIoyors of llo slriking vorkors, llo
oulcomo may of courso bo a compIolo viclory for llo ompIoyors, a compIolo
viclory for llo ompIoyoos, or a compromiso bolvoon llo lvo parlios.
Wlalovor llo oulcomo of llo slriko, llroo aspocls aro aIvays idonli!abIo:
112
- Suosi.niitc cuiccmcs: llo langibIo accompIislmonls in lorms of vagos, vork-
ing lours, vorking condilions, rocognilion, vork inlonsily, oulpul, olc.
- Prccc!ur.| cuiccmcs: lloso concorn llo porsons or agoncios aullorizod lo
lako parlicuIar docisions al vork, llo acluaI docision-making procoduros,
clangos in Iavs, conlracls, agroomonls or roguIalions olc.
- Ccnicxiu.| cuiccmcs. llo gonoraI sonlimonl provaiIing in llo vorkpIaco,
impIicalions of llo con"icl for ollor vorkors oIsovloro, llo alliludo of llo
gonoraI pubIic and llo slalo aullorilios, olc.
Tlo abiIily of slrikors lo forco lloir ompIoyor inlo concossions doponds on
sovoraI faclors. No mallor lov voII proparod llo vorkors aro, and lov
slrong lloir rosoIvo, lloy aro novor compIoloIy in conlroI of llo oulcomo of a
slriko. Il is llo o.|.ncc of rosourcos bolvoon llo sidos, nol llo absoIulo IovoI
of Iabors arsonaI, llal docidos llo oulcomo of slruggIos.
113
Wlicl faclors
aro moro spoci!caIIy roIovanl in llis conloxl` I viII slarl by considoring llo
simpIosl caso, vloro llo slriko affocls cnc cmp|ccr uii| cnc csi.o|is|mcni.
1. 1|c cn!cgcncus sir.icgic pcsiiicns c| ucr|crs. Back in llo Ialo 1940s, }oln
DunIop obsorvod llal somo vorkors voro moro slralogicaIIy posilionod
llan ollors, bocauso villdravaI of lloir sorvicos quickIy |brokoj llo vloIo
slroam. WliIo llo povor of sucl groups of vorkors may Iio in lloir spoci!c
skiIIs, il may aIso simpIy bo llo oulcomo of lloir parlicuIar posilion villin
llo ovoraII produclion procoss, sucl as cullors in llo garmonl induslry.
114
In
llo Clicago slockyards, for oxampIo, llo vorkors on llo kiIIing "oors lad
112
Tlo !rsl lvo lypos of oulcomos ro"ocl llo obsorvalions of DunIop, |n!usiri.|
Rc|.iicns Ssicms. AIllougl lo doos nol oxpIicilIy slalo llis, DunIop appoars lo bo
oIaboraling on llo dislinclion llal SpioImans drov proviousIy bolvoon dispulos on
IogaI or quasi-IogaI riglls and dispulos on inlorosls a dislinclion dorivod from
Scandinavian Iabor IogisIalion. Soo SpioImans, Iabor Dispulos.
113
KoIIy, 1r.!c Unicns .n! Scci.|isi Pc|iiics, p. 181. Soo aIso Biggs, Slrikos as
Soquoncos of Inloraclion.
114
DunIop, DovoIopmonl of Iabor Organizalion, p. 179. Soo aIso llo lypollosis
aboul llo posilionaI povor of groups of vorkors dovisod by Iuca Iorrono and
ollors: Iorrono, IosilionaI Iovor and Iroponsily lo Slriko, Iorrono IosilionaI
877 / !"#$%&' )*+&
a corlain ondogonous povor duo lo llo porislabIo naluro of llo producl.
AccordingIy, il is unIikoIy lo lavo boon coincidonlaI llal many slrikos slarlod
vill llom, and llon sproad lo adjaconl doparlmonls. ConvorsoIy, slrikors vill
a voak ondogonous slralogic posilion lavo dif!cuIly slriking offoclivoIy. }oln
WaIlon nolos llal llo collon land-Ioom voavors in ninoloonll-conlury Ian-
casliro voro goograplicaIIy disporsod, bul ovon if lloy couId communicalo
vill oacl ollor, lloy voro unabIo lo rosisl lloir maslors anyvay, bocauso llo
pulling-oul syslom roducod llo !xod capilaI ovorloads of ompIoyors, making
llom Ioss vuInorabIo in llo ovonl of slrikos.
115
2. 1|c m.r|ci rc|.iicns|ip ociuccn i|c ccmp.n .n! i|c cusicmcrs .n! supp|icrs.
Tvo roIalod issuos appoar lo bo ospociaIIy imporlanl lo cuslomors. IirslIy, if
produclion grinds lo a laIl during llo slriko, lov soon viII compoling !rms
bo viIIing and abIo lo uso llis opporlunily lo lako ovor llo markol` SocondIy,
if llo ompIoyor granls aII or parl of llo domands of llo slrikors, and llo soII-
ing prico of llo producl suppIiod risos as a rosuIl, viII saIos docroaso` Tlis is
moro IikoIy lo bo llo caso, if a cIoso subslilulo is avaiIabIo for llo producl, or if
llo prico oIaslicily for domand of llo producl is ligl, so llal a minor clango
in prico aulomalicaIIy roducos domand.
116
Tlo main concorn of llo suppIiors
is vlollor lloy dorivo a subslanliaI slaro of lloir incomo from suppIying
rav maloriaIs or somi-manufacluros lo llo !rm affoclod by llo slriko. WiII llo
slriko joopardizo lloir incomo` Or is llo !rm affoclod by llo slriko roIalivoIy
soIf-suf!cionl`
3. Rc|.iicns|ips cn i|c |.ocr m.r|ci. Wlollor a slriko viII succood, obviousIy
doponds IargoIy on llo oxlonl lo vlicl onlropronours dopond on llo slrikors.
If llo slrikors lavo corlain oxcIusivo skiIIs, or aro dif!cuIl lo ropIaco vill ollor
vorkors or maclinos for difforonl roasons (o.g. bocauso lloy lavo a povorfuI
induslriaI organizalion), llo ompIoyor viII bo moro incIinod lo yioId, aII ollor
llings boing oquaI. Tlo ompIoyor viII aIso bo moro rocoplivo lo llo domands
of lis vorkors if lo las aIroady invoslod in llom. In Glana, for oxampIo,
many liglIy skiIIod raiIvay vorkors voro sonl abroad for lraining. Tloy rop-
Iovor, Slrikos and Wagos, WaIIaco, Grif!n and Rubin, IosilionaI Iovor of Amori-
can Iabor.
115
WaIlon, I.nc.s|irc, p. 143.
116
An iIIuslralivo anaIysis of coppor, vlicl lakos lloso and ollor faclors inlo
accounl, is providod in HiIdobrand and Mangum, C.pii.| .n! I.ocr, pp. 2789.
0%'*1&2 / 87,
rosonlod a considorabIo capilaI invoslmonl, and llis may oxpIain vly llo
managomonl londod lo Iislon lo lloir griovancos.
117
4. Rc|.iicns ociuccn i|c siri|crs .n! i|c ucr|crs .i rc|.ic! !rms, sucl as slaff
mombors al purclasing and suppIior !rms, al compoling !rms, and al !rms
nol invoIvod in llo con"icl. Tlo inlorosl consloIIalions may bo oxcoplionaIIy
compIox. Workors al purclasing !rms, for oxampIo, oflon bono!l if llo vagos
of ompIoyoos al suppIior !rms aro Iov, sinco llis roducos produclion cosls
al lloir !rm, incroasos pro!l margins, and llus aIIovs groalor Ioovay for
incroasos in lloir ovn vagos. Ior llo samo lokon, lovovor, llo slaff al pur-
clasing !rms may nol bo guidod by sucl slorl-lorm considoralions, and may
insload vaIuo soIidarily vill ollor vorkors.
5. Rc|.iicns uii| i|c gcncr.| puo|ic. If lloy manago lo mobiIizo considorabIo
supporl in pubIic opinion for lloir campaign, slrikors viII diroclIy and indi-
roclIy incroaso llo prossuro on llo oppononl. In a caso sludy aboul oarIy nino-
loonll-conlury IngIand, Maurico MiIno nolod: ObviousIy llo slalo of lrado
and llo roIalivo colosion of maslors and mon voro moro signi!canl faclors,
bul llo alliludo of non-parlicipanls couId nol bo discounlod. Tlo roadinoss of
civiI and miIilary aullorilios lo inlorvono, llo roaclion of llo gonoraI pubIic
lo roquosls for conlribulions lo roIiof funds, llo viIIingnoss of poIilicians lo
conlompIalo clangos in llo Iavs concorning combinalion: aII lloso voro in"u-
oncod by llo slalo of pubIic opinion.
118
Tlis obsorvalion loIds lruo in various
forms for mosl Iabor con"icls al ollor limos and pIacos.
119
In somo casos, slrik-
ors aro unabIo lo mobiIizo pubIic supporl, bul in ollor casos lloy succood in
doing so, sucl as during llo raiIvay slrikos in Rio Grando do SuI (BraziI) in
1917, vlon llo slrikors managod lo capilaIizo on vidosproad pubIic dissal-
isfaclion vill abysmaI raiIroad sorvico lo vin aclivo supporl llal cul across
cIass Iinos.
120
Tlo avaiIabIo clannoIs of communicalion aro oflon ossonliaI of
courso boll llo smaII-scaIo nolvorks of sociabiIily around pubs, clurclos
and llo Iiko, as voII as llo mass modia.
121
Anollor faclor is vlollor llo slriko
117
}offrios, C|.ss, Pcucr .n! |!cc|cg, p. 33.
118
MiIno, Slrikos and Slriko-Broaking, p. 226.
119
Soo o.g., Wado, Minors and llo Modia, aboul llo Brilisl minors slriko of
198485, and Classaigno, IOpinion pubIiquo.
120
Bak, Iabor, Communily, and llo Making of a Cross-CIass AIIianco.
121
Rogarding Iaris in llo ninoloonll conlury, Scoll Haino vrilos llal Tlo mosl
offoclivo voapon during slrikos vas probabIy |. . .j pubIic opinion in llo cafs, vlicl
878 / !"#$%&' )*+&
affocls consumors (sucl as vill disruplion of pubIic lransporl), and if llis is
llo caso vlollor llo damago inspiros losliIily or undorslanding.
6. Rc|.iicns uii| i|c puo|ic .ui|criiics. Hov pubIic aullorilios porcoivo slrikos
is llo rosuIl of discordanl Ioarning procossos. ClarIos TiIIy corroclIy obsorvos
llal Il is nol simpIy llal IogisIalors mado somo forms of llo slriko IogaI and
ollor forms of llo slriko iIIogaI. Tlal lapponod, loo. Bul in llo procoss llo
anlagonisls croalod in praclico as voII as in lloory a slarpor dislinclion
bolvoon llo slriko and ollor forms of aclion vill vlicl il lad proviousIy oflon
boon associalod: sabolago, sIovdovn, absonlooism, llo domonslralion.
122
Do
slrikors and aullorilios boll porcoivo llo slriko as a slriko` Do llo aullori-
lios rogard llo slriko as manifoslIy IogaI or iIIogaI, or do llo difforonl parlios
invoIvod lavo difforonl inlorprolalions of llo Iavs` Aro llo aullorilios unani-
mous or dividod` Hov do llo slrikors roIalo lo llo poIilicaI oslabIislmonl` If
llo slriko is organizod or supporlod by a union, doos llis union lavo lios vill
an in"uonliaI poIilicaI parly in llo counlry` To llo oxlonl llal Iabour is suc-
cossfuI in acquiring conlroI ovor poIilicaI inslilulions, il can oxorciso povor
llrougl lloso moans and viII nol bo Iimilod lo llo induslriaI arona.
123
Hov
do llo slrikors copo vill llo roprossion syslom` Aro llo poIico sympallolic or
losliIo lovard llo slrikors`
124
7. Rc|.iicns uii| i|ir! p.riics, suc| .s rc|igicus .ui|criiics. Doponding on llo
spoci!c conloxl, roIigious aullorilios may lavo oillor an oncouraging or an
inlibiling offocl. Iriosls, imams and ollor funclionarios lavo discouragod
and ovon llroalonod slrikors in many casos. Tlis approacl las oflon aIionalod
parls of llo vorking cIass from llo roIigious liorarclios.
125
Wlon a gonoraI
slriko oruplod in IinIand in 1905, llo roIigious aullorilios bocamo vory los-
liIo lovard llo Ioflisl Iabor movomonl.
126
Bul in porlaps an oquaI numbor of
casos, llo cIorgy las moro or Ioss cnccur.gc! slrikors. In llo oarIy lvonlioll
conlury, llo young Russian-Orllodox priosl Goorgii Gapon bocamo famous
usuaIIy loaviIy favorod llo slrikors. Haino, Wcr|! c| i|c P.ris C.|c, p. 83. Soo aIso
Brockonridgo, 'Wo Musl Spoak for OursoIvos.
122
TiIIy, Roporloiros of Conlonlion, pp. 1345.
123
Korpi and SlaIov, Slrikos, p. 170.
124
Ono Iargo slriko llal oIicilod sympally among llo Iovor-ranking poIicomon
vas llo Iondon dock slriko of 1889. Soo BaIIlalclol, IoIico and llo Iondon Dock
Slriko.
125
Soo o.g. IauI, CalloIicismo.
126
Hoininon and HoikkiI, Kirc|cngcsc|ic|ic Iinn|.n!s, Claplor 8.
0%'*1&2 / 879
for lis prominonco in llo omorging Iabor movomonl in Sl. Iolorsburg, and lis
roIo in Ioading llo slriko al llo IuliIov slooIvorks (190405).
127
Roconl casos
of sucl supporl for llo Iabor causo incIudo llo assislanco from llo CalloIic,
Mollodisl and Irosbylorian cIorgy in llo Soull-Koroan Iabor prolosls omorg-
ing in llo 1970s, llo simuIlanoous supporl from grass-rools communilios for
llo molaI vorkors slrikos in So IauIo, and llo in"uonco of Koranic sclooIs
on Iabor con"icls in Norllorn Nigoria around llo samo limo.
128
8. Mcr.|c .mcng i|c siri|crs .n! i|cir cppcncni cr cppcncnis. As nolod abovo,
llo moraIo of llo vorkors is ossonliaI lo mainlain a coIIoclivo rofusaI lo vork.
Sucl moraIo can aIso in"uonco llo posilion of llo oppononl. A pubIic roIa-
lions ballIo for llo loarls and minds of llo parlicipanls, lloir supporlors
and llo gonoraI pubIic oflon onsuos.
9. A|icrn.iitc scurccs c| |itc|i|cc!. Tlo bollor slrikors can manago villoul
lloir roguIar vagos, llo Iongor lloy viII loId oul in a con"icl. Al Ioasl llroo
aIlornalivo sourcos of IivoIilood aro avaiIabIo: a slriko fund of savings of llo
slrikors and ollor vorkors, maloriaI and !nanciaI aid from famiIy mombors,
frionds or ollor supporlors, and incomo from ollor aclivilios. Bocauso slriko
funds aro somolimos non-oxislonl or modosl, and bocauso bono!ls from llis
fund aro oflon Iovor llan llo roguIar vagos, vorkors froquonlIy mako uso of
boll ollor coping mollods. A fov oxampIos lavo aIroady boon cilod. In somo
casos, slrikors rosorl lo conlraI coordinalion of sucl survivaI slralogios (somo-
limos assislod by poIilicaI parlios). Among Gorman skiIIod molaI vorkors al
llo ond of llo ninoloonll conlury, llo gonoraI cuslom during slrikos vas llal
singIo vorkors villoul cliIdron Iofl lovn lo Iook for vork oIsovloro, llus
roIioving llo slriko fund.
129
10. Dcpcn!cncc c| cmp|cccs cn i|cir cmp|ccrs cuisi!c i|c immc!i.ic cmp|c-
mcni rc|.iicns|ip. RoIovanl quoslions in llis rospocl aro: do llo vorkors rosido
in company lousing, and aro lloy in dangor of oviclion` Aro lloy IikoIy lo
Ioso lloir savings or ponsion riglls` Aro lloy parl of a lruck syslom` In llis
rospocl, Ono offocl of llo lruck syslom vas llal il soriousIy curlaiIod vorkors
povor. So Iong as lloy romainod indoblod al llo lommy slop 'ovod my
127
SabIinsky, Rc.! ic B|cc! Sun!., osp. Claplor 6, Surl, Iolorburgs Iirsl Mass
Iabor Organizalion.
128
Koo, Kcrc.n Wcr|crs, Claplor 4, Kock, Wcr|crs P.ri, Iubock, |s|.m .n! Uro.n
I.ocr.
129
Callaruzza, Arociicr un! Unicrnc|mcr, p. 80.
87. / !"#$%&' )*+&
souI lo llo company sloros, as llo Amorican mining song las il il groalIy
Iimilod lloir froodom of aclion, lloir abiIily lo sook lo romody griovancos or
como oul on slriko.
130
11. 1|c !n.nci.| pcsiiicn c| i|c cmp|ccr. Tlo moro af"uonl llo ompIoyor,
llo louglor a sland lo can afford lo lako. During llo groal collon slrikos in
llo Dulcl rogion of Tvonlo (192324 and 193132), llo manufaclurors lad
so mucl capilaI, llal lloy did nol nood lo mako any concossions, dospilo llo
Iossos lloy sufforod, and dospilo llo imminonl orosion of lloir markols.
131
Tlo
opposilo silualion provaiIod in llo Iancasliro mining induslry of llo 1840s,
vloro smaII pils aboundod: SmaII ovnors, vill IillIo capilaI lo faII back on,
couId nol afford lo lavo lloir pils idIo for Iong. Tloir rosourcos voro Ioss llan
llo unions, and, as a rosuIl, lloy lad lo como lo lorms.
132
12. 1|c rc|.iicns|ip c| i|c cmp|ccr uii| ci|cr cmp|ccrs. Adam Smill boIiovod
llal Maslors aro aIvays and ovoryvloro in a sorl of lacil, bul conslanl and
uniform combinalion, nol lo raiso llo vagos abovo lloir acluaI ralo. To vio-
Ialo llis combinalion is ovoryvloro a mosl unpopuIar aclion, and a sorl of
roproacl lo a maslor among lis noiglbours and oquaIs.
133
Tlo courso of
ovonls sinco llon rovoaIs llal muluaI soIidarily bolvoon ompIoyors is roIalivo.
Ivon aIllougl mainlaining a unilod fronl againsl vorkors inlacl migll bo
ralionaI in llo Iong run, slorl-lorm inlorosls may forco individuaI ompIoyors
lo yioId, for oxampIo, bocauso of llo proviousIy monlionod !nanciaI posilion
of llo !rm. Tlo IikoIilood llal a fronl viII disinlogralo incroasos as llo num-
bor of onlropronours invoIvod risos. ImpIoyors associalions may onlanco
colosion among llo capilaIisls,
134
bul sucl organizalions can aIso bo fragiIo.
In llo SoIomon IsIands IIanlors Associalion, foundod in 1914, somoono vas
130
131
AIborls ci .|., M.rgcs t.n !c t.|ocucging, p. 127.
132
133
Smill, Wc.|i| c| N.iicns, p. 59.
134
CIaus Offo and HoImul WiosonllaI arguo llal capilaIisls lond lo organizo llom-
soIvos formaIIy onIy aflor llo vorkors lavo dono so: In aII capilaIisl counlrios, llo
lisloricaI soquonco is llis: llo !rsl slop is llo 'Iiquidalion of llo moans of produclion
of smaII commodily producors and llo morging of lloso inlo capilaIisl induslriaI !rms,
llo socond slop is llo dofonsivo associalion of vorkors, and llo llird is associalionaI
offorls llal aro nov mado on llo parl of capilaIisl !rms vlo |. . .j onlor inlo formaI
organizalions in ordor lo promolo somo of lloir coIIoclivo inlorosls. Tvo Iogics of
CoIIoclivo Aclion, p. 178.
0%'*1&2 / 873
aIvays opling in or oul, vlicl mado concorlod induslriaI aclion by ompIoy-
ors impossibIo a pallorn vlicl aIso occurrod in ollor pIacos.
135
13. 1iming c| i|c siri|c. Tvo faclors aro invoIvod: llo limo prossuro affocling
ompIoyors (somo ompIoyors aro moro sonsilivo llan ollors lo limo prossuro)
and llo limo prossuro llal polonliaI slrikors llomsoIvos oxporionco. Tlo fac-
lors may incIudo: (i) prc!uci ipc, i.o. producl sloIf Iifo novspapor prinl-
ors, for oxampIo, lavo limo on lloir sido. Nobody vanls lo buy yoslordays
novspapor, so if a parlicuIar odilion doos nol appoar on llo novsslands al llo
approprialo limo, il is Iosl.
136
(ii) 1|c si.ic c| i|c prc!uci m.r|ci, i.o. llo ordor
book. CIoarIy, an ompIoyor vill fuII ordor-books, slruggIing lo mool com-
milmonls lo cuslomors, viII bo moro viIIing lo mako concossions lo Iabour lo
onsuro llal produclion conlinuos llan viII an ompIoyor facing faIIing domand.
Indood, an ompIoyor in llo Iallor caso may acluaIIy uc|ccmc a slriko bocauso il
savos lim llo nood oillor lo pay vorkors vloso producls aro nol boing pur-
clasod or lo mako vorkors rodundanl and incur llo cosls of rodundancy pay-
monls.
137
On llis subjocl, Turnor ci .|. ovon rofor lo a loavon-sonl occasion
lo suspond produclion lomporariIy.
138
(iii) 1|c sizc c| i|c siri|c |un!. Zambian
coppor minors subsislod from llo food lloir vivos grov on smaII pIols of Iand
during slrikos. Slrikos voro caIIod lo coincido vill produclion.
139
In 1889,
minors in Uppor SiIosia coordinalod llo liming of lloir slriko: lloy availod
llo ond of llo pay poriod lo lavo a modosl !nanciaI cuslion.
140
14. 1|c siri|c |c.!crs|ip. Nol aII slrikos lavo cIoarIy idonli!abIo Ioadors.
Wlon llo minors in RoaI DoI Monlo (Moxico) dovnod looIs in Augusl 1766, for
oxampIo, il appoars lo lavo boon a cIoar oxampIo of llo sponlanoous Ioador-
Ioss rovoIl.
141
In mosl casos, lovovor, slrikors aro unabIo lo manago villoul
any Ioadorslip al aII, or villoul al Ioasl somo spokospoopIo lo roprosonl llom
in nogolialions vill lloir ompIoyor and llo pubIic aullorilios. Sucl spokos-
poopIo aro oflon slrikors llomsoIvos, oIoclod by domocralic volo, aIllougl
many aIso originalod from oulsido llo group, or voro nol spoci!caIIy oIoclod.
135
Bonnoll, 'Wo Do Nol Como Horo lo Bo Boalon, p. 150. Comparo IincoIn, Io
SyndicaIismo palronaI.
136
Croucl, 1r.!c Unicns, p. 87.
137
Ibid., p. 88.
138
Turnor, CIark, and Roborls, I.ocur Rc|.iicns in i|c Mcicr |n!usir, p. 118.
139
Iarparl, Womon, p. 244.
140
IuIs, 'Iin im ganzon gularligor Slroik, p. 183.
141
Danks, Iabor RovoIl of 1766, p. 155.
874 / !"#$%&' )*+&
In Soull Asia, for oxampIo, mon from llo uppor caslos vory oflon sorvod as
slriko Ioadors. Bolind llis praclico vas a Iogic vlicl DiIip Simoon summarizos
as foIIovs: Workors couId conducl doparlmonlaI |.ri.|s and ovon slul dovn
llo pIanl, bul ovor limo lloy noodod llo assislanco of porsons Iiloralo in llo
Ianguago and IogaIily of coIoniaI socioly.
142
Tlo oulcomo of a slriko doponds
in parl on llo posilion llal spokospoopIo adopl during llo nogolialions. Tloy
aro caugll up in a silualion vloro lloy modialo con"icling inlorosls aImosl by
do!nilion, and lloroforo lavo an ambiguous roIo: lloy roprosonl llo vorkors,
bul aIso nood lo cuIlivalo suf!cionl lrusl from llo oppononl (llo ompIoyors or
pubIic aullorilios) during llo nogolialions. Tlis invoIvos a viIIingnoss lo sook
accoplabIo compromisos, and onco doIogalod nogolialors manago lo brokor a
sollIomonl, lloy aIso lavo lo soII llis sollIomonl lo llo vorkors, nol aIvays
an onviabIo lask. In a lriadic con!guralion, Tlo doIogalo roprosonls llo Iirsl
lovard llo Tlird and llo conlracl vill llo Tlird lovard llo Iirsl. And lo
roprosonls limsoIf lovard boll sidos.
143
A slriko .g.insi .n cmp|ccr uii| sctcr.| p|.nis is moro compIicalod sliII, bocauso
llo ompIoyor can probabIy roassign somo of llo disconlinuod oporalions lo
ollor parls of lis company. An ompIoyor may ovon docido lo slul dovn llo
!rm affoclod pormanonlIy.
A siri|c .g.insi . grcup c| cmp|ccrs incIudos an addilionaI faclor. Wlal is
lloir joinl slralogic posilion` Aro lloy porlaps conconlralod in a roIalivoIy
smaII aroa, so llal lloy can oasiIy coordinalo lloir aclions` Sucl a group of
ompIoyors migll ovon vaivo pro!l oplimizalion for a vliIo, lo loacl insur-
gonl slaff a Iosson for onco and for aII.
Wlon a group of vorkors vill groal ondogonous povor in a company goos
on slriko, sucl aclion viII (in addilion lo paraIyzing llo vloIo !rm, and pos-
sibIy laving broador roporcussions for llo vloIo oconomy) lavo dirocl busi-
noss consoquoncos for suppIiors and cuslomors, and probabIy consoquoncos
for ollor parls of socioly as voII. Tlo offoclivonoss of a slriko llus doponds
nol simpIy on llo prossuros immodialoIy brougll lo boar on llo ompIoyor by
llo slriking vorkors, bul on llo oxlonl lo vlicl ollor koy aclors in llo soci-
oly llo slalo, ollor capilaIisls, llo modia, poIilicaI parlios, llo pubIic, con-
142
143
Sofsky and Iaris, Iigur.iicncn sczi.|cr M.c|i, p. 158.
0%'*1&2 / 87-
sumors appIy prossuro bocauso of syslomalic disruplion.
144
Tlis disruplivo
polonliaI of a group dolorminos, logollor vill lloir Iabor markol posilion
(basod on skiII and markol scarcily), llo lolaI bargaining capacily.
145
Tlo oulcomo of a slriko is oflon lroaclorous. }oln Hicks las arguod llal
Tlo majorily of slrikos aro doublIoss llo rosuIl of fauIly nogolialions, and
migll llus lavo boon avoidod.
146
Tlis slalomonl las somo lloorolicaI moril in
puroIy oconomic slrikos villin consoIidalod coIIoclivo bargaining sysloms.
Bul il is onIy parlIy lruo ovon in lloso silualions. Aflor aII, llo informalion
avaiIabIo lo boll parlios is normaIIy incompIolo, lloro aro risks and uncorlain-
lios, and a slriko may bo ralionaIizod procisoIy bocauso il prodisposos or bono-
!ls a |uiurc nogolialing posilion. IinaIIy, slrikos may lavo llo corrosponding
bono!l of onlancing group colosion among llo vorkors lovard lloir com-
mon oppononl, llo ompIoyor or ompIoyors, or llo slalo aullorilios.
147
144
Iorrono, IosilionaI Iovor, Slrikos, and Wagos, p. 414. Tlo disruplivo polonliaI
lloroforo doponds IargoIy on llo vay llo socioly is organizod. Iarkin rogards llis as
an indicalion llal llo vorking cIasss acluaI polonliaI for bringing llo syslom lo a
pormanonl laIl vas novor aII llal groal boforo llo ora of liglIy advancod capilaIism.
Iarkin, M.rxism .n! C|.ss 1|ccr, p. 81. Iorrono infors llal llo lypicaI dovoIopmonl
of Ialo capilaIisl sociolios |. . .j may ondov unprocodonlod polonliaIs for disruplion
upon a smaII group of vorkors, bo lloy slop-"oor oporalivos, loclnicians, municipaI
ompIoyoos, olc. (IosilionaI Iovor, Slrikos, and Wagos, p. 414.)
145
Iarkin, M.rxism .n! C|.ss 1|ccr, pp. 801.
146
Hicks, 1|ccr c| W.gcs, p. 146.
147
Ilronborg and Smill, Mc!crn I.ocr |ccncmics, p. 462.
!"#$%&' )&*
!"#$%&'( *("+'$+
Wago oarnors coIIoclivo uso of purclasing povor
can bo an imporlanl voapon lo improvo lloir slan-
dard of Iiving, and pul prossuro on ompIoyors or
llird parlios. Sucl consumor povor can bo oillor
dirocl or indirocl. Tlo appIicalion of !"#$%& consumor
povor is inoxlricabIy Iinkod lo llo acluaI consumor
goods invoIvod: lloir quaIily, vlicl slands in nood
of improvomonl, lloir pricos, vlicl aro oxcossivo, or
lloir suppIy, vlicl migll bo insuf!cionl. Tlo appIi-
calion of "'!"#$%& povor oxorls coIIoclivo purclasing
povor lo aroas nol immodialoIy roIalod lo consump-
lion, sucl as by pulling addilionaI prossuro on onlro-
pronours during a slriko.
Draving an anaIogy vill Marxs dislinclion
bolvoon circuIaling and !xod capilaI, Hans Doulscl
dislinguislos bolvoon lvo lypos of consumor goods:
circuIaling commodilios, vlicl can bo consumod
onIy onco upon purclaso (sucl as broad or rico), and
!xod or durabIo commodilios, vlicl can bo usod
ropoalodIy aflor purclaso (sucl as a coal).
1

1
Doulscl, Tloorolisclos aus dor Splro dos Konsums. According lo KarI Marx,
!xod capilaI is llo parl of conslanl capilaI llal mainlains llo spoci!c uso-form in
vlicl il onlors llo produclion procoss |. . .j. Il conlinuos lo porform llo samo funclions
ovor a slorlor or Iongor poriod, in a sorios of ropoalod Iabour procossos. IxampIos
aro pIanl and maclinory, Iand, buiIdings, and volicIos. CircuIaling capilaI consisls
of commodilios llal aro compIoloIy consumod in ovory Iabour procoss llal lloy
onlor inlo |. . .j. Tloy do nol prosorvo lloir indopondonl uso-slapo as lloy funclion.
IxampIos aro coaI for a sloam ongino, or gas for Iiglling. ()*"&)+, II, pp. 2378. In
VAN DER LNDEN_F11-209-218.indd 209 8/8/2008 3:20:51 PM
+,- . !"#$%&' )&*
Anollor syslom of cIassi!calion usos convonlionaI largol criloria appIiod
in lisloricaI budgol rosoarcl. Tlis cIassi!calion usuaIIy dislinguislos llroo
main aroas of oxponsos: food, cIolling, and lousing. In modorn limos, moans
of lransporlalion and (loIo-)communicalion slouId obviousIy bo addod lo llis
llis Iisl. Combining boll lypos of criloria producos llo foIIoving labIo:

TabIo 10.1
Dislribulion of consumor goods (oxampIos)
Aroa CircuIaling Iixod
Iood Rico Rofrigoralor
Slovo
CIolling CIoaning SuppIios ToxliIos
Sloos
Wasling Maclino
Housing Ronl
Morlgago
UliIilios (loaling, olc.)
Houso
Soals
Bods
Communicalions Subscriplions
ToIovision and Radio Taxos
ToIoplono
Radio
ToIovision
Transporlalion Gas Car
Iacl consumor producl las a corlain lurnovor froquoncy.
2
CircuIaling com-
modilios aro usuaIIy bougll moro froquonlIy llan !xod commodilios, and
!xod commodilios incIudo boll iloms bougll onco in a Iifolimo as voII as
goods llal musl bo ropIacod on a roguIar basis. Tlis pallorn of lurnovor is of
slralogic imporlanco. IirslIy, buying or nol buying ligl-froquoncy prod-
ucls can vory rapidIy lransmil massivo prolosl. SocondIy, il is mucl oasior lo
mobiIizo consumor prolosl around goods vill rapid lurnovors comparod
lo lloso subjocl lo Iov buying froquoncy. Irnosl Spoddon nolos il vas oasior
lo organizo IaboIIing campaigns for cigars, llan for a kilclon rango. In llo for-
mor caso, llo buyor Ioarns lo associalo llo IaboI vill llo parlicuIar commod-
ily, and succossivo purclasos slrongllon llo labil of asking for goods boaring
modorn oconomic slalislics, llo dislinclion is usuaIIy bolvoon !xod assols, inlormodi-
alo goods and sorvicos, and !naI or !nislod goods (durabIo or porislabIo consumor
goods, and consumor sorvicos).
2
HaIbvacls, ,) %+)..$ /01#"2#$ $& +$. '"1$)03 !$ 1"$.
!/*012&' $'/%&0% . +,,
llo IaboI of a parlicuIar union, vloroas llo buyor is unIikoIy or far Ioss IikoIy
lo do so for arlicIos purclasod onIy al Iong inlorvaIs.
3
Il is possibIo lo cIassify llo mollods avaiIabIo lo consumors for using lloir
povor if vo considor llal consumplion in a markol socioly mainIy occurs in
lvo slagos: !rsl consumors 405 a producl al a givon prico from llo soIIor, and
llon lloy %/'.06$ llo producl lloy lavo purclasod. Rofusing lo lako oillor
ono (or boll) of lloso slops can bo a vay lo assorl povor. Tlal is vly consum-
ors lavo al Ioasl lvo ollor moans of laking aclion in llo sploro of consump-
lion, boyond slarling consumor cooporalivos (Claplor 7): rofusing lo buy, and
rofusing lo consumo (boycolls and IaboIIing), and aIso consuming villoul
paying llo asking prico or villoul paying for llo oxacl quanlily offorod (uni-
IaloraI prico or quanlily adjuslmonls).
4
!"#$%&'( ,"-."++$ /#0 1/,'112#3
A consumor boycoll invoIvos a pIannod and organizod rofusaI lo buy or con-
sumo iloms from spoci!c vondors, businoss ovnors or barkoopors. Tlo IaboI-
Iing laclic, a posilivo form of a boycoll, moans llal onIy producls carrying a
spoci!c IaboI aro purclasod. CoIIoclivo consumor boycolls (llo acluaI praclico
considorabIy prodalos llo lorm)
5
voro inlornalionaIIy mosl common during
llo four docados procoding WorId War I, vlon lloy occurrod roguIarIy in
counlrios Iiko llo Unilod Slalos, Gormany, and Auslria-Hungary, aIllougl
llo laclic vas appIiod llrougloul llo lvonlioll conlury.
6
Tlo boycolls
3
Spoddon, 7#)!$ 8'"/' ,)4$+, pp. 734. Tlo IaboI syslom is boIiovod lo lavo origi-
nalod in llo Unilod Slalos, bul vas adoplod in ollor counlrios as voII. On llo Gor-
man oxampIo of llo cigar makors during llo 1890s, soo Sclrdor, 9#4$"&$#:$.%;"%;&$
0'! 9#4$"&$#4$<$:0':, pp. 2457.
4
Of courso, lloro aro aIso prossuro laclics llal do nol roIy on llo markol, sucl as
polilions and domonslralions, aIllougl lloso mollods viII nol bo discussod loro.
5
Tlo vord vas !rsl usod in IroIand, and vas dorivod from llo namo of Caplain
ClarIos Cunninglam Boycoll (183297), agonl for llo oslalos of llo IarI of Irno in
Co. Mayo. Ior rofusing in 1880 lo rocoivo ronls al !guros !xod by llo lonanls, Caplain
Boycoll lad lis Iifo llroalonod, lis sorvanls compoIIod lo Ioavo lim, lis foncos lorn
dovn, lis Iollors inlorcoplod and lis food suppIios inlorforod vill. |. . .j Tlo lorm soon
camo inlo common IngIisl uso, and vas spoodiIy adoplod by llo Ironcl, Gormans,
Dulcl and Russians. Anon., Boycoll, p. 353.
6
Ior oxampIo, soo Irank, Gondor, Consumor Organizing, and llo SoallIo Iabor
Movomonl, pp. 27395, Muraskin, HarIom Boycoll of 1934, Skolnos, 'Buy Wloro
You Can Work.
+,+ . !"#$%&' )&*
largolod a vido varioly of producls, incIuding miIk, moal, cigars, novspapors,
boor, broad, and Iiquor.
7
Bul con"icls aIso oruplod ovor ollor forms of consumplion. In llo yoars pro-
coding WorId War I, lonanls in Budaposl usod boycolls as a voapon againsl
individuaI IandIords. Rosidonls vlo voro nol abIo lo pay llo incroasod ronl
and vlo voro lloroforo oviclod, caIIod upon lloso sooking dvoIIings lo boy-
coll llo lousos concornod. Tloso caIIs voro pubIicizod in novspapors and
poslors, and mol vill mucl succoss. As a rosuIl of llis, and llo soIidarily of
llo lonanls sliII Iiving lloro, many IandIords voro forcod lo concIudo coIIoc-
livo conlracls vlicl sovoroIy roslriclod lloir riglls.
8
In Soull Africa, bIack
vorkors lradilionaIIy rosorlod lo bus-boycolls: in AIoxandra, }olannosburg,
in 1947 and 1957, in NalaI in llo 1970s, and llo Woslorn Capo in llo 1980s.
WloIo communilios rofusod lo uso busos vlon faros voro incroasod. Tlo
uncomforlabIo, crovdod and dirly condilions on busos voro aIso llo causo of
boycolls, as vas llo porcoplion llal monopoIizod bus sorvicos voro govorn-
monl companios. In lloso circumslancos, commulors lavo oillor vaIkod lo
vork or mado uso of aIlornalivo lransporl: laxis, lrains or privalo volicIos.
9
Consumor boycolls sorvod sovoraI purposos. IirslIy, lloy voro oflon a
prolosl againsl prico incroasos causod by a clanging markol silualion or by
addilionaI laxos, rogardod as unjusli!od. Sucl boycolls couId lloroforo largol
businoss ovnors and slops, as voII as conlraI govornmonl or IocaI aullorilios.
SocondIy, lloy froquonlIy sorvod as a prossuro laclic compIomonling or ovon
subsliluling for a slriko. Tlo Amorican grapo boycoll of llo 1960s and 1970s
is a voIIknovn oxampIo of aclion in supporl for CaIifornian farm vorkors.
TlirdIy, boycolls couId slrongllon vorkors organizalions. Al llo boginning
of llo lvonlioll conlury, llo sociaI-domocralic parly in SaIzburg Iaunclod a
campaign spoci!caIIy for llis purposo, aiming lo convinco vorkors lo slop
onIy al lloso businossos advorlising in llo IocaI parly novspapor.
10
In addi-
7
Ior oxampIo, soo llo casos doscribod in: von HockoI, Boykoll, WoIman, =/5>
%/&& "' 96$#"%)' 7#)!$ 8'"/'., Waro, ,)4/# ?/1$6$'& "' &;$ 8'"&$! @&)&$., Claplor
15, Gordon, Iabor Boycoll in Nov York Cily, CarvaIlo, Bauglmann Boycoll,
BIossing, Konsumonlonprolosl und Arboilskampf, Roborls, Drink and llo Iabour
Movomonl.
8
Gyni, Budaposl, p. 175. Soo aIso IicllbIau, Boykoll KravaII GovaIl
Domonslralion.
9
Kraak, =#$)A"': &;$ (;)"'., p. 210, Iodgo, 'Wo Aro Boing Iunislod Bocauso Wo
Aro Ioor.
10
Bauor, Boykoll, p. 148.
!/*012&' $'/%&0% . +,3
lion lo lloir praclicaI sido, consumor boycolls can aIso sorvo a symboIic pur-
poso: lloy migll oxpross a sonso of unily or llo sonlimonl vovo lad il.
Consumor boycolls can ariso in sovoraI vays. WliIo oflon organizod by
unions and poIilicaI organizalions, lloy can aIso occur quilo sponlanoousIy.
MiclaoI SclaclorI roporls llal in parls of Auslria in 1908, vlon llo prico of
boor roso, an unoxpoclod roaclion aroso among llo vorkors, llo sponlanoous
oruplion of a boor boycoll, vlicl bogan on }uIy 1 villoul any docision or fur-
llor ado and acliovod sucl lromondous popuIarily llal llo sociaI-domocralic
parly in Slyria and Carinllia of!ciaIIy procIaimod llo boycoll of llo boor
llal lad bocomo moro oxponsivo.
11
Moro rosoarcl is noodod lo rovoaI llo
roIalivo imporlanco of sponlanoous rosislanco vis--vis formaIIy organizod
campaigns. Bul vlalovor prompls ils occurronco, llo succoss of a consumor
boycoll doponds on six main faclors:
12
1. 7;$ +$1$+ /B /#:)'"C)&"/' )6/': &;$ 4/5%/&&"': %/'.06$#.. To bo offoclivo, llo
Iargosl possibIo numbor of cuslomors of llo largolod businoss las lo bo moli-
valod lo join llo campaign. Tlis usuaIIy impIios llo nood for boll comprolon-
sivo organizalion (a lrado union roprosonling onIy vorkors in ono occupalion
viII lavo moro dif!cuIly loro llan an inlorprofossionaI organizalion) and
for porsislonl agilalion lo mako suro llo pubIic doos nol forgol aboul llo
campaign.
2. 7;$ ."C$ /B &;$ 4/5%/&&$! 6)#A$&. Il is obviousIy oasior lo boycoll a busi-
noss onIy sorving a IocaI markol, llan ono vlicl oporalos nalionvido or ovon
inlornalionaIIy.
3. 7;$ ')&0#$ /B &;$ 4/5%/&&$! %/66/!"&5. Nol jusl anylling on saIo is a suilabIo
largol for boycoll campaigns. IirslIy, llo producls or sorvicos lo bo boycol-
lod musl bo slandard consumor iloms among llo vorking cIassos. Ixponsivo
Iuxury iloms, induslriaI produclion oquipmonl, somi-!nislod goods and llo
Iiko aro lloroforo oflon unsuilabIo. Al llo boginning of llo lvonlioll conlury,
lrado union lloorolician AdoIf Braun docIarod: Nol ovon llo mosl povor-
fuI vorkors organizalion couId |. . .j possibIy conlompIalo a boycoll on iron
foundrios, raiIvay roIIing miIIs, or faclorios for Iocomolivos, oIoclroloclnicaI
11
SclaclorI, Iin viormonalIiclor Biorboykoll, p. 273.
12
Tlo !rsl four poinls ro"ocl llo anaIysis in Sarlorius von WaIlorslauson, D/#A$#.E
?/1$6$'& "' &;$ 8'"&$! @&)&$., osp. pp. 1679.
+,4 . !"#$%&' )&*
oquipmonl, aulomobiIos, raiIvay carriagos, pianos, clomicaIs, munilions, or
diamond culling.
13
SocondIy, lo suslain a boycoll ovor a suf!cionl limo, llo
producl invoIvod slouId nol bo indisponsabIo lo llo parlicipaling vorkors
lousoloIds, unIoss il is oasiIy ropIacoabIo, or subslilulos aro roadiIy avaiIabIo.
TlirdIy, llo boycollod iloms noods lo bo cIoarIy rocognizabIo as originaling
from llo manufacluror lo bo boycollod. Il is lloroforo mucl oasior lo boy-
coll propackagod goods llan iloms Iacking brand namos. In lis proviousIy
cilod vork, Braun vrolo llal |vjliIo "our is an imporlanl consumor producl
among llo vorking massos, il is oxcoplionaIIy oasy lo confuso ils pIaco of
origin. Tlo vorking cIass buys mosl roady-mado cIollos from aII !oIds of
llo garmonl induslry, bul il bocomos oxlromoIy dif!cuIl lo dolormino vloro
lloso sloos, cIollos, lals, olc. aro mado. Tloroforo, boycolls in Gormany, if
lloy voro lo lavo any succoss al aII, voro usuaIIy Iimilod lo boor, broad, and
vlilo broad and roIIs.
14
4. 7;$ '064$# /B %/66/!"&"$. 4/5%/&&$!. Iacl boycoll campaign can usuaIIy
largol onIy a Iimilod numbor of producls and businossos villoul bocoming
loo compIicalod for consumors lo undorsland and romombor.
5. F/& )++ %/66/!"&"$. %)' 0.0)++5 4$ 4/5%/&&$! )& /'%$. UnIoss non-markol sub-
slilulos aro roadiIy avaiIabIo, a lolaI, gonoraI boycoll of aII producls for saIo (a
gonoraI prolosl againsl llo markolpIaco) is unIikoIy lo succood, il is ono lling
lo rojocl buying corlain commodilios, bul quilo anollor lo onsuro aIlornalivo
sourcos of suppIy.
6. G'&$#1$'&"/' 45 :/1$#'6$'&. )'! 4/5%/&&$! 40."'$.. /<'$#.. In sovoraI
counlrios, businoss ovnors lavo boon knovn lo organizo anli-boycoll orga-
nizalions (llo Gorman boor brovors aro a voII-knovn oxampIo). In facl, gov-
ornmonls lavo oulIavod consumor boycolls on numorous occasions, on llo
ground llal lloy conslilulod conspiracy or coorcion.
IspociaIIy prior lo llo 1960s, (maIo) aullors oflon boIiovod llal vorking-
cIass vomon londod lo 0'!$#6"'$ consumor aclions. In lis sludy of IaboI-
Iing laclics, Irnosl Spoddon vrilos for inslanco: Il is llo oxporionco of llo
unions llal llo vivos of lrado-unionisls do nol insisl on laving llo IaboI on
13
Braun, Boykoll, p. 411.
14
Ibid.
!/*012&' $'/%&0% . +,5
llo arlicIos vlicl lloy purclaso.
15
MiclaoI SclaclorI oxprossos a simiIarIy
nogalivo viov of llo roIo pIayod by vomon, cIaiming llal consumor boycolls
froquonlIy faiIod bocauso of vomons indoIonco.
16
Tlo background of lloso accusalions morils addilionaI rosoarcl, lo oxam-
ino vlollor vomon roaIIy foIl Ioss commillod llan mon lo corlain forms of
consumor aclivism. If lloy did, vas lloir apally duo lo lloir ignoranco of llo
issuos al slako, or voro ollor considoralions invoIvod` In lrull, lloro aro a
myriad of oxampIos of consumor boycolls in vlicl vomon aclivoIy parlici-
palod. WiIIiam Iislman, for inslanco, vrilos llal llo succoss of llo IaboIIing
campaign in Iondons Iasl Ind in 1904 (for improvod lours and vorking
condilions in bakorios) vas IargoIy duo lo llo immigranl lousovivos vlo
roso lo llo occasion:
A fov days aflor llo slriko bogan, llo smaIIor maslor bakors allaclod llo
union IaboI lo lloir producl, as llo }ovisl vomon rofusod lo buy any ollor.
Il vas llo cuslom of grocors lo slock broad. Womon vouId !rsl buy lloir
provisions, llon ask for a Ioaf. If llo IaboI vas missing il vouId bo landod
back. Tlo grocor vas Iofl vill so mucl unsoId broad llal lo immodialoIy
svilclod lo a union-basod suppIior. Il did nol lako Iong boforo llo unions
domands voro agrood lo by ovory maslor.
17
4#21/+'(/1 /05%$+&'#+$ "6 *(2.'$ "( 7%/#+2+2'$
UniIaloraI prico or quanlily adjuslmonls incIudo aII moasuros lakon lo con-
sumo lloso goods or sorvicos vlicl aro oillor '/& "'&$'!$! for consumplion
or uso by llo ovnor, or for vlicl llo ovnor oxpoclod ) ;":;$# *#"%$ llan llo
ono acluaIIy paid by consumors. Tloso mollods aro noarIy aIvays of!ciaIIy
iIIogaI, bocauso lloy vioIalo markol Iavs as voII as llo riglls of ovnors.
15
Spoddon, 7#)!$ 8'"/' ,)4$+, pp. 723.
16
SclaclorI, Iin viormonalIiclor Biorboykoll, p. 273.
17
Iislman, H).& H'! I$<".; J)!"%)+., p. 253. I ovo llis roforonco lo Karin Hofmooslor.
On a simiIar nolo, Ingrid Bauor vrolo llal in Auslria, ospociaIIy during llo prolosls
againsl incroasos in llo pricos of commodilios, vomon voro by no moans as indoIonl
as llo prodominanlIy maIo body of of!ciaIs Iikod lo compIain. As an oxampIo, Bauor
monlions llo sociaI-domocralic domonslralions of 1911 againsl prico incroasos for
coaI and aIcoloI as voII as sugar and moal, vlicl, vill a nolicoabIy ligl lurnoul of
vomon, oruplod in impromplu and vioIonl riols in llo oulIying dislricls |of Vionnaj.
Bauor, Boykoll, 146.
+,6 . !"#$%&' )&*
Tloroforo, conlrary lo consumor boycolls, lloro aro no oconomic condilions
guaranlooing llo succoss of lloso moasuros. VirluaIIy ovorylling doponds on
llo sociaI and poIilicaI baIanco of povor. NovorlloIoss, llo slalo aullorilios
did occasionaIIy Iook llo ollor vay vlon sucl lransgrossions of llo Iav
occurrod.
In llo pasl, many kinds of groups, ranging from clurcl communilios and
noiglborlood commilloos lo unions and poIilicaI parlios, lavo organizod
uniIaloraI prico or quanlily adjuslmonls. A groal varioly of mollods oxisl lo
impIomonl llom.
K//!. Tlo poak of iIIogaI food approprialion coincidod vill llo voII-
rosoarclod B//! #"/&. during llo lisloric poriod of lransilion, vlon IocaI and
rogionaI oconomios voro inlogralod inlo nalionaI and inlornalionaI markols.
Il is, lovovor, imporlanl lo romombor llal sucl acls lavo aIso occurrod mucl
moro roconlIy, ospociaIIy in limos of var and oconomic lardslip. As popu-
Ialions grov moro proIolarian, llo vorking-cIass naluro of nov campaigns
bocamo moro pronouncod. Irving Bornsloin nolos llal by 1932, organizod
Iooling of food by vorkors vas a nalion-vido plonomonon in llo Unilod
Slalos.
18
Sucl Iooling roappoarod in IlaIy in llo oarIy 1970s, and in sovoraI
parls of llo GIobaI Soull in llo 1980s.
19
AIllougl llo palornaIisl modoI of
food markoling vas obsoIolo, llo boIiof llal pricos of 'nocossilios slouId
romain al a cuslomary IovoI
20
probabIy did provaiI. Tloro is onIy sparso
rosoarcl on llis form of vorkors rosislanco,
21
probabIy bocauso llo pross oflon
did nol roporl sucl incidonls lo avoid conlagion.
L/0."':. Ifforls lo oblain doconl lousing al affordabIo ralos lavo boon llo
causo of aII sorls of moasuros. Tlo !rsl lypo invoIvos a #$'& .&#"A$, vlicl sliII
occurs in many pIacos. Ils purposo is usuaIIy lo rovorso a ronl incroaso, or lo
oblain improvomonls in buiIding mainlonanco or llo provision of sorvicos,
sucl as loaling and valor. Tlo GIasgov ronl slrikos of 1915 aro probabIy
llo bosl knovn oxampIos of llis laclic.
22
Ronl slrikos can lako many difforonl
18
Bornsloin, ,$)' M$)#., p. 422.
19
CoIIongos and RandaI, ,$. )0&/#N!0%&"/'., Claplor 4, WaIlon, Dobl, Irolosl, and
llo Slalo.
20
Tlompson, MoraI Iconomy of llo IngIisl Crovd, p. 253.
21
Tvo oxcoplions llal provo llo ruIo aro ScloIz, Iin unruligos }alrzolnl, Goyor,
Touorungsprolosl.
22
MoIIing, J$'& @&#"A$.. AIso soo Moorlouso, WiIson and ClamborIain, Ronl
Slrikos. Ollor oxampIos can bo found in Baor, Tonanl MobiIizalion, Gralam and
Hood, Tovn Tonanl Irolosl.
!/*012&' $'/%&0% . +,7
forms. RonaId Iavson doscribos six kinds for Nov York from 1904 lo 1980,
incIuding ronl sIovdovns, vloro lonanls joinlIy doIayod ronl paymonls as a
varning lo llo IandIord, roIIing slrikos, in vlicl lonanls conlinuousIy vill-
loId llo ronl for a poriod of limo lo forco nogolialions, and slrikos llal usod
unpaid ronl lo !nanco rosidonliaI improvomonls.
23
@O0)&&"': is a socond approacl, vlicl Iikoviso conlinuos lo bo praclisod.
Il vas ospociaIIy popuIar in sovoraI Iuropoan counlrios slorlIy aflor WorId
War II.
24
DvoIIings voro occupiod oillor for llo dirocl purposo of providing
lousing for vorking-cIass lousoloIds, or as a symboIic acl, sucl as in Iranco,
vloro Iargo omply mansions voro squallod lo caII allonlion lo sociaI inoqui-
lios in llo lousing markol.
25
In addilion lo llo procoding lvo slralogios for lousing, llo provision of
uliIilios (onorgy, fuoIs and valor) las boon a bono of conlonlion. In 1974,
soIf-roduclion commilloos voro oslabIislod llrougloul IlaIy lo coordinalo
roducod paymonl of oIoclricily biIIs.
26
Minors usod a difforonl syslom: lloy
vouId approprialo coaI for lousoloId uso in limos of nood. In 1935, Iouis
Adamic nolod llal |ojvor sinco anyono in llo IonnsyIvania anllracilo !oId
can romombor, il las boon cuslomary for minors and lloir famiIios lo go vill
sacks or paiIs lo llo cuIm dumps surrounding lloir bIoak lovns and pick
coaI from among llo rock and sIalo llrovn oul in llo broaking and cIoaning
procossos al llo big coIIiorios. Tlo pickors usuaIIy voro llo pooror famiIios.
27

Minors in aroas vloro llo coaI Iay noar llo surfaco oflon iIIogaIIy minod coaI
for loaling lloir ovn lomos and Ialor on for rosaIo as voII.
28

(/660'"%)&"/'. )'! 7#)'.*/#&)&"/'
Onco pubIic lransporlalion and (loIo-)communicalions bocamo major iloms
on vorking-cIass budgols, vlicl lapponod during llo lvonlioll conlury in
mosl counlrios (and onIy aflor WorId War II in somo pooror counlrios), aclion
bocamo possibIo in llis !oId. Onco again, llo bosl knovn oxampIos aro from
23
Iavson, Ronl Slriko in Nov York Cily.
24
Ior oxampIo, soo Hinlon, SoIf-loIp and SociaIism.
25
Durioz, squallors, p. 80.
26
CoIIongos and RandaI, ,$. )0&/#N!0%&"/'., Claplor 5, Ramiroz, SoIf-Roduclion
of Iricos in IlaIy, pp. 1878.
27
Adamic, Groal 'BoolIog CoaI Induslry, p. 46.
28
Ibid., doscribos llo silualion in IonnsyIvania. A doscriplion of concurronl dovoIop-
monls in Uppor SiIosia appoars in Macllan, 'IIondssclcllo in OborsclIosion.
+,8 . !"#$%&' )&*
IlaIy during llo 1970s, vloro llo )0&/#"!0C"/'$ !rsl occurrod vlon commulors
around Turin rofusod lo pay incroasod faros for pubIic lransporlalion.
29
Soon
aflorvards lloro vas an allompl al soIf-roduclion of loIoplono cosls vlicl
vas dif!cuIl lo suslain, bocauso llo loIoplono sorvicos of lloso dofauIling on
paymonl couId bo cul off al a conlor inaccossibIo lo llo aclivisls.
29
CoIIongos and RandaI, ,$. )0&/#N!0%&"/'., Claplor 3, Ramiroz, SoIf-Roduclion
of Iricos, p. 186.
!"#$%&' )*&+&,
!"#$"%
}usl oxaclIy lov lrado unions ougll lo bo do!nod
is a quoslion aboul vlicl opinions lavo difforod a
groal doaI. Tlo Iiloraluro providos dozons and pos-
sibIy ovon lundrods of do!nilions vlicl acconlu-
alo difforonl aspocls. Tlo common llroad llal runs
llrougl llom aII is llal ir.!c unicns .rc crg.niz.iicns
i|.i cn.o|c cmp|cccs ic prcicci i|cir inicrcsis.
1
Bul u|c
oxaclIy aro llo ompIoyoos concornod` W|ic| spo-
ci!c inlorosls aro al slako` Hcu oxaclIy (i.o. by vlal
moans) aro lloso inlorosls acluaIIy proloclod` Opin-
ions diffor groalIy on lloso mallors, so llal llo samo
lypo of organizalions aro incIudod as ocn. !!c unions
by somo, and oxcIudod by ollors using difforonl
criloria.
2

If our aim is a doscriplion suf!cionlIy "oxibIo lo
incIudo moro llan jusl llo of!ciaIIy rocognizod union
organizalions in advancod capilaIisl counlrios, llon
vo slouId do!no ompIoyoos in vory gonoraI lorms.
I vouId aIso incIudo soIf-ompIoyod vorkors vlo aro
formaIIy indopondonl onlropronours, bul vlo in facl
dopond on vork for onIy ono or lvo ompIoyors, or
1
Horko, Sczic|cgic !cr Gcucr|sc|.|icn, p. 21.
2
Wobb and Wobb, Hisicr c| 1r.!c Unicnism, 1, do!no a lrado union as a conlinu-
ous associalion of vago oarnors for llo purposo of mainlaining or improving llo condi-
lions of lloir ompIoymonl. Horborl. A. Turnor las nolod, lovovor, llal conlinuous
organisalion doos nol nocossariIy roquiro formaI organizalion, roguIar moolings or
rocognizod Ioadorslip. Turnor, 1r.!c Unicn Grcui|, pp. 504.
--. / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
vlo aro agricuIluraI slaro-croppors, bondod vago Iabourors, or sIavos-
for-liro. Tloir vays of dofonding lloir inlorosls oflon cIosoIy rosombIo llo
praclicos of so-caIIod froo vago-oarnors. Moroovor, lloir organizalions fro-
quonlIy ovorIap vill roguIar lrado unions.
3
Tlis loIds lruo nol jusl for
unions in llo GIobaI Soull, bul aIso for llo Norll AlIanlic rogion. AcluaIIy,
in llo lislory of Iuropo and Norll Amorica, llo rank and !Io in llo organi-
zalions lradilionaIIy doscribod as lrado unions roaIIy consislod of covorl
vago-dopondonls (soIf-ompIoyod arlisans, olc.). Tlo slriko-prono vinoyard
vorkors unions in llo Ironcl Audo rogion during llo oarIy lvonlioll con-
lury incIudod boll smaII vinoyard ovnors-vorkors and proporlyIoss skiIIod
vinodrossors,
4
and llo diamond vorkors vlo slood al llo cradIo of llo mod-
orn Dulcl lrado-union movomonl voro aIso soIf-ompIoyod.
5
SocioIogicaIIy,
llo difforoncos bolvoon sucl organizalions and (say) llo conlomporary SoIf-
ImpIoyod Womons Associalion in Almodabad, India aro nol so groal.
ImpIoyoos vlo join a union lavo lvo main kinds of inlorosls lo dofond.
Tloso concorn llo oxclango of Iabor povor for monoy (llo impIicil or oxpIicil
Iabor conlracl) and llo acluaI consumplion of llo Iabor povor bougll by
llo ompIoyor, during llo Iabor procoss. Trado unions lloroforo doaI boll vill
vago nogolialions, sick pay arrangomonls, olc., and vill vorking condilions,
Iabor inlonsily, and llo Iiko. A slriko, or llo llroal of a slriko, is llo uIlimalo
voapon a lrado union can uso lo onforco lloso inlorosls. A vorkors associa-
lion vlicl rojocls llo slriko laclic aIlogollor on principIo, or novor ovon i|rc.i-
cns slriko aclion, cannol roaIIy bo considorod a lrado union.
6
3
I oxcIudo from my do!nilion lloso vago oarnors vloso saIarios aro so Iargo, llal
lloy can savo an amounl of capilaI onougl lo provido an incomo llal makos vorking
for vagos oplionaI. Sucl vorkors aro slriclIy nol !cpcn!cni on vago incomo for lloir
IivoIilood.
4
Irador, Pc.s.nis .n! Prcicsi, p. 140.
5
van Tijn, AIgomoono NodorIandsclo Diamanlbovorkorsbond.
6
Tlis doos nol moan llal slrikos aro llo cn| voapon avaiIabIo lo unions. Adrian
RandaII las oxpIainod, for oxampIo, llal Iuddism (maclino broaking) vas a ralionaI
union slralogy in IngIand around 1800. Slrikos provod offoclivo againsl smaII ompIoy-
ors, bul nol againsl Iargo onos. CaIcuIalod vioIonco sorvod lo provonl llo inlroduclion
of gig miIIs and sloaring framos. Tlo cIoll drossors aclions |. . .j voro ossonliaIIy pro-
omplivo, rocognising llal, onco maclinory vas aIIovod lo socuro a signi!canl slaro of
llo lrado, aII ompIoyors vouId bo forcod lo inlroduco llom in ordor lo compolo and llo
drossors lrado vouId bo irrolriovabIy undorminod. VioIonco vas soIoclivo, conlroIIod
and aimod al spoci!c largols, suppIomonling and roinforcing llo moro orllodox sanc-
lions of lloir combinalions. RandaII, Bc|crc i|c Iu!!iics, p. 150.
0,12,3 / --4
&'( *$+",#"- $* +"#$"%
According lo popuIar boIiof, unions voro a producl of llo Ialo oiglloonll
or oarIy ninoloonll conlury. In lrull, lloir lisloricaI origin dalos back mucl
oarIior. IxaclIy vlon llo !rsl union vas foundod is unknovn, bul vo do
knov for inslanco llal on 24 May 1345, llo Caplain of llo IlaIian Cily of
IIoronco arroslod llo vooI-cardor Ciulo Brandini and lis lvo sons bocauso
lo said Ciulo vislod lo form a company al Sanla Croco and mako a socl
and assombIy vill llo ollor vorkmon in IIoronco. Tlo spoci!c clargo of
llo aullorilios vas as foIIovs:
Ciulo lad doIiboralod logollor vill many ollors soducod by lis vords lo
form vill llo Iargosl momborslip possibIo a brollorlood bolvoon llo vooI-
cardors and vooI-combors and llo ollor vorkors of llo Aric !c||. I.n., and
lo nominalo from sucl nov corporalions, Ccnsc|i and Hoads, and lo llis
ond lad on difforonl occasions and pIacos assombIod vory many vorkmon
of llo vorsl ropulalion, and lad in sucl assombIios proposod llal oacl
slouId conlribulo a corlain sum (a malricuIalion lax) in ordor llal llus il
vouId moro suroIy succood.
Dospilo llo massivo slriko and riols llal Ciulos companions slagod in pro-
losl, Ciulo vas langod by llo aullorilios.
7
Ciulo appoars lo lavo boon lrying lo organizo a union, compIolo vill a duos
syslom and oIoclod Ioadors. Irom llal limo al Ioasl, lloro lavo boon counl-
Ioss allompls across llo vloIo vorId lo form unions of ono kind or anollor.
AIllougl Ciulos oxporimonl sooms lo lavo boon a sponlanoous, isoIalod ini-
lialivo vo cannol bo onliroIy suro unions aroso in many ollor vays as voII,
llrougl imilalion and lransformalion of aIroady oxisling organizalions.
|mii.iicn
Many unions voro formod simpIy by foIIoving llo oxampIo sol by ollors.
In somo casos, lloy aroso from doIiboralo offorls by ollor parlios lo onIargo
or ropIicalo lloir ovn unions oIsovloro. In ollor casos, llo organizalionaI
copy vas inilialod by llo imilalors llomsoIvos, or by non-proIolarian
7
RodoIico, SlruggIo for llo Rigll of Associalion, p. 184.
--- / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
oulsidors. Tlo copy vas raroIy oxacl, lovovor, sinco IocaI circumslancos
caIIod for, or nocossilalod, a difforonl approacl.
Oulsido parlios oflon oncouragod llo dissominalion of corlain union mod-
oIs, for oxampIo vlon lrado unions in ono counlry sol up fralornaI organiza-
lions in anollor. Tlis praclico oflon occurrod villin a coIoniaI or noo-coIoniaI
conloxl, llo inilialivos camo from lrado unions or lrado-union confodora-
lions in llo molropoIilan counlrios. Tlo Brilisl Trados Union CounciI and
llo Ironcl Confdralion GnraIo du TravaiI voro vory aclivo in oslabIisl-
ing lrado unions in Brilisl and Ironcl coIonios, rospoclivoIy. InlornalionaI
lrado union fodoralions, sucl as llo InlornalionaI Confodoralion of Iroo Trado
Unions and llo Clrislian and Communisl inlornalionaIs, aIso supporlod llo
drivo lo organizo Iabor, ospociaIIy aflor WorId War II.
8
In many casos, llo imilalion procoss vas rovorsod lovovor, moaning llal
vorkors look llo inilialivo lo foIIov oxampIos from abroad. Tlus, vlon llo
Glanaian raiIvay managomonl sonl arlisans lo bo lrainod in Brilain, lloso
vorkors Ioarnl aboul Brilisl union praclicos. Tlo rosuIl vas llo oslabIislmonl
of a RaiIvay Associalion in Glana.
9
In Sudan, during WorId War II, vorkors
rocoivod propaganda maloriaI from llo Brilisl Minislry of Informalion aboul
llo Brilisl vay of Iifo, noling llo imporlanco of lrado unions. Tlis inspirod
Sudanoso vorkors lo organizo lloir ovn inlorosl organizalion from 1944.
10

Migranls and soamon !guro prominonlIy in dissominaling lrado union mod-
oIs inlornalionaIIy. In ollnicaIIy sogrogalod sociolios, vorkors from ono oll-
nic group migll aIso imilalo lloir counlorparls from anollor ollnic group.
In Soull Africa, for oxampIo, Iargo numbors of Africans vorkod as loIpors
of skiIIod vlilo vorkors, and consoquonlIy voro oncouragod lo form lrado
unions Iiko lloir maslors.
Somolimos, llo inilialivo lo imilalo did nol originalo from Iabor circIos, bul
from non-proIolarian oulsidors. Tloy incIudod inloIIocluaIs imbuod vill a
slrong sonso of sociaI juslico, vlo boIiovod vago oarnors noodod lo organizo
lo improvo lloir Iivos. Tlo !rsl lrado union in CoyIon (Sri Ianka) vas inili-
8
Davios, IoIilics of llo TUCs CoIoniaI IoIicy, Dovillo, Ia CGT ol Ios syndi-
cals dAfriquo, NicloIson, 1UC Otcrsc.s, Iasluro, Hisicirc !u sn!ic.|ismc c|rciicn
inicrn.iicn.|, van dor Iindon, |nicrn.iicn.| Ccn|c!cr.iicn c| Ircc 1r.!c Unicns, Toslorff,
Prc!nicrn.
9
}offrios, C|.ss, Pcucr .n! |!cc|cg, p. 29.
10
Din Iavzi, I.ocur Mctcmcni in i|c Su!.n, p. 38.
0,12,3 / --5
alod by AIfrod Idvard BuuIljons, a dissidonl Burglor and inloIIocluaI. Ho lad
sludiod llo union movomonl in llo Unilod Kingdom, and succossfuIIy urgod
llo prinlors on llo isIand lo form a union in 1893. Tlo organizalion omuIalod
llo Brilisl modoI as cIosoIy as possibIo, vill a prinlod book of union ruIos, a
Ialin mollo (unii.s tis ncsir.) and Brilisl ruIos of procoduro.
11

Sucl inilialivos by oulsidors oflon lad poIilicaI or roIigious ovorlonos. Many
lrado unions aro knovn lo lavo boon oslabIislod al llo insligalion of Com-
munisl, SociaI Domocralic, IiboraI or sociaIIy concornod Clrislian poIilicians.
Ivon consorvalivo and fascisl poIilicians lavo formod lrado unions on sov-
oraI occasions. Ono sucl caso vas llo SindicaIismo Iibro in Spain (191931),
vlicl allraclod oxlromo rigll-ving CalloIic (and Ialor aIso fascisl) supporl.
12

Ollor unions voro ovon formod al llo insligalion of llo poIico (for oxampIo,
in Czarisl Russia). Tloro aro aIso llo Kuominlang unions in Slanglai in llo
1930s, and llo saffron unions of llo Sliv Sona movomonl in Mumbai (Bom-
bay), vlicl bocamo liglIy in"uonliaI aflor llo dofoal of llo groal loxliIo slriko
in 198283.
13
Somolimos coIoniaI and noo-coIoniaI aullorilios oncouragod llo oslabIisl-
monl of rosponsibIo lrado unions in llo coIonios. In llo 1930s, for oxam-
pIo, llo Brilisl govornmonl sonl lrado union advisors lo many coIonios. A
Iabour Doparlmonl oponod on llo GoId Coasl in 1938, and subsoquonlIy in
sovoraI ollor pIacos as voII. In 1940, al llo urging of llo Iabour Iarly, llo
CoIoniaI DovoIopmonl and WoIfaro Acl vas passod, dolormining llal lorri-
lorios voro nol lo rocoivo granls, unIoss lloy providod roasonabIo faciIilios
for lrado unions. Tlo Ironcl govornmonl adoplod a somovlal simiIar poI-
icy from 1944. Iabor Inspocloralos voro sol up in llo coIonios, and in somo
casos civiI sorvanls voro mado avaiIabIo lo lrado unions as fuII-limo of!cors.
Trado unions voro aIso aIIovod lo uso govornmonl buiIdings froo of clargo.
14

11
}ayavardona, Risc c| i|c I.ocr Mctcmcni, pp. 8597. Tlo briof oxislonco of llis
organizalion may bo Ioss llan coincidonlaI.
12
Winslon, Wcr|crs .n! i|c Rig|i. SimiIar fascislic lrado unions omorgod oIsovloro
in Iuropo as voII around llis limo. Soo o.g. Slaudingor, 'Unablngigo Govork-
sclafl , Iovis, I.scism .n! i|c Wcr|ing C|.ss, pp. 15165.
13
IospioIovsky, Russi.n Pc|icc 1r.!c Unicnism, Sclnoidorman, Scrgci Zuo.ict .n!
Rctc|uiicn.r M.rxism, GourIay, 'YoIIov Unionism in Slanglai, Houz-Briganl,
IopuIism and llo Workors Movomonl.
14
Orr, Trado Unionism in CoIoniaI Africa, pp. 756, Radosl, Amcric.n I.ocr .n!
Uniic! Si.ics Icrcign Pc|ic, Basdos, WaIlor Cilrino, WoiIor, Iorming RosponsibIo
Trado Unions.
--6 / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
Tlo Iino llal soparalod sucl slalo inilialivos from llo inilialivos of foroign
lrado unions vas oflon vory !no. Tlo U.S. Govornmonl joinod forcos vill llo
AII-CIO lo in"uonco llo Iabor movomonls in Ialin Amorica, and during llo
roconslruclion of Gormany, IlaIy and }apan aflor 1945.
15
1r.ns|crm.iicn
Trado unions can aIso omorgo from adaplalions of ollor lypos of organi-
zalions. In a vidoIy-road arlicIo, NalaIio Zomon Davis slovs llal, by llo
sixloonll conlury, prinlors journoymon in Iyon (Iranco) usod lloir profos-
sionaI associalion as a lrado union.
16
In 1844, Bolomian collon prinlors usod
monoy from lloir muluaI aid socioly as a slriko fund: Tlo slriking vorkors
rocoivod bono!ls amounling lo 40 krouzor a day from lloro.
17
In Clangsla
(Hunan Irovinco, Clina) during llo !rsl docados of llo lvonlioll conlury,
conslruclion vorkors voro organizod in a guiId. As llo inlorosls bolvoon
maslors and journoymon divorgod, lovovor, many journoymon socodod from
llo guiId in 1922 lo form llo Clangsla Conslruclion Workors Union, aflor
onIy llroo vooks of proparalions. Tlo socrol lo llis rapid mobiIizalion vas
simpIy llal llo vorkors voro aIroady organizod, lloy voro aIroady mombors
of a guiId vill a lradilion of group soIidarily, and lloy voro angry.
18
Somo
lrado unions slarlod oul as yoIIov unions. Tlo Communicalions Workors
of Amorica (CWA), for oxampIo, aroso from a group of company unions
originaIIy sol up by AT&T and associalod companios in llo 1920s. Aflor llo
Wagnor Acl forcod lloso companios lo disconlinuo lloir supporl in 1937, llo
company unions bocamo IocaI indopondonl unions, of vlicl sovoraI formod
a fodoralion. In 1947, llis fodoralion vas lransformod inlo llo CWA, vlicl
af!Iialod lo llo CIO lvo yoars Ialor.
15
MioIko, Gronzon und Molivo, Sloiningor, IngIand und dio doulsclo Govork-
sclaflsbovogung, Scloonborg, Amorican Iabors CoId War in }apan, Iicllor,
Bcs.izungsm.c|i un! Gcucr|sc|.|icn, Iisonborg, Working-CIass IoIilics, SpaIding,
US Iabour Inlorvonlion in Ialin Amorica, IiIipoIIi, Amcric.n I.ocr .n! Pcsiu.r |i.|,
Romoro, Uniic! Si.ics .n! i|c |urcpc.n 1r.!c Unicn Mctcmcni.
16
Davis, Trado Union in Sixloonll-Conlury Iranco.
17
KIma, Arboilorunrulon in Blmon, pp. 2623. Aboul llo lransilion of muluaI
aid sociolios lo lrado unions in Soullorn Rlodosia, 191821, soo Yoslikuni, Slriko
Aclion and SoIf-HoIp Associalions, pp. 4645.
18
Slaffor, M.c .n! i|c Wcr|crs, pp. 10921, soclion quolod from p. 121.
0,12,3 / --7
&./,( +"#$"% /", %0.#1(%
Unions oxisl primariIy lo onabIo coIIoclivo bargaining ovor vagos, riglls and
condilions, vill llo slriko voapon as lloir uIlimalo bargaining Iovor. Bul
lloy uso many ollor kinds of aclion as voII, sucl as roslriclion of oulpul,
vioIonco, olc. (soo Claplor 9) and lloro is no ncccss.r lransilion from slriko
aclion lo induslriaI organizalion, ovon aIllougl union momborslip las oflon
grovn spoclacuIarIy during and aflor slriko vavos.
19
Trado unions como in many slapos and sizos. CIassi!od according lo lloir
froquoncy of rosorling lo slrikos, vo can dislinguisl broadIy bolvoon unions
llal oxisl oxcIusivoIy, or aImosl oxcIusivoIy, lo organizo slrikos, unions llal
organizo slrikos, bul sorvo ollor purposos as voII, and unions inlondod lo
provonl slrikos vloro possibIo.
20
Givon llal, aparl from aulonomous lrado
unions vloro llo mombors lavo a dirocl or indirocl say, lloro aro aIso lolor-
onomous lrado unions uIlimaloIy conlroIIod by ompIoyors or llird parlios, vo
oblain llo foIIoving lypoIogy:
TabIo 11.1
A gonoraI lypoIogy of lrado unions
Aulonomy Holoronomy
Union is inlondod primariIy lo
organizo slrikos
RovoIulionary
SyndicaIism,
muslroom unions
Union is nol inlondod primariIy

lo organizo slrikos
Crafl sociolios
Bargaining unions
Aulocralic unions
Rackols
Union is nol inlondod lo
organizo slrikos
YoIIov unions
19
Iison, Iroduklion IroIolarial Irolosl, Zuckor and Krofl, IvoIulion of
SociaIIy Conlingonl RalionaI Aclion. Iric Hobsbavm las ovon nolod llal aII 'oxpIo-
sions of Iabor unionism vill vlicl I am famiIiar voro llo rcsu|i of vorkor mobiIi-
zalion and nol ils causo. Hobsbavm, SlouId Ioor IoopIo Organizo`, p. 291. Ivon
if llis is lruo, many casos of vorkor mobiIizalion did nci causo an oxpIosion of Iabor
unionism.
20
Tloso llroo calogorios aro an oIaboralion of llo oconomisl Konnoll BouIdings
dislinclion bolvoon lvo funclions of lrado unions: varfaro on llo ono land, i.o. llo
organizalion of slrikos, olc., and dipIomacy on llo ollor land, i.o. llo adminislra-
lion on a day-lo-day basis of llo induslriaI roIalionslip and llo provonlion of opon
slrifo. BouIding, Ccn"ici .n! Dc|cnsc, p. 218.
--8 / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
Iol us oIaboralo on lloso calogorios.
i) Auicncmcus unicns inicn!c! prim.ri| ic crg.nizc siri|cs compriso lvo sub-
lypos. IirslIy, somo lrado unions aro formod al llo slarl of, or during a slriko,
and disband quickIy aflorvards (rogardIoss of vlollor llo slriko onds in vic-
lory, dofoal, or compromiso). Tloso kinds of unions aro oflon caIIod musl-
room organizalions.
21
Many of llo oarIiosl Iuropoan lrado unions voro
probabIy muslroom organizalions in llis sonso. Raymond ClaIIinor and
Brian RipIoy obsorvo aboul Brilain in llo !rsl laIf of llo ninoloonll conlury:
Unions, as dislincl from lrado cIubs and friondIy sociolios, voro viovod as
lomporary oxpodionls for a parlicuIar ond. Tlo domiso of a union vas accord-
ingIy somolling lo bo oxpoclod onco ils objocls lad boon acliovod. Brovily
of Iifo vas a claraclorislic foaluro: il lapponod lo llo succossfuI unions as
voII as llo faiIuros.
22
A groal many muslroom unions oxislod. In llo oarIy
lvonlioll conlury, for oxampIo, }oln Commons vrolo llal novIy proIolari-
anizod }ovisl vorkors in llo Unilod Slalos voro zoaIous, onllusiaslic and
rosoIulo in Iabor con"icls, bul llal onco llo slriko vas sollIod, oillor in favor
or againsl llo causo |. . .j llal onds llo union.
23
Tlo samo lrond is visibIo
across llo vorId. In Nigoria in llo 1950s, many vorkors vouId fooI obIigod
lo supporl llo union !nanciaIIy, and ollorviso, onIy vlon lloro is a vagos
agilalion, or lo mako a conlribulion lo ils coffors aflor a nov avard las boon
von.
24
Diposl Clakrabarly las nolod aboul llo CaIculla julo vorkors: Iacl
oulbursl of Iabor prolosl, ospociaIIy from llo 1920s, rosuIlod in somo kind of
organizalion. Onco llo oulbursl sponl ilsoIf, lovovor, llo organizalion as a
ruIo disinlogralod.
25
Aboul Argonlina, Rull Tlompson vrilos: Boforo llo
1900s, mosl of llo unions llal oxislod voro slorl-Iivod, formod lo !gll a par-
licuIar campaign bul nol durabIo lloroaflor.
26

Tlo socond lypo consisls of llo lrado unions llal oulIasl a singIo Iabor con-
"icl, and organizo a sorios of slrikos. Bosl knovn among sucl soriaI slriko
organizalions aro llo rovoIulionary syndicaIisl lrado unions, vlicl oporalod
on aII conlinonls bolvoon 1890 and 1940. Tloso organizalions rogardod llo
21
}ayavardona, Risc c| i|c I.ocur Mctcmcni, p. 127.
22
ClaIIinor and RipIoy, Mincrs Asscci.iicn, pp. 89.
23
Commons, Uniic! Si.ics |n!usiri.| Ccmmissicn Rcpcri, pp. 3257, Horborg, }ovisl
Iabor Movomonl, p. 503.
24
Yosufu, |nirc!uciicn ic |n!usiri.| Rc|.iicns, p. 68.
25
Clakrabarly, Rci|in|ing Wcr|ing-C|.ss Hisicr, p. 124.
26
0,12,3 / --9
con"icl bolvoon vorkors and ompIoyors as a cIass var, lo bo von llrougl
ongoing guorriIIa varfaro.
27
ii) Auicncmcus ir.!c unicns i|.i !c nci cxisi sc|c| ic crg.nizc siri|cs, bul
dovoIop ollor aclivilios as voII, incIudo llroo lypos. IirslIy, lloro aro organi-
zalions llal do nci nogolialo vill ompIoyors, bul insload praclico uniIaloraI
conlroI. Sucl organizalions voro common in oarIy ninoloonll-conlury Brilain,
vloro llo lypicaI crafl socioly rosorvod lo il aIono llo rigll lo dolormino llo
ruIos of llo lrado (usuaIIy roIying on ils inlorprolalion of lradilionaI prac-
lico) and llo ralos of pay, and lo onforco lloso llrougl ils ovn mombors.
28

Union mombors simpIy rofusod lo vork for ompIoyors vlo did nol accopl
lloso ruIos. Tlis mollod is offoclivo vloro liglIy-skiIIod union mombors
monopoIizo lloir sogmonl of llo Iabor markol. SocondIy, lloro aro aIso lrado
unions viIIing lo nogolialo aboul somo issuos, bul nol ollors. Tlo AmaIgam-
alod Socioly of Inginoors (Brilisl) oslabIislod in 1851 iIIuslralos llis varianl:
On fundamonlaI issuos sucl as appronlicoslip and domarcalion, vlicl voro
soon as llo vory foundalions of llo crafl, llo principIo of uniIaloraI conlroI
romainod llo ruIo, bul on quoslions of vagos and lours lloy voro moro roady
lo nogolialo and compromiso.
29
TlirdIy, many organizalions aro viIIing lo
nogolialo vill llo ompIoyors in aI kinds of aroas. Tloso organizalions aro
lypicaI of llo modorn lrado union movomonl around in llo vorId.
iii) Hcicrcncmcus ir.!c unicns u|ic| .rc nci inicn!c! cxc|usitc| ic crg.nizc
siri|cs bul lavo ollor rosponsibiIilios as voII incIudo lvo sub-lypos. In aulo-
cralic unions, llo union of!ciaIs lavo accumuIalod so mucl povor llal lloy
cannol, or can no Iongor, bo doposod by llo mombors. SocondIy, lloro aro
rackols, sol up by organizod crimo lo bono!l from induslriaI roIalions and
roguIalod by vioIonco. Tlis lypo of loId-up unionism (Roborl I. Hoxio) dis-
cipIinos ompIoyors by llroaloning Iabor lroubIo, and oxlorls lribulo from
vorkors al llo samo limo. Tlis viII oflon givo riso lo a doubIo-sidod monop-
oIy, vloro llo union bargains vill favorod ompIoyors nol onIy for llo saIo
of ils Iabor bul for llo doslruclion of llo businoss of rivaI ompIoyors, vliIo
llo oxcIusion of rivaI vorkmon from llo crafl or induslry is acliovod.
30
27
Soo llo ossays in van dor Iindon and Tlorpo, Rctc|uiicn.r Sn!ic.|ism.
28
Hyman, |n!usiri.| Rc|.iicns, p. 44.
29
Ibid., p. 45.
30
Hoxio, Trado Unionism in llo Unilod Slalos, p. 81, Troy, IocaI Indopondonl
and NalionaI Unions, p. 497, BoII, Rackol-Riddon Iongsloromon, Woinsloin,
Rackolooring and Iabor.
--: / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
iv) Hcicrcncmcus ir.!c unicns i|.i nctcr cr r.rc| crg.nizc siri|cs slouId, I
llink, incIudo aII unions oslabIislod by ompIoyors, or by inslilulions vorking
vill ompIoyors, lo koop induslriaI poaco and provonl aulonomous lrado
unions. Sucl psoudo-unions aro aIso knovn as yoIIov unions. IxampIos
incIudo llo nalionaI lrado unions in Gormany and Iranco boforo and
slorlIy aflor WorId War I, llo many company unions in llo Unilod Slalos
in llo 1920s and 30s, and simiIar organizalions al Amorican muIlinalionaIs in
dovoIoping counlrios.
31
I am nol avaro of any loloronomous lrado unions inlondod primariIy
lo slago slrikos, or of aulonomous lrado unions nctcr viIIing lo slriko. Bul
il ougll lo bo said llal llo dislinclions bolvoon llo difforonl lypos aro nol
aIvays cIoar-cul. In somo bordorIino casos, lrado unions cannol bo assignod lo
ono spoci!c calogory.
- Tlo slorl-Iivod Canadian Ono Big Union (191920), for oxampIo, vas nor-
maIIy rogardod as syndicaIisl, aIllougl il did ongago in coIIoclivo bargain-
ing, and lloroforo rosombIod a o.rg.ining union.
32

- Sam Iarks, load of llo lousosmills (arclilocluraI iron vorkors) union
in Nov York Cily from 1885 oxlorlod ompIoyors. Conviclod of allomplod
oxlorlion, Iarks vas sliII abIo lo rolain llo IoyaIly of lis mombors vlo sup-
porlod lim llrougloul lis lroubIos vill llo Iav-onforcing agoncios of llo
cily. Ho vas ro-oIoclod vliIo sorving in Sing-Sing.
33
In llis caso, llo Ioador
of an aulonomous lrado union vas roaIIy a r.c|ciccr.
- Will rogard lo llo so-caIIod }apanoso socond unions or unions by
appoinlmonl (gc$-|umi.i ), RonaId Doro oxpIains llal lloy usuaIIy aroso
vlon a radicaI lrado union organizod a slriko vlicl causod dissonl among
llo slrikors. In somo casos, managomonl llon soizod llo opporlunily lo
oncourago llo oslabIislmonl of a socond union among vorkors viIIing
31
Mosso, Ironcl Rigll and llo Working CIassos, Mallloior, Gc|ocn, NoIson,
Company Union Movomonl, Havos, Tloorios of Ioasanl RovoIulion, osp. p. 288,
Rao, Slanglai IoslaI Workors Union.
32
Tlo OBU may lavo |cc|c! Iiko a Canadian vorsion of a rovoIulionary syndicaIisl
organizalion, bul il vas nol. Il vas a lybrid inslilulion llal vas noillor syndicaIisl,
nor induslriaI unionisl, nor ovon 'ono big unionisl. Borcuson, SyndicaIism Sido-
lrackod, p. 221.
33
Tafl, Ccrrupiicn .n! R.c|ciccring, p. 6.
0,12,3 / --;
lo compromiso and rosumo vork.
34
Sucl organizalions appoar mi!u.
bolvoon yoIIov unions and bargaining unions.
Somolimos lrado unions mulalo. Soclions of llo IlaIian rovoIulionary-syndi-
caIisl lrado union movomonl lurnod fascisl in llo oarIy 1920s, for oxampIo,
vliIo somo radicaI unions in Slanglai bocamo rackols or yoIIov unions
during llo 1920s and 30s.
35
2$3/#" $* 4$"0.$5
RudoIf HiIfording doscribod llo lrado union syslom as a ring, or in a
sonso, a quola carloI, sinco ils purposo is lo monopoIizo llo commodily
Iabor povor.
36
Tlis concopl can bo misIoading, if il is inlorprolod lo moan
llal unions oporalo in llo samo vay as a quola carloI for oiI or coffoo boans.
Tloy do nol. Aflor aII, lrado unions doaI nol vill ordinary commodilios,
bul vill poopIo vloso Iabor povor is onIy soId (or lirod oul) prc |crm.
Iabor povor vlicl noods lo bo roaIizod in llo Iabor procoss as voII. Tlal
asido, lovovor, llo formuIa quola carloI is quilo porlinonl.
37

Assuming llal Iabor markols aro subdividod inlo aII kinds of moro or Ioss
pormoabIo sogmonls, vorkors inlonding lo oslabIisl a lrado union viII nood
a !cm.in c| ccnirc|. Tlis moans llal lloy musl bo in a posilion lo cIoso off a
sogmonl of llo Iabor markol, accounl for a subslanliaI slaro of llal Iabor-mar-
kol sogmonl, and coordinalo lloir oporalions.
38
Tlo sogmonl couId bo do!nod
by skiII, oconomic soclor, ompIoyor, roIigion, ollnicily, caslo, IocaIily, olc.
34
Doro, Briiis| I.cicr j.p.ncsc I.cicr, pp. 3278.
35
Cordova, criginc !ci sin!.c.ii |.scisii, Iorry, S|.ng|.i cn Siri|c, pp. 95103 and
passim.
36
HiIfording, Iin.ncc C.pii.|, p. 351.
37
Somo aullors do nol acknovIodgo llis cavoal. Tloo van Tijn, for oxampIo, do!nod
llo lrado union as a saIos carloI for Iabour povor and associalod llis doscriplion vill
a do!nilion of llo succoss of a lrado union llal vas as simpIo as il vas Iuroconlric:
By llo succoss of sucl a lrado union is moanl ils rocognilion by llo ompIoyors con-
cornod as an agonl soIIing llo Iabour povor of llo vorkors il roprosonls, llo rocogni-
lion bocomos a facl vlon vagos and ollor condilions of ompIoymonl aro dolorminod
in llo framovork of a |. . .j coIIoclivo Iabour agroomonl, in vlicl llo lrado union is a
parly in a formaI conlracl. van Tijn, Conlribulion lo llo Scionli!c Sludy, p. 212.
38
Soo proviousIy Iivornasl, RoIalion of Iovor, al p. 13: To oxorciso povor ovor
a poriod of limo, a union musl organizo and koop organizod a moaningfuIIy dislincl
producl or Iabor markol.
-5. / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
Ivory union lypo moroovor las ils ovn idiosyncrasios. Crafl-basod unions
for oxampIo lond lo lavo a cIoar gondor-bias. Tlo crafl concopl is froquonlIy
Ioadod vill mascuIino connolalions vlicl impIy llo oxcIusion of vomon.
39

Inlorpriso-basod unions for lloir parl usuaIIy sorvo lonurod vorkors, and aro
incIinod lo idonlify vill lloir ovn onlorpriso.
40
Oppcriunii ic c|csc c|| i|c |.ocr-m.r|ci scgmcni
Tlo succoss of a unionizalion inilialivo doponds primariIy on llo abiIily of
llo union lo soparalo insidors from oulsidors offoclivoIy. Any convo-
nionl and visibIo claraclorislic, sucl as raco, Ianguago, sociaI origin, roIigion,
or Iack of parlicuIar sclooI dipIomas, can bo usod lo docIaro compolilors as
oulsidors.
41
Tlo group dovoIops a form of calogoricaI inoquaIily do!ning
vlo is lo bo oxcIudod. IxcIudod calogorios may bo basod parlIy on langibIo
claraclorislics (o.g. corlain concrolo skiIIs) bul aIso dopond on a subslanliaI
amounl of sociaI conslruclion as voII.
42
In addilion lo calogoricaI inoquaIily,
possibiIilios for communicalion and lransporl pIay a roIo. Ivon if vorkors
al ono vorksilo aro abIo lo lako ovor llo vork al anollor vorksilo, lom-
porariIy or pormanonlIy, llo ompIoyor las moro dif!cuIly rocruiling lloso
compolilors as llo dislanco bolvoon vorksilos incroasos. An oxampIo is a
mino in a romolo Iocalion, vloro subslilulo Iabor can lako vooks or monlls
lo rocruil.
If a group of ompIoyoos Iacks llo moans lo oslabIisl an onlry llrosloId,
forming an offoclivo organizalion viII bocomo virluaIIy impossibIo. Bonja-
min Marquoz roporls on llo caso of Moxican-Amorican garmonl vorkors in
II Iaso, Toxas, during llo oarIy 1990s. Ho concIudos llal llo vouId-bo lrado
union Ia Mujor Obrora facod virluaIIy insurmounlabIo barriors lo mobiIiza-
lion offorls, bocauso llo big ompIoyors couId oasiIy lransfor lloir oporalions
oIsovloro or ovon abroad.
43
In Nov York Cily around 1900, garmonl vork-
ors voro dif!cuIl lo organizo, bocauso llo nocossary vork-skiIIs voro oasy lo
39
IliIIips and TayIor, Sox and SkiII.
40
Hanami, I.ocur I.u .n! |n!usiri.| Rc|.iicns, p. 60.
41
Murply, Slrucluro of CIosuro, p. 548.
42
TiIIy, Dur.o|c |ncu.|ii, p. 82.
43
Marquoz, Organizing Moxican-Amorican Womon, p. 67.
0,12,3 / -54
acquiro, llo Iabor forco vas disporsod llrougloul numorous smaII slops, and
llo Iabor suppIy vas vasl, llanks lo llo conlinuous arrivaI of immigranls.
44
Rc|.iitc sizc
Il is dif!cuIl lo !x a minimum group sizo roIalivo lo llo sizo of llo Iabor-mar-
kol sogmonl il aims lo conlroI. Bul llo numoricaI ralio of ompIoyoos viIIing lo
join llo lrado union lo lloso rofusing lo join musl bo suf!cionl lo provonl non-
mombors from laking ovor mombors vork. IarliaI unompIoymonl among
llo Iabor sogmonl viII mako organizalions lardor lo oslabIisl.
Cccr!in.iicn
IolonliaI lrado union mombors nood lo coordinalo lloir oporalions. To llis
ond, lloy musl al Ioasl bo avaro of oacl ollors oxislonco, and bo in a posilion
lo communicalo vill oacl ollor. Coordinalion of mombors villin llo closon
domain may bo diroclIy-domocralic, indiroclIy-domocralic or aulocralic, bul
lloso dislinclions may in praclico bo vaguo. DiroclIy-domocralic coordinalion
procoods llrougl joinl pIonary consuIlalion, or oIoclod doIogalos. IndiroclIy-
domocralic coordinalion occurs via conlroIIod union of!ciaIs, or ollor spo-
ciaIizod slriko coordinalors. Aulocralic coordinalion invoIvos unsuporvisod
managors, sucl as sub-conlraclors.
45

Iffoclivo coordinalion doponds mainIy on llo plysicaI aspocls of commu-
nicaling vill mombors (Iocalion and dislanco, olc.) and llo quaIily of llo for-
maI or informaI Ioadors.
46
MarslaII Ganz arguos llal a lrado unions slralogic
capacily doponds on llo IocaI knovIodgo avaiIabIo lo llo organizalion,
and on lourislic procossos onabIing croalivo appIicalion of sucl knovIodgo,
slralogic capacily, in lurn, doponds on llo porsonaI oxporioncos of llo Ioadors,
44
SoIIor, Uprising of llo Tvonly Tlousand, p. 258.
45
Tlo Iasl oplion is doscribod in Kooiman, Bcmo. 1cxii|c I.ocur, Claplor 3. ToxliIo
vorkors in Mumbai (Bombay) voro dividod inlo numorous jobbor unils of aboul
llirly or forly poopIo. SovoraI Ioadors of lloso unils (llo jobbors) slarlod lo loIp oslab-
Iisl lrado unions: lloy signod on and voro aulomalicaIIy foIIovod by llo vorkors
from lloir unil. Vory oflon il vas jobbors vlo voro inslrumonlaI in organizing dom-
onslralions or prolosl moolings |. . .j. As union foos ropIacod !.siuri |foo or commission,
lo bo payod lo llo jobborj il vas usuaIIy jobbors vlo voro onlruslod vill llo lask of
coIIocling subscriplions in lloir doparlmonls, monoy vlicl lloy voro supposod lo
land ovor lo llo lrado-union of!ciaIs. (p. 41)
46
Iicklof, 1|ccric !cr Gcucr|sc|.|iscniuic||ung, pp. 178.
-5- / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
lloir nolvorks and roporloiros of coIIoclivo aclion, as voII as llo consuIlalion
slrucluros and informalion "ovs villin llo organizalion.
47
Slrikos aro llo uIlimalo losl of llo abiIily lo conlroI a domain. If llo domain
villslands a confronlalion vill llo ompIoyor or ompIoyors, il is soIid onougl
lo oslabIisl a pormanonl organizalion. Tlal is llo doopor roason vly slrikos
lavo so oflon rosuIlod in lrado unions: oxporionco provod llal organizing
vas possibIo and offoclivo. ConvorsoIy, a group of ompIoyoos icc|nic.|| abIo
lo slago a slriko may novorlloIoss docido againsl llis oplion, for oxampIo
bocauso a slriko vouId dispIoaso, or larm, llo gonoraI pubIic. Ono oxampIo
is llal of lospilaI nursos, vlo voro lypicaIIy dif!cuIl lo organizo in llo pasl,
bocauso nursos assumod llal unionizalion vouId inovilabIy Ioad lo lospilaI
slrikos. Moroovor, llo idoa llal a lospilaI vorkor migll dosorl lor 'caIIing
and Ioavo a palionl on llo oporaling labIo lo join a pickol Iino vas a frigllon-
ing prospocl lo boll palionls and llo communily al Iargo.
48
6"0(."/5 &'.(/0% 0$ 0'( 2$3/#" $* 7$"0.$5
A unions succoss in slabiIizing conlroI ovor ils domain doponds parlIy on
ils ovn abiIily lo organizo, and parlIy on oxlornaI in"uoncos ovor vlicl llo
organizalion las IillIo or no conlroI. I viII !rsl ilomizo llo kinds of inicrn.|
risks llal lrado unions faco.
To sorvo as offoclivo coordinalor of llo domain, llo lrado union obviousIy
noods lo cuIlivalo IoyaIly and cooporalion from ils mombors. Iaclors in"u-
oncing sucl cooporalion may incIudo normalivo aspocls (idooIogicaI com-
milmonl), coorcion (as vill rackols), as voII as oconomic faclors roIalod lo
a cosl-bono!l anaIysis of momborslip and aclivily.
49
Tloso oconomic faclors
incIudo:
47
Ganz, Rosourcos and RosourcofuInoss.
48
Rovorby, HospilaI Organizing, p. 1054. Soo aIso McKorsio and Brovn, Non-
profossionaI HospilaI Workors.
49
On normalivo and coorcivo aspocls, soo Ilzioni, Ccmp.r.iitc An.|sis c| Ccmp|cx
Org.niz.iicns, pp. 5965. On llo maloriaI cosls and bono!ls, soo: OIson, Icgic c| Cc||cc-
iitc Aciicn, pp. 6697, Iicklof, 1|ccric !cr Gcucr|sc|.|iscniuic||ung, pp. 4453, Croucl,
1r.!c Unicns, pp. 5570.
0,12,3 / -55
- 1|c rc|.iitc our!cns c| mcmocrs|ip. Tlo cosls can incIudo nol jusl onlranco
foos and duos, bul aIso a roquirod invoslmonl in limo (doponding on llo
froquoncy of moolings, llo rolalion of doIogalo dulios, and llo avaiIabiIily
of paid of!ciaIs) pIus ollor possibIo cosls (llo dangor of Iosing onos job,
onding up in prison, olc.).
- 1|c rc|.iitc our!cns c| ncn-mcmocrs|ip. IolonliaI mombors vlo rofuso lo join
may faco corlain risks as voII. Ior inslanco, lloy may Ioso lloir job if llo
company bocomos a cIosod slop, i.o. an arrangomonl vloro llo ompIoyor
makos union momborslip a condilion for ompIoymonl.
50
- W|ci|cr mcmocrs|ip c||crs sc|cciitc ocnc!is.
51
Goods and sorvicos avaiIabIo
lo mombors lavo incIudod lravoI monoy (ti.iicum) for arlisans and jour-
noymon unabIo lo !nd vork in ono cily, and lloroforo forcod lo movo lo
anollor cily, Iabor modialion for mombors Iooking for vork,
52
insuranco
pIans (sicknoss and ollor funds for mombors soo aIso Claplor 6), IogaI
counsoIIing in llo ovonl of individuaI Iabor con"icls, and addilionaI oppor-
lunilios, Iiko accoss lo loIiday lomos, discounls on lousoloId appIiancos,
sorvicos olc.
Hov offoclivo sucl moans can bo, doponds on llo ralo of Iabor lurnovor.
If mombors vork al a corlain oslabIislmonl or in a corlain occupalion onIy
brio"y, lloir union IoyaIly is mucl moro dif!cuIl lo cuIlivalo or mainlain llan
if llo rank and !Io is slabIo and sodonlary. Workors vill slrong ruraI Iinks
voro oflon dif!cuIl lo organizo pormanonlIy, bocauso lloy voro froquonlIy
slorl-lorm migranls, vlo porformod vago Iabor lo roacl a corlain !nanciaI
largol, as soon as lloy lad accumuIalod llal amounl, lloy rolurnod lo
lloir viIIagos of origin.
53
50
SpioImans, DiIomma of llo CIosod Slop, p. 13. SpioImans rigllIy arguos llal
formaIIy spoaking llo cIosod slop is llo oxacl opposilo of llo so-caIIod yoIIov-
dog conlracl, undor vlicl llo ompIoyor prc|ioiis vorkors from joining a lrado union
(Ibid.). TypoIogios of cIosod slops aro oIaboralod in Anon., CIosod Slop and Clock
Off, and in AIIon, Pcucr in 1r.!c Unicns, p. 36.
51
In Romanco counlrios, lrado unions vill soIoclivo bono!ls aro aplIy caIIod lrado
unions vill muIlipIo basos (o.scs mu|iip|cs).
52
In llis caso, lrado union aclivilios vouId ovorIap vill lloso of llo Iabor oxclangos.
Somolimos, in Iranco and IlaIy, around 1900, lrado unions acluaIIy morgod vill oslab-
Iislod Iabor oxclangos.
53
Tlo plonomonon of i.rgci ucr|ing is oflon doconloxluaIizod in coIoniaI discourso
and usod as an idooIogy of Iogilimalion. Soo Colon, I.ocur .n! Pc|iiics in Nigcri.,
p. 189, and by llo samo aullor, Rosislanco. SurvivaI slralogios vlicl combino (froo
or unfroo) vago Iabor vill ollor aclivilios lavo moanlimo rocoivod mucl allonlion
-56 / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
Org.niz.iicn.| !n.nccs aro a socond inlornaI aspocl. Tlo oporaling accounl
of a lrado union can bo piclurod as foIIovs:
TabIo 11.2
Trado-Union Oporaling Accounl
Rctcnucs |xpcn!iiurcs
Inlranco foos IorsonnoI
Duos MaloriaI Ixponsos
Donalions Slriko paymonls
Subvonlions Bono!l paymonls
Conlribulions lo Bono!l Sclomos
S.tings
TolaI TolaI
Ixcopling muslroom organizalions, !n.nci.| si.oi|ii is aIvays cruciaI for
lrado unions. Il doponds, as llo clarl indicalos, on sovoraI faclors. Wloro
organizalions bocomo llo aulonomous proporly of rank and !Io mom-
bors, donalions from favorabIy disposod mombors of llo sociaI oIilo and
slalo subsidios viII usuaIIy docroaso, vliIo mombors onlranco foos, duos,
and conlribulions lo bono!l sclomos viII accounl for llo Iargosl slaro of llo
lolaI rovonuos. Trado union duos aro aIvays a somovlal risky invoslmonl,
sinco lloir rolurn is novor !xod in advanco. Wlollor mombors pay lloir
duos roguIarIy, doponds on vlollor lloy aro consislonlIy abIo and viIIing lo
mako llis risky invoslmonl. Il doponds on llo amounl and pormanonco of
lloir incomo, and on lloir soIf-discipIino. Tlo !rsl faclor compIicalos organ-
izing among soasonaI vorkors, casuaI Iaborors, and llo Iiko. Tlo socond fac-
lor is aIso cIosoIy roIalod lo soasonaI in"uoncos. On }ava in llo 1910s, llo
managors of llo raiIvay and lram vorkors union roguIarIy compIainod of
llo dif!cuIly of squoozing duos oul of |llo momborsj on a roguIar monll
lo monll basis bocauso mombors couId soo IillIo langibIo bono!l.
54
In
ManiIa in llo 1920s, many cigar makors considorod llomsoIvos union mom-
bors, aIllougl lloy paid no duos. Tloy arguod llal lloro vas no nood for
llal bocauso lloy vouId roadiIy conlribulo lo a slriko fund if lloro voro a
in llo Iiloraluro. Soo aIso Claplor 14 and, among ollors, Agior, Usinos, famiIIos ol
ouvriors, DoIgado, InduslriaI Slagnalion, }osli, Icsi Wcr|!s, pp. 909, Smill, Ioas-
anl Timo and Iaclory Timo, Qualaorl, Mincrs .n! i|c Si.ic, Claplor 5, Upadlyay,
Myll of llo IndoIonl Workor.
54
IngIoson, |n Sc.rc| c| jusiicc, p. 81.
0,12,3 / -57
slriko. In llo moanlimo, lloy noodod lloir monoy for famiIy oxponsos.
55

In oarIy lvonlioll-conlury Argonlina, many union mombors dofauIlod
on lloir duos. Tlo union and Iofl-ving pross carriod froquonl appoaIs lo
mcrcscs ('slirkors) llrougloul llo poriod lo roguIarizo lloir posilion vill
lloir rospoclivo union.
56
Tlo slabiIily of union rovonuos corroIalos cIosoIy vill llo slrongll of
llo lios bolvoon individuaI mombors and llo organizalion. If lloso lios aro
slrong, paymonl discipIino is IikoIy lo bo roasonabIy good as voII. If mom-
bors faII bolind in lloir duos paymonls, llo union can obviousIy imposo sanc-
lions (roprimands, oxpuIsion). Hov offoclivo sanclions aro in lurn doponds
parlIy on !nanciaI oxponsos vlicl dofauIling mombors incurrod in llo pasl.
A dofauIling mombor vlo lad paid a roIalivoIy ligl onlranco foo risks Iosing
llal monoy llrougl oxpuIsion. Upon rojoining, llo iniliaI foo migll lavo lo
bo paid again, pIus any arroars ovoraII, a povorfuI inconlivo lo compIy vill
llo momborslip roquiromonls.
57
A simiIar oconomic Iogic appIios lo mombors
parlicipaling in union bono!l sclomos vlo Ioso lloir funds if lloy Ioavo llo
union.
58
Somo lrado unions cannol offor soIoclivo bono!ls lo mombors, so llal lloy
risk lurning inlo muslroom organizalions uninlonlionaIIy. Bul lloy can
appIy a difforonl mollod, knovn as a c|cc|-c||, vloro ompIoyors villloId
union duos from pay packols, and pay llom diroclIy lo llo union. Tlis lap-
ponod for oxampIo in Nigoria, vloro many vorkors did nol pay union duos
roguIarIy, sinco for aII lloy caro, lloro nood bo no union vlon lloro is no
vagos or ollor sorious probIom lo agilalo aboul.
59
Sucl a praclico obviousIy
doos IillIo lo slrongllon mombors lios vill lloir union, and moroovor slifls
llo baIanco of povor lovards llo ompIoyor, inasmucl as llo union bocomos
dopondonl for ils funds on llo co-oporalion of llo ompIoyor.
55
KorkvIiol, M.ni|. Wcr|crs Unicns, p. 56.
56
57
Slislor, Iogic of Union Grovll, p. 416.
58
Tlo oxislonco of bono!l sclomos can aIso Ioad lo romarkabIo uninlondod conso-
quoncos. In llo Unilod Slalos during llo 1950s, lloro voro Slagoland IocaIs vlicl
rofusod lo morgo or admil nov mombors, dospilo an aging, rapidIy docIining mombor-
slip. Wly` Bocauso in llo gIory days of vaudoviIIo lloso IocaIs lad accumuIalod Iargo
lroasurios and voro roIuclanl lo slaro llom nov. Slrauss, Issuos in Union Slruc-
luro, p. 11.
59
Yosufu, |nirc!uciicn ic |n!usiri.| Rc|.iicns, p. 71.
-58 / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
Wlollor a unions oxpondiluros aro in roasonabIo proporlion lo ils rovonuos
doponds parlIy on cxicrn.| in"ucnccs (a Iockoul by llo ompIoyor, for oxampIo),
discussod in moro dolaiI boIov. As Iong as llo union is in conlroI of ils
ovn !nanciaI falo, ovorylling oIso doponds on llo quaIily of ils manago-
monl. Oflon il is inadoqualo. Incompolonl adminislralion is a probIom vlicl
affoclod many oarIy lrado unions in llo Norll AlIanlic rogion, as voII as in llo
capilaIisl poriplory. A sludy aboul llo Camoroon DovoIopmonl Corporalion
Workors Union in llo Ialo 1940s and oarIy 1950s concIudos, for oxampIo, llal
llo books voro in a slalo of disarray, momborslip rocords voro incompIolo,
and llal llo !nanciaI posilion of llo organizalion vas in gonoraI mucl
vorso llan migll lavo boon oxpoclod from llo amounl of supporl boing
givon lo llo union by ils mombors.
60
Bocauso of sucl dif!cuIlios, vorkors
somolimos roIinquisl conlroI ovor lloir organizalions affairs lo oulsidors,
loping llal managomonl viII improvo lloroby. Iarllo Dalla roporls llal,
slorlIy aflor WorId War I, of!ciaIs in clargo of sovoraI lrado unions in llo
groalor CaIculla rogion voro oulsidors, vliIo vorkors llomsoIvos aclod as
junior managomonl. Ho surmisos llal, aIllougl lloso vorkors organizod
indopondonlIy, lloy novorlloIoss onlruslod llo nogolialions and arbilralion
lo oulsidors.
61
Iraud is anollor managomonl probIom, and il occurs on aII conlinonls.
In lis momoirs, SommorviIIo doscribos a draslic caso in Iondon during llo
1830s:
|Tloj cliof Ioador of llo laiIors, !nding llal funds did nol "ov inlo lis
lroasury so fasl as lo lad oxpoclod, |. . .j cIoarod oul llo lroasury, !IIod lis
pockols and a carpol-bag, and look slipping for llo Conlinonl. His dofraudod
consliluonls, lovovor, lad lloir oyos upon lim, lloy pursuod, llo packol
vas sliII on llo IngIisl coasl, lloy look a boal, gol on board, gol loId of
llo oralor, Iaid lim on lis back on llo dock, and look aII llo monoy lloy
couId, oxcopl as mucl as vouId carry lim inlo anollor counlry, lo lido lis
slamo, and savo llom llo slamo of rolurning vill lim, and prosoculing
lim in Iondon.
62

60
Warminglon, Wcsi A|ric.n 1r.!c Unicn, p. 33.
61
Dalla, Slrikos in llo Groalor CaIculla Rogion, p. 69.
62
SommorviIIo, Auicoicgr.p|, pp. 3901. Aflor llo laiIors slriko (vlicl ondod in
dofoal), ollors appIiod llo Iossons Ioarnod from llis incidonl: Tlo bakors |. . .j accu-
muIalod a fund lo suslain llom on slriko, bul !nding llal llo unions, aflor llo faII of
0,12,3 / -59
OrganizalionaI discipIino is of crilicaI imporlanco. Iffoclivo organizalion
doponds on vlollor of!ciaIs do lloir duly, and on vlollor mombors
allond moolings. Many organizalions lavo lriod lo oncourago sucl disci-
pIino llrougl a vasl syslom of ponaIlios, a romarkabIo imilalion of sanclions
imposod by ompIoyors on lloir slaff.
63
890(."/5 &'.(/0% 0$ 0'( 2$3/#" $* 7$"0.$5
A unions conlroI ovor ils domain can faco boll oconomic and non-oconomic
cxicrn.| llroals.
|ccncmic in"ucnccs
Many difforonl faclors (o.g. businoss cycIos, conconlralion lronds in corporalo
induslry, or slifls on llo vorId markol) may oxpand or roduco llo Iabor-
markol sogmonl llal llo union aims lo conlroI, llus forcing llo organizalion
lo adapl.
- Rc!uciicns in llo sizo of a Iabor-markol sogmonl lypicaIIy rosuIl from
any of llroo causos: incroasod Iabor produclivily, onabIing fovor poopIo
lo acliovo llo samo oulpul, docIining offoclivo domand, vlicl Ioads lo
diminislod produclion, or parliaI or compIolo pIanl roIocalion. In aII llroo
casos, jobs viII disappoar. A slrinking Iabor-markol sogmonl ordinariIy
Ioavos a union vill !vo oplions: (i) rosisl roduclion of llo sogmonl, (ii)
bocomo smaIIor, (iii) morgo vill ono or moro ollor unions in a simiIar
domain, (iv) morgo vill ono or moro unions in adjaconl domains, or (v)
disband.

llo laiIors, voro going dovn, lloy rosoIvod, in a pubIic assombIy, nol lo slriko vork,
bul lo spond llo funds, llal lloir oxoculivo migll lavo no lomplalion, and, as llo
roadiosl, and mosl gonoraIIy agrooabIo mannor of golling rid of llo funds, vas lo lavo
a sorios of joIIi!calions al pubIic-lousos, lloy procoodod accordingIy, and so savod
lloir of!co-boarors from foIIoving llo oxampIo of llo of!cors of corlain ollor lrados.
(Ibid., p. 391.)
63
On llo lomoIogy of company ruIos and union ruIos, soo: Braun, Sczi.|cr un! |u|-
iurc||cr W.n!c|, Claplor VI.
-5: / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
Rosisling a roduclion of llo Iabor-markol sogmonl is oflon llo mosl obvi-
ous dofonsivo slralogy. Bul il is compromisod by llo unions voakonod
bargaining posilion. IspociaIIy if llo ompIoying company is aboul lo slul
dovn anyvay, a vork sloppago aIono viII bo of IillIo uso. Slaging a sil-in
lo provonl llo vorkpIaco from boing dismanlIod may bo moro offoclivo.
64

If a pIanl is lo bo roIocalod, llo union may lry lo organizo llo vorkforco
al llo nov silo lo prolocl ils domain. In somo casos, poIilicaI Iobbying may
yioId rosuIls, or lloro may bo a campaign lo convinco rodundanl union
mombors lo omigralo.
65
If aII offorls aro unsuccossfuI, lovovor, llo union
viII nood lo accopl llo roducod domain, and may ovon lavo lo disband
unIoss llo domain can bo oxpandod again llrougl ollor clannoIs. Ono
possibIo courso of aclion is lo morgo vill unions in idonlicaI Iabor-markol
sogmonls al ollor pIacos (knovn as ccmmcnsu.| morgors) or lo loam up vill
unions in adjaconl Iabor-markol sogmonls (knovn as smoiciic morgors).
66
- |xp.nsicn of a Iabor-markol sogmonl usuaIIy arisos from an incroaso in
offoclivo domand, vill concurronl grovll in llo numbor of jobs llrougl
do-skiIIing llo Iabor procoss, nov businoss slarls in llo samo soclor and/or
llo immigralion of cloap Iabor. }usl as vill a roduclion in llo sizo of
llo Iabor-markol sogmonl, unions lavo sovoraI oplions in llis silualion:
(i) bIock or rovorso oxpansion of llo sogmonl, (ii) grov lo koop up vill
llo oxpansion, (iii) morgo vill ono or moro ollor unions vill a simiIar
domain, or (iv) cIoso dovn.
67
BIocking oxpansion of llo sogmonl may in
llo !rsl inslanco consisl of curlaiIing llo mobiIily of commodilios. A union
may Iobby llo slalo lo sol up a loIIgalo, or oslabIisl quolas, compIicaling
llo imporl of compoling foroign producls, or il may organizo a boycoll of
lloso producls. Do-skiIIing and llo imporl of cloap Iabor may bo coun-
lorod llrougl prossuro for immigralion conlroIs, i.o. llo slalo provonls
Iov-pricod Iabor from onloring llo counlry. AIlornalivoIy, unions may
conslrucl a duaI Iabor markol, by docIaring parl of llo Iabor markol info-
rior vill raciaI, ollnic, ago or gondor criloria and so oxcIudo poopIo from
64
Soo o.g., Cacassus and CIark, Uno aIlornalivo au clmago.
65
Irickson, Incouragomonl of Imigralion, CIomonls, Trado Unions and Imi-
gralion, Malsumura, I.ocur Arisiccr.c Rctisiic!, p. 117.
66
Irooman and Brillain, Union Morgor Irocoss.
67
Symbiolic morgors appoar Ioss obvious in llis caso.
0,12,3 / -5;
corlain lypos of vork.
68
If aII lloso approaclos provo inoffoclivo, unions
may lry lo conlroI llo oxpandod Iabor-markol sogmonl by convincing co-
vorkors vlo aro nol yol organizod lo join, or by morging vill ollor unions
in llo samo sogmonl. In a sominaI ossay, }oln R. Commons domonslralos
lov llo originaI IocaIIy organizod lrado unions of Amorican sloomakors
lad lo koop adapling and ospociaIIy oxpanding lloir organizalions as
lloir producl markol graduaIIy bocamo nalionvido.
69
If aII sucl offorls faiI
lo yioId onougl posilivo rosuIls, llo union viII mosl IikoIy foId.
Ncn-cccncmic in"ucnccs
Rosislanco by llo aullorilios, onlropronours or llird parlios may provonl
unions from mainlaining conlroI ovor lloir domain. IogaI moasuros may oul-
Iav unions, or mako il oxlromoIy dif!cuIl for llom lo conlinuo lloir aclivilios
vill any offocl. In llo ninoloonll conlury, llis silualion appIiod llrougloul
Iuropo (as iIIuslralod by llo Ironcl Ici Ic C|.pc|icr, llo Brilisl Combinalion
Iavs, olc.) and il sliII appIios in many counlrios ovon loday.
70
Boll undor
roprossivo Iavs and somolimos dospilo llo Iavs, unions lavo boon vioIonlIy
roprossod, lloir funds con!scalod and lloir Ioadors arroslod.
If lrado unions aro IogaIizod, ompIoyors may novorlloIoss lry lo provonl or
discourago lloir ompIoyoos from joining.
71
Ono slralogy is lo inlimidalo vork-
ors, for oxampIo by llroaloning lo sack llom if lloy join. Irominonl aclivisls
may bo dismissod, or ovon aII union mombors, or lloy may bo bIackIislod.
68
My inlorprolalion loro is basod on llo anaIysis in Bonacicl, Iasl, Irosonl, and
Iuluro, pp. 304. A voII-knovn oxampIo of a gondorod division is llo oxcIusion of
vomon from llo mining induslry in Brilain. Tlo maIo-dominalod lrado unions voro
docisivo in golling llo BiII lo llis offocl passod in 1842. MolcaIfo, Manning llo Minos,
pp. 7782.
69
Commons, Amorican Sloomakors.
70
Soo llo roporls of llo InlornalionaI Iabor Organizalion in Gonova. A Iong-lorm
vorId-vido lrond appoars lo augur rocognilion of llo lrado unions, vlicl slouId nol,
lovovor, lompl us lo adopl any simpIo slago lloory, sucl as llo ono oIaboralod by
Goolz Briofs, Ollo Kaln-Iround and ollors. Soo o.g., Bondor, Dor Wog zur IogaIon
Bofosligung.
71
On llis subjocl, soo aIso Roy, Roprossion and Incorporalion. Irik Wrigll
lypollosizos llal a curviIinoar Iink oxisls bolvoon llo povor of llo vorking cIass
(on llo Iabor markol, in llo Iabor procoss, and in poIilics) and capilaIisl rosislanco lo
vorkors organizalions. CapilaIisls bono!l groalIy from a liglIy disorganizod vork-
ing cIass, onco llo povor of vorkors organizalions oxcoods a corlain llrosloId, lov-
ovor, capilaIisls viII lavo roason lo vork vill lloso organizalions. Tlis lypollosis
sooms compalibIo vill llo lisloricaI courso of ovonls vill rospocl lo lrado unions.
Wrigll, Working-CIass Iovor.
-6. / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
During llo oarIy yoars of llo Gorman Mino Workors Iodoralion, many minors
rofusod lo join llo union, foaring roprossion, bul lloy novorlloIoss subscribod
lo llo union novspapor.
72
As a formaIizod mollod of ompIoyor inlimidalion,
llo so-caIIod c||cu !cg ccnir.ci is a promiso, mado by vorkors as a condilion
of ompIoymonl, nol lo boIong lo a union during llo poriod of ompIoymonl,
or nol lo ongago in corlain spoci!od aclivilios, sucl as coIIoclivo bargaining
or slriking, villoul vlicl llo formaI rigll lo boIong lo a union is vloIIy
vaIuoIoss.
73
Ovorl or covorl vioIonco occurs as voII. Sucl vioIonco can bo
diroclod againsl individuaI ompIoyoos, or Iargo groups of union mombors.
In llo 1960s, somo ompIoyors in }apan arrangod for plysicaI allacks againsl
ompIoyoos vlo lriod lo sol up a lrado union. Workors roporlod boing kickod,
laving Iil cigarollos pul lo lloir skin, and boing llroalonod vill vorso vio-
Ionco.
74
In conlomporary India, ompIoyors sliII boal lloir insubordinalo
agricuIluraI vorkors lo doall occasionaIIy.
75
Businoss ovnors lavo aIso mobi-
Iizod miIilias and gangs of llugs lo broak slrikos and suppross ollor forms of
rosislanco. Somolimos lloy bIock lrado unions by rofusing lo nogolialo, vliIo
al llo samo limo improving vorking condilions and llo slandard of Iiving
of ompIoyoos. In sovoraI casos, Iargo companios look llo noxl slop by oslab-
Iisling company unions (yoIIov unions) lo roduco supporl for aulonomous
lrado unions. In addilion, ompIoyors vago propaganda campaigns againsl
llo unions, and lry lo lurn llo gonoraI pubIic againsl llom, for oxampIo by
72
Huo, Bcrg.rociicr, II, p. 488.
73
Soidman, YoIIov Dog Conlracl, p. 348. A voII-knovn caso, vlicl gavo riso lo
a famous IogaI ruIing by llo US Supromo Courl on 10 Soplombor 1917, vas llo yoIIov
dog conlracl of llo Hilclman CoaI & Coko Company: I am ompIoyod by and vork
for llo Hilclman CoaI & Coko Company vill llo oxpross undorslanding llal I am
nol a mombor of llo Unilod Mino Workors of Amorica, and viII nol bocomo so vliIo
an ompIoyoo of llo Hilclman CoaI & Coko Company, llal llo Hilclman CoaI & Coko
Company is run non-union and agroos vill mo llal il viII run non-union vliIo I am
in ils ompIoy. If al any limo I am ompIoyod by llo Hilclman CoaI & Coko Company I
vanl lo bocomo connoclod vill llo Unilod Mino Workors of Amorica or any af!Iialod
organizalion, I agroo lo villdrav from llo ompIoymonl of said company, and agroo
llal vliIo I am in llo ompIoy of llal company I viII nol mako any offorls amongsl ils
ompIoyoos lo bring aboul llo unionizing of llal mino againsl llo companys visl. I
lavo oillor road llo abovo or loard llo samo road. Soidman, YoIIov Dog Conlracl,
pp. 3578.
74
Turnor, j.p.ncsc Wcr|crs in Prcicsi, p. 35.
75
Broman, SiIoncing llo Voico of AgricuIluraI Iabourors.
0,12,3 / -64
roforring lo llo rod monaco. Tloy lavo aIso lriod lo bIock ompIoyoo aclions
llrougl ospionago.
76
Trado unions may aIso lavo ollor compolilors: organizalions vill parliaIIy
ovorIapping funclions. In llo 1950s, for oxampIo, somo Nigorian lrado unions
lad lo compolo vill lribaI organizalions offoring far moro soIoclivo incon-
livos (doall bono!ls, assislanco rogarding marriago oxponsos and during
llo iIInoss of a mombor, ropalrialion of llo doslilulo, olc.).
77
IinaIIy, lrado
unions may oncounlor moro sinislor onomios. Wlon llo NalionaI Union of
Minovorkors lriod lo oslabIisl ilsoIf in llo Soull African goId minos in llo
mid-1980s, il bocamo onlangIod in a prolraclod, vioIonl slruggIo againsl llo
M.r.s|c. (llo Russians): criminaI Basollo gangs vlo lad ruIod llo com-
pounds for docados llrougl lloir slricl conlroI ovor llo vomon in lloir aroas.
Russian minors roguIarIy paid duos, and sponl parl of lloir incomo al llo
pIacos vloro lloy allondod moolings. Tlo arrivaI of llo NUM llroalonod
llo posilion of llo Russians, vlo did ovorylling possibIo lo obslrucl lrado
union aclivisls, up lo murdor.
78
A nov union llal oxporioncos roprossion, vioIonco, or aggrossion can
rospond in four main vays. A !rsl oplion is ctcri rcsisi.ncc, for oxampIo by
!Iing IogaI procoodings, or solling up a paramiIilary organizalion.
79
SocondIy,
llo organizalion can !isguisc ilsoIf lo appoar Ioss llroaloning lo oulsidors, somo
unions lavo posod as muluaI insuranco sociolios (soo Claplor 6). TlirdIy, llo
organizalion may movo p.ri of ils oporalions un!crgrcun!. Tlo Brilisl Minors
Associalion of llo 1840s lad lo roIy on ils lravoIIing Ioclurors (saIariod by
llo union) lo mainlain ils organizalion al llo IocaI IovoI. Oflon porsoculion
by llo ovnors vas so inlonso llal moroIy lo loId a union momborslip card
vas onougl lo gol a minor llo sack and oviclion from lis collago. So mon
lad lo bo discrool aboul profossing lloir boIiofs. Il vas onIy llo Ioclurors,
76
Tlo commorciaIIy organizod forms of ospionago among ompIoyoos in llo Unilod
Slalos aro ospociaIIy voII knovn. Soo o.g. }offroys-}onos, Iro!ls ovor CIass, Hydo,
Undorcovor and Undorground.
77
Yosufu, |nirc!uciicn ic |n!usiri.| Rc|.iicns, pp. 678.
78
Kynocl, M.r.s|c. on llo Minos, pp. 95100.
79
Somo Amorican unions in llo !rsl laIf of llo lvonlioll conlury couId nol mobi-
Iizo llo plysicaI rosourcos nocossary lo prolocl pickols and ollor mombors of llo union
from llo assauIls by lirod morconarios. Womon mombors and foroign vorkors migll
nol bo abIo lo rosisl, and considoring llal llo poIico rofusod lo offor any proloclion, llo
onIy dofonso avaiIabIo lo llo union vas ompIoying ils ovn slrong-arm mon lo prolocl
ils pickols. Tafl, Ccrrupiicn .n! R.c|ciccring, pp. 112.
-6- / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
vill nolling lo Ioso, vlo couId como oul in opon do!anco of llo maslors.
By llo povor of porsonaI oxampIo, Ioclurors banislod limidily and imbuod
vorkors vill llo viII lo rosisl. Tloy voro llo backbono of llo organisalion.
80

IourllIy, somo unions lavo gcnc un!crgrcun! ccmp|cic|. In many counlrios,
il vas llo mosl usuaI courso of aclion during llo oarIy yoars of llo union
movomonl. Ivon in so-caIIod advancod capilaIisl counlrios, lovovor, undor-
ground oporalions may bocomo nocossary. Irom Iobruary 1969, for oxam-
pIo, vorkors al a }apanoso camora faclory lrying lo slarl an onlorpriso union
docidod lo obsorvo llo foIIoving ruIos, aflor lloir offorls mol vill vioIonl
rosislanco: (1) union mombors slouId nol inloracl vill ono anollor in llo
vorkpIaco, (2) nov mombors aro lo bo knovn onIy lo llo clairman and llo
socrolary, (3) llo oxislonco of llo union is lo romain socrol al llo limo of rocruil-
monl, so oacl individuaI is rocruilod as ono of jusl lvo ompIoyoos inloroslod
in llo formalion of a union, and (4) uso of slricl procaulions vlon going lo
and from a mooling.
81
Iacl of lloso oplions viII obviousIy affocl llo organizalionaI slrucluro. In
unions vlicl movo aII or parl of lloir oporalions undorground, llo roguIar
mombors gonoraIIy slop boing informod of llo aclivilios of llo organizalion as
a vloIo, so llal mucl of llo unions inlornaI povor is conlraIizod.
89:/"%#$" $* 0'( ,$3/#" $* 4$"0.$5
In an ovor-oxpanding capilaIisl oconomy, mainlaining union povor roquiros
oxpanding ils domain graduaIIy, oillor |crizcni.|| (llrougl ondogonous
oxpansion, coIIaboralion vill ollor unions, or solling up nov unions vill llo
samo domain oIsovloro) or tcriic.|| (llrougl ondogonous oxpansion, coI-
Iaboralion vill ollor unions, or solling up nov unions vill adjaconl domains
in llo samo rogion). If llo union oxisls onIy IocaIIy, llo nood viII ariso (i) lo
vork vill ollor IocaI unions, (ii) lo oslabIisl fralornaI organizalions or af!Ii-
alos in ollor pIacos, or (iii) lo join an oslabIislod, Iargor lrado union.
82
Unions
organizod nalionaIIy may bono!l from inlornalionaI cooporalion.
80
81
Turnor, j.p.ncsc Wcr|crs in Prcicsi, p. 35.
82
Sludios on sucl procossos aro raro. NovorlloIoss, soo Hodslrm, Conlagious
CoIIoclivilios.
0,12,3 / -65
Iour forcos molivalo union oxpansion. IirslIy, llo conslanl incroaso in llo
sc.|c c| prc!uciicn villin capilaIism vlicl lurns IocaI markols inlo nalionaI
onos, and nalionaI onos inlo inlornalionaI and ovon lransconlinonlaI onos. Nol
onIy do producl markols oxpand, bul llo Iabor forco bocomos goograplicaIIy
moro mobiIo as voII.
83
Socond, crg.niz.iicn.| !n.ncc can domand oxpansion.
IocaIIy organizod coppor minors in llo Unilod Slalos during llo 1890s lad
groal dif!cuIly mainlaining slrikos duo lo insuf!cionl funds. And aIllougl
minors from ollor pIacos oflon vanlod lo conlribulo !nanciaI supporl, lloro
vas no formaI maclinory for coIIocling and lransforring monoys bolvoon
llo indopondonl IocaI unions. Tlis vas ono of llo roasons vly llo Woslorn
Iodoralion of Minors vas oslabIislod in 1893.
84
Somolimos prcsiigc molivalos
oxpansion. Tlo !rsl nalionaI lrado unions oslabIislod in Brilain in llo 1830s
voro primariIy slorl-Iivod, !clilious, and promaluro organizalions, inlondod
mainIy lo impross lloir ovn rank and !Io and llo ompIoyors.
85
IinaIIy, pc|iii-
c.| in"ucncc causos oxpansion. Tlo oslabIislmonl of llo InlornalionaI Iabor
Organizalion in 1919, for oxampIo, Iod llo mombor counlrios lo sond vork-
ors roprosonlalivos lo llo annuaI conforoncos in Gonova. In somo counlrios
Iacking a nalionaI lrado union confodoralion, ono vas quickIy oslabIislod for
llal vory roason. In India, for oxampIo, llo AII-India Trado Union Congross
vas oslabIislod in 1920. Dospilo llis organizalions roIalivoIy smaII foIIov-
ing, il vas llo soIo roprosonlalivo organisalion of llo vorkors llrougloul
India.
86
Iargo organizalions rosuIling from circumslancos ollor llan roaI organiz-
ing (for oxampIo prosligo considoralions or poIilicaI prossuros) voro rallor
fragiIo, ospociaIIy during llo iniliaI yoars of lloir oxislonco. GonoraIIy, il sooms
unions oxpandod moro oasiIy vlon, in addilion lo mombors in difforonl Ioca-
lions laving groalor common inlorosls, llo muluaI lrusl bolvoon difforonl
groups of vorkors incroasod. Tlis lrusl grov as poopIo knov oacl ollor Ion-
gor. IslabIisling llo nalionaI Brilisl Minors Associalion in 18423 vas faciIi-
lalod by llo oxislonco of moro Iongslanding informaI lios bolvoon coIIiorios:
83
IIoyd UIman las ovon arguod (ccnir. }oln R. Commons) llal llo oxislonco of a
nalionaI markol for Iabor as dislincl from a nalionaI markol for producls provod in
facl lo lavo boon a suf!cionl causo for llo riso of nalionaI unions. UIman, Risc c| i|c
N.iicn.| 1r.!c Unicn, p. 49.
84
HiIdobrand and Mangum, C.pii.| .n! I.ocr in Amcric.n Ccppcr, p. 121.
85
CoIo, Sludy of Brilisl Trado Union Hislory.
86
IurcoII and HaIIsvorll, Rcpcri cn I.ocur Ccn!iiicns in |n!i., p. 12.
-66 / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
Il vas, lo somo oxlonl, a quoslion of slronglloning, and making moro dura-
bIo, aIroady oxisling Iinks.
87
ConvorsoIy, rogionaI difforoncos groalIy compIi-
calod llo lrond lovard nalionaIizalion. Tonsions aroso bolvoon Scollisl and
IngIisl minors in llo Brilisl Minors Associalion in llo 1840s. Tlo Scollisl
unions, on llo vloIo, voro povorfuI and ricl. Tloir duos, vlon dispalclod
lo NovcaslIo, voro usod lo loIp sick union organisalions in IngIisl coaI-
!oIds. Tlo Scols, lloroforo, pul monoy in and lad IillIo, or nolling, lo slov
for il. NaluraIIy, many llougll lloy vouId bo slrongor villoul lloir IngIisl
brollron.
88

Wlon llo lios bolvoon unionisls in difforonl Iocalions romainod formaI,
and lloroforo voak, group ogoism or llo soIf-inlorosl of IocaI of!ciaIs couId
undormino offorls lo vork logollor. IslabIislod in 1909, llo IliIippino
Tobacco Iaclory Workors Union (Unin do Tabaquoros IiIipina UTI) con-
sislod mainIy of aulonomous branclos in soparalo faclorios. Roprosonlalivos
of lloso branclos gallorod onIy a fov limos a yoar, and did nol fooI doop and
Iasling IoyaIly lovard llo conlraI body:
In 19241925, for oxampIo, a fov soclion of!cors al llo faclorios of Ia IIor
do Ia IsaboIa and Ia CIomonlina rofusod lo supporl a slriko llal llo UTI
lad of!ciaIIy ondorsod. Tloso soclion Ioadors rocruilod slriko broakors
and lloy llomsoIvos rolurnod lo vork aIIogodIy bocauso lloy vanlod lo
ingralialo llomsoIvos lo llo managors in ordor lo bo appoinlod faclory
foromon. In ollor casos soclion of!cors did llo opposilo lloy oncouragod
slrikos villoul consuIling llo conlraI of!cors. In llo mosl oxlromo casos, lloy
guidod lloir soclions oul of llo union oillor lo bo compIoloIy aulonomous
or lo join anollor union vlicl lloy boIiovod couId bollor socuro bono!ls
for mombors.
89
;.(4/.#$+% ,(3$4./4<
To oslabIisl a slabIo union llal viII slay offoclivo as ils domain oxpands,
ils inlornaI baIanco of povor is vory imporlanl. Tlo iniliaI domain of a nov
lrado union is noarIy aIvays roIalivoIy smaII, vill a rank and !Io concon-
87
88
Ibid., p. 180.
89
KorkvIiol, M.ni|. Wcr|crs Unicns, p. 56.
0,12,3 / -67
lralod in ono pIaco and/or vill ono ompIoyor. AdmillodIy, as nolod oarIior,
somo organizalions aIroady lad a Iargo, nalion-vido domain vlon lloy voro
foundod. Sucl organizalions, lovovor, usuaIIy rosuIlod from non-oconomic,
oxlornaI prossuro.
RoaIIy smaII unions noarIy aIvays lavo oillor a dirocl-domocralic or aulo-
cralic slrucluro. Tlo smaIIor a union, llo moro lomogonoous ils momborslip,
llo moro lransparonl llo inlorosls of mombors and of!ciaIs, and llo groalor
llo dirocl-domocralic in"uonco of llo rank-and-!Io viII lond lo bo.
90
A con-
lury ago, Sidnoy and Boalrico Wobb providod an unparaIIoIod doscriplion of
llo oporalions of dirocl-domocralic unions in ninoloonll-conlury Brilain.
91

Aulocralic unions usuaIIy ariso vlon llo foundor is ono porson vlo aims
lo rolain fuII conlroI ovor lis or lor inilialivo. Sloplon Iargo doscribos
lov llo }apanoso lrado union Y"aikai, oslabIislod in 1912 and camou"agod
as a muluaI insuranco socioly, vas run by ils foundor Suzuki Bunji: Irom lis
of!cos |. . .j Suzuki Bunji mainlainod a !rm porsonaI conlroI ovor llo movomonl
during ils iniliaI grovll in llo 191216 poriod. Ho lad concoivod llo Y"aikai,
namod il, soIoclod ils Ioadors, rocruilod llo sorvicos of dislinguislod sympa-
llizors, dominalod llo formuIalion of Y"aikai goaIs and programs, doIogalod
aullorily in llo movomonl, roprosonlod llo Y"aikai in doaIing vill businoss
and poIilicaI Ioadors, and ovon porsonaIIy dosignod llo Y"aikai ombIom.
92
In
noarIy aII casos, llo indirocl-domocralic form aroso onIy dorivalivoIy, oillor
vlon llo furllor grovll of a unions domain procIudod a funclioning dirocl
domocracy, or vlon an aulocralic union bocamo moro domocralic.
Ivon in roIalivoIy smaII unions, a lolorogonoous momborslip quickIy Ioads
lo difforoncos in povor. Womon mombors, for oxampIo, aro oflon Ioss in"u-
onliaI llan maIo onos. As oarIy as 1914, llo Auslrian sociaI domocral AdoIf
Braun nolod a fov imporlanl background faclors. IirslIy, vomon vorkors
lad a doubIo vorkIoad, bocauso lloy did lousovork in addilion lo lloir paid
job: WliIo maIo vorkors slarl and !nisl vorking and lako lloir broaks al
sol limos, llo lours of fomaIo vorkors aro vory froquonlIy, ono migll ovon
say as a ruIo, unIimilod. Wlon fomaIo vorkors como lomo from llo pIanl
vill ils sol vorking lours, lloy !nd manifoId lasks availing llom, oflon for
poopIo lloy musl caro for in addilion lo llomsoIvos, vill rospocl lo cIoaning,
90
Iicklof, 1|ccric !cr Gcucr|sc|.|iscniuic||ung, pp. 256.
91
Wobb and Wobb, |n!usiri.| Dcmccr.c.
92
Iargo, Y%.i|.i, p. 29.
-68 / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
cIolling, cooking, and oflon nol for llomsoIvos aIono bul for ollors as voII,
nol onIy for lloir lusbands and cliIdron bul aIso for sublonanls, Iodgors and
llo Iiko.
93
SocondIy, mosl union moolings look pIaco in llo ovoning, oulsido
vorking lours. Arriving lomo Ialo, llo road lomo from llo mooling, across
Iong dislancos al nigll, oflon llrougl poorIy Iil aroas, prosonls no probIom for
maIo vorkors bul doos for fomaIo onos. Tlis is vly oflon ovon fomaIo vorkors
rocruilod as mombors of llo induslriaI organizalions lavo groalor dif!cuIly
bocoming fuIIy invoIvod llan lloir maIo counlorparls.
94
TlirdIy, psycloIogi-
caI faclors pIayod a roIo: |IomaIo vorkorsj novadays no Iongor !nd allond-
ing moolings so oxlraordinary and lloroforo dif!cuIl. Ivon llal, lovovor, is
lardor for llom llan for maIo vorkors, lloy aro Ioss IikoIy lo lako an aclivo
parl in llo mooling or lo parlicipalo as spoakors, lo oxpross viovs llal diffor
from lloso proposod al llo mooling.
95
Ollor faclors aro monlionod in moro roconl Iiloraluro:
96
somo aullors, for
oxampIo, nolo llal vomon lad moro dif!cuIly paying lloir duos on limo,
bocauso lloy usuaIIy oarnl far Ioss llan mon, and bocauso lloir dopondonl
slalus (usuaIIy as vivos or daugllors) moanl lloy Iackod fuII conlroI ovor
llo oxpondiluro of lloir oarnings.
97
Somolimos ollno-cuIluraI in"uoncos voro
roIovanl as voII. In somo communilios, a voman couId nol allond an ovoning
mooling villoul boing oscorlod by a man, vliIo in ollor communilios vomon
lad imporlanl oconomic rosponsibiIilios, and voro considorod rosponsibIo for
lloir ovn affairs.
98
Iaclors unroIalod lo gondor can promolo povor difforoncos
villin unions as voII, sucl as roIigion, raco, poIilicaI boIiofs, ago, oducalion,
or rogion. Wlorovor lloy onlor llo picluro, compIox inlorIocking liorarclios
can rosuIl.
99
93
Braun, Gcucr|sc|.|icn, p. 192.
94
Ibid., p. 191.
95
Ibid. |AjrguabIy llo slyIo of moolings vas conduclod in a mascuIino modo vlicl
vas aIion lo vomon. Tlo arcano procoduros of minulo-making and formuIaling roso-
Iulion and llo formaI modo of addross al lrado union moolings vouId bo quilo famiIiar
lo vomon, vlo may lavo found llom inlimidaling and daunling. Gordon, Wcmcn
.n! i|c I.ocur Mctcmcni in Scci|.n!, p. 110.
96
Soo aIso: KossIor-Harris, Oui ic Wcr|, Worlloimor, Wc Wcrc 1|crc, Ionor, Wcmcn
.n! i|c Amcric.n I.ocr Mctcmcni.
97
Gordon, Wcmcn .n! i|c I.ocur Mctcmcni in Scci|.n!, p. 108.
98
Maxino Sclvarlz SoIIor dopicls llis conlrasl bolvoon Soullorn IlaIian and Iasl-
Iuropoan }ovisl vomon in llo Unilod Slalos in Uprising of llo Tvonly Tlousand,
pp. 259 and 267.
99
Iragor, Iabour Hislory and llo InlorIocking Hiorarclios.
0,12,3 / -69
=0.+40+./5 ='#*0% #" 0'( 6"0(."/5 >(5/0#$"%'#:%
Tlo groving union domain ovonluaIIy croalos llroo inlorroIalod, slrucluraI
organizalionaI consoquoncos. IirslIy, llo inovilabIo incroaso in llo scaIo of
organizing nocossilalos groalor coordinalion of llo aclivilios of moro and
moro branclos and vork silos. Tlis coordinalion can bo acliovod in llroo
vays:
100
- Cc.|iiicns in vlicl smaII unions vork logollor .! |cc, bul romain indopond-
onl unils. Tlo coaIilions lavo no ovoraII aullorily, aII docisions boing mado
by lloir mombor organizalions.
- Ic!cr.iicns in vlicl individuaI unions rolain lloir ovn objoclivos, bul a
soparalo body providos for syslomalic consuIlalion among af!Iialod unions.
Tlo consuIlalivo body las no indopondonl docision-making aullorily, and
musl submil aII proposaIs lo llo af!Iialod unions for approvaI !rsl.
- Unii.r crg.niz.iicns: llo af!Iialod unions aro compIoloIy inlogralod in a
Iargor coordinaling organizalion rosponsibIo for llo gonoraI poIicy and
program of aII af!Iialos. Tlo oxlonl of conlraIizalion can vary vidoIy in
unilary organizalions. In somo silualions, Iovor branclos lavo a groal doaI
of aulonomy vill broadIy do!nod Iimils, vliIo in ollors llo conlraI Ioador-
slip conlroIs aII dolaiIs of llo organizalionaI procoss.
SocondIy, as conlroIIing llo domain bocomos moro dif!cuIl, fuII-limo union
of!ciaIs (profossionaIs) aro noodod lo supporl llo organizalion as a vloIo.
HisloricaIIy lloso profossionaIs lavo oflon boon rocruilod in a roIalivoIy
sponlanoous or .! |cc mannor. IossibIo candidalos incIudod llo aclivisl
vorkman brio"y !nancod by lis foIIovs as a 'doIogalo or llo viclimizod
slriko-Ioador or commilloo-mombor vlo conlinuod lo bo supporlod by lis
socioly.
101
IrofossionaIizalion may aIroady occur in roIalivoIy smaII unions.
In an organizalion vill lvo lundrod mombors, if oacl mombor conlribulos
0.5 porconl of lis or lor oarnings, onougl funds oxisl lo appoinl ono fuII-limo
of!ciaI.
100
My dislinclions aro simiIar lo Warron, InlororganizalionaI IioId, pp. 4045.
101
Turnor, 1r.!c Unicn Grcui|, p. 215.
-6: / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
Al Ioasl four faclors can promolo profossionaIizalion as llo union domain
oxpands:
- Tlo numocr c| ucr| siics villin llo domain, affocling llo numbor of conlacls
llal musl bo mainlainod and llo casoIoad of organizors.
- Tlo ccmmunic.iicn.| !isi.ncc bolvoon llo vork silos, i.o. llo amounl of limo
and onorgy roquirod lo mainlain conlacl among vorkors in llo domain.
102
- Tlo n.iurc c| ucr| siics, i.o. vlollor llo vork silos aro roIalivoIy pormanonl
(o.g. faclorios) or movo conslanlIy (o.g. conslruclion silos).
- Tlo rc|.iitc mcoi|ii c| i|c ucr|crs, i.o. llo froquoncy vill vlicl ompIoyoos
clango vork silos and/or ompIoyors across a corlain aroa.
To iIIuslralo, Roborl Max }ackson doscribos lov in Nov York Cily dur-
ing llo 1880s llo carponlors union confronlod a goograplicaIIy disporsod
induslry and conslanlIy clanging vork silos. Tlis silualion compIicalod llo
suporvision of cily-vido compIianco vill union ruIos. WaIking doIogalos
voro lloroforo appoinlod lo landIo llo probIom. Tloso profossionaIs (llo
!rsl ono bogan vork in 1883) conlinuousIy movod bolvoon vork silos lo
inspocl vorking condilions. Al !rsl, lloy onIy gallorod informalion aboul
non-compIianco by conlraclors or spocuIalors. Soon, lovovor, lloir dulios
oxpandod, lloy voro aullorizod lo organizo slrikos al silos vloro llo com-
missioning agonls vioIalod roguIalions. Irom lloro, lloir povor incroasod lo
llo poinl vloro lloy voro no Iongor conlroIIod by llo union mombors: Vory
soon lloir posilion as roving inlormodiarios aIIovod businoss agonls |i.o. llo
vaIking doIogalosj lo bocomo llo focaI poinl of Iabor conlracling. Tloy pos-
sossod a virluaIIy monopoIy ovor llo knovIodgo and conlacls noodod by boll
conlraclors sooking lands and journoymon sooking jobs. Ior simiIar roasons
102
Tvo oIomonls aro ossonliaI loro. On llo ono land, lloro is llo disporsion of vork
silos. Al ono oxlromo, aII vorkors from llo domain vork al llo samo pIaco and for llo
samo company. In llis caso disporsion is virluaIIy niI. Al llo ollor oxlromo, lloro is
lolaI fragmonlalion of llo vorkors in llo domain, for oxampIo bocauso lloy aII vork
from lomo moro or Ioss compIolo disporsion. On llo ollor land, moans of com-
municalion and lransporl aro roIovanl, sinco lloy dolormino llo dif!cuIly or oaso of
ovorcoming disporsion.
0,12,3 / -6;
lloy aIso bocamo llo Iinks for communicalion and cooporalion bolvoon llo
various buiIding lrados.
103

Higl momborslip lurnovor aIso causod profossionaIizalion. KIaus Scln-
lovon arguos llal, in oarIy lvonlioll conlury Gormany, llo appoinlmonl of
fuII-limo union of!ciaIs vas oxpIainod by slrong "uclualions in union mom-
borslip: Bocauso of llo ligl lurnovor in llo momborslip of organizalions,
llo oslabIislmonl and oxpansion of buroaucralic sysloms nocossilalod llo
appoinlmonl of paid of!ciaIs. In many union confodoralions and branclos,
lloy voro cruciaI for llo survivaI of llo IocaI claplors. As a slabIo, sollIod
nucIous, sucl of!ciaIs guaranlood conlinuily of rogionaI union oporalions,
and lloir organizalionaI oxporionco vas indisponsabIo for llo nov mombors
joining llo associalions ovory yoar.
104
TlirdIy, profossionaIizalion Ioads lo anonymizalion of roIalionslips villin
llo union. IarIy, smaII-scaIo unions oflon aIroady lad oIaboralo roguIa-
lions. Bul profossionaIizalion Ioads lo a doporsonaIizod syslom of ruIos, i.o.
a buroaucracy.
105
Tlo of!ciaI is lransformod from a commorciaI lravoIIor in
llo cIass slruggIo inlo an ompIoyoo oquippod vill loclnicaI knovIodgo.
106

IrofossionaIs aIso dovoIop lloir ovn sociaI dynamics, vlicl Amorican indus-
lriaI roIalions spociaIisl Goorgo Slrauss doscribos as foIIovs: llo goaIs of
many union of!cors aro roasonabIy cIoar: abovo aII lo prosorvo lloir jobs ( job
opporlunilios for dofoalod of!cors aro sIim) and, if possibIo, lo incroaso lloir
prosligo and incomo.
107
Tlis goaI dispIacomonl vas aIroady nolod by Roborl
MicloIs in llo oarIy lvonlioll conlury: ovory organ of llo coIIoclivily,
brougll inlo oxislonco llrougl llo nood for llo division of Iabour, croalos for
103
}ackson, Icrm.iicn c| Cr.|i I.ocr M.r|cis, p. 190. Soo aIso Slrauss, Businoss
Agonls in llo BuiIding Trados.
104
Sclnlovon, Govorksclaflsvaclslum, p. 32.
105
I am nol using llo lorm lrado-union buroaucracy loro in llo sonso of somo
Marxisl lloorolicians, vlo by do!nilion IaboI profossionaIs vorking for unions as
buroaucrals (o.g. MandoI, Pcucr .n! Mcnc, Claplor 2). Riclard Hyman rigllIy
nolos llal llo nolion of 'buroaucracy las somo lloorolicaI coloronco villin Wobo-
rian socioIogy, bul llo caroor slrucluro, aullorily pallorns and basos of Iogilimacy of
fuII-limo union of!ciaIdom boar IillIo roIalion lo Wobors 'idoaI lypo. Tlo lorm 'lrado
union buroaucral is lypicaIIy a dorogalory opillol rallor llan an aid lo scionli!c
anaIysis, insofar as il las any inlorprolalivo signi!canco il is lo impIy a ccmmcn silu-
alion sociaI, idooIogicaI, funclionaI among fuII-limo of!ciaIdom as a vloIo vlicl
difforonlialos llom radicaIIy from llo rosl of momborslip. Hyman, Brilisl Trado
Unionism, p. 73.
106
MicloIs, Pc|iiic.| P.riics, p. 301.
107
Slrauss, Issuos in Union Slrucluro, pp. 67.
-7. / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
ilsoIf, as soon as il bocomos consoIidalod, inlorosls pocuIiar lo ilsoIf. Tlo oxisl-
onco of lloso spociaI inlorosls invoIvos a nocossary con"icl vill llo inlorosls
of llo coIIoclivily. Nay, moro, sociaI slrala fuI!IIing pocuIiar funclions lond lo
bocomo isoIalod, lo produco organs !llod for llo dofonco of lloir ovn pocuIiar
inlorosls.
108

As llo union domain oxpands, llo omorging organizalionaI slrucluro can
lako ono of llroo main forms: a fodoralivo slrucluro, a doconlraIizod unilary
slrucluro, or a conlraIizod slrucluro. IrofossionaIizalion occurs in oacl of
llom. In Argonlina, llo Confodoracin do IorrocarriIoros, llo counlrys !rsl
nalionaIIy organizod induslriaI union, aIIovod llo branclos considorabIo
aulonomy and |. . .j suppIomonlod ils roprosonlalivo fodoraI slrucluro vill
provisions for roforonda on corlain mallors. Il mainlainod vill somo jusli-
!calion, llal organising slaff vlo mol daiIy in a singIo faclory or vorkslop
vas a good doaI oasior llan running a nalionaI union of divorso lrados, many
mombors of vlicl voro goograplicaIIy isoIalod.
109
Soymour Iipsol domon-
slralod llal llo in"uonco of profossionaIs in conlraIizod slrucluros nood nol
bo groalor llan in fodoraIizod slrucluros. Ho caIcuIalod llal in llo oarIy 1960s,
llo ralio of fuII-limo union of!ciaIs lo mombors in llo Unilod Slalos vas
1: 300, comparod vill 1: 900 in AuslraIia, 1: 2,000 in Brilain and 1: 2,200 in
Norvay. Amorican lrado unions voro far moro doconlraIizod llan lrado
unions in llo ollor counlrios. In llo Unilod Slalos, union moolings voro oflon
allondod oxcIusivoIy by paid of!ciaIs,
110
somolling inconcoivabIo in many
ollor counlrios. Buroaucralizalion of unions aIso clangos llo lypo of union
of!ciaIs. Tloso roprosonlalivos m. bo, bul aro nol aIvays, llo samo individu-
aIs as llo profossionaIs doscribod abovo. IrofossionaIs can aIso bo subordinalo
lo llo roprosonlalivos.
AIllougl profossionaIizalion is lloroforo quilo compalibIo vill fodoralivo
slrucluros, llis procoss nonolloIoss promolos llo lransilion lo unilary slruc-
luros, bocauso llo lransaclion cosls of a unilary organizalion aro proporlion-
aloIy Iovor. Aflor aII, llo principaI communicalions aro bolvoon llo branclos
and llo conlraI of!co, rallor llan among llo IocaI claplors.
111
DocompIoxi-
!calion of llo union domain coincidos vill llo disappoaranco of llo inlor-
108
MicloIs, Pc|iiic.| P.riics, p. 389.
109
110
Iipsol, Trado Unions and SociaI Slrucluro.
111
WiIIiamson, M.r|cis .n! Hicr.rc|ics.
0,12,3 / -74
naI dirocl domocracy, providod llal sucl a syslom acluaIIy oxisls. A groving
momborslip, disporsod across ovor moro vork silos vill Iargo communica-
lionaI dislancos from oacl ollor, virluaIIy procIudos roguIar docision-making
by aII mombors on aII mallors of imporlanco. InovilabIy, a syslom of roproson-
lalion viII omorgo, in vlicl llo rank and !Io codos aroas of aullorily, lom-
porariIy or pormanonlIy, lo oIoclod roprosonlalivos. Tlo moasuro of indirocl
in"uonco llal llo mombors rolain in llal caso viII dopond parlIy on llo oxlonl
lo vlicl llo profossionaIs aro oIoclod domocralicaIIy.
7$55(40#?( @/.-/#"#"-
Tlo coIIoclivo bargaining concopl (dovisod by llo Wobbs) is in facl llo
opposilo of individuaI bargaining. WliIo llo Iallor lorm rofors lo nogo-
lialions conduclod by in!iti!u.| ompIoyoos vill lloir ompIoyor, llo formor
rofors lo nogolialions invoIving a grcup of ompIoyoos. Vory broadIy spoaking,
ctcr vorkors coIIoclivo aclion invoIving nogolialions vill llo ompIoyor is
a form of coIIoclivo bargaining. OrdinariIy, lovovor, llo scopo of coIIoclivo
bargaining is roslriclod lo nogolialions by a group of ompIoyoos vill ono
or moro ompIoyors, vlicl cuIminalo in a coIIoclivo agroomonl a vrillon
or an informaI conlracl vlicl boll parlios agroo lo obsorvo for a spoci!c
poriod (o.g., a yoar), rogardIoss of vlollor llis conlracl is, or is nol, IogaIIy
onforcoabIo.
CoIIoclivo Iabor agroomonls aro roaclod onIy undor corlain condilions.
IirslIy, il may bo llal noillor llo ompIoyors nor llo unions can provaiI. Tako
for oxampIo llo caso of a singIo Iargo union nogolialing vill sovoraI ompIoy-
ors, villoul llo ompIoyors combining in ono roprosonlalivo organizalion.
Sucl a silualion is concoivabIo, if llo ompIoyors oxpocl llo cosls of forming a
coaIilion lo oxcood llo bono!ls. In sucl a caso, llo union may bo abIo lo slipu-
Ialo ils condilions uniIaloraIIy. ConvorsoIy, if an ompIoyor roaIizos lo can oas-
iIy villsland any union prossuro lo nogolialo, lo viII raroIy bo incIinod lo
nogolialo. In ollor vords, unions musl bo in a posilion lo llroalon lo induslriaI
aclion, lloy musl lavo a rocognizod pcicnii.| of povor, as a consoquonco of
vlicl concossions aro IikoIy lo bo mado nol bocauso mombors lavo slruck,
bul in ordor lo avoid a slriko.
112
GonoraIIy, lloroforo, a corlain pcucr o.|.ncc is
112
Offo and WiosonllaI, Tvo Iogics of CoIIoclivo Aclion, p. 216.
-7- / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
assumod lo oxisl bolvoon llo lvo parlios. SocondIy, ompIoyors musl bo viII-
ing lo surrondor al Ioasl a parl of lloir sovoroignly in llo oporaling ruIos of llo
!rm.
113
TlirdIy, unions do nol oxpocl a radicaI clango of llo baIanco of povor
in llo slorl lorm. IourllIy, llo nogolialing union lypicaIIy usos profossionaI
nogolialors. AIllougl coIIoclivo agroomonls can bo roaclod by dirocl-domo-
cralic unions in lloory, lloy aro mucl moro IikoIy lo bo acliovod by unions
vill fuII-limo of!ciaIs. Aflor aII, nogolialions for coIIoclivo agroomonls nor-
maIIy roquiro union nogolialors vlo aro avaiIabIo for vooks or monlls al a
limo, and vlo lavo suf!cionl oxporliso. GoraId Cromplons obsorvalion llal
coIIoclivo bargaining in Brilain Iod lo an incroaso in llo numbors and in"u-
onco of fuII-limo of!ciaIs con!rms llis llosis.
114
IifllIy, nogolialors for boll
sidos nood lo bo !rmIy in conlroI of lloir rank and !Io, lo onsuro llal aII koop
lo lloir sido of llo bargain vlon llo conlracl is signod.
115
IinaIIy, oxisling
IogaI and poIilicaI inslilulions slouId aIIov lrado unions suf!cionl froodom
lo oporalo.
116

On llo vloIo, rallor fov casos in vlicl ompIoyors and lrado unions aro
pilclod againsl oacl ollor mool .|| lloso criloria. Tlis is parl of llo oxpIana-
lion vly onIy a minor fraclion of llo vorIds Iabor forco vorks on llo basis of
coIIoclivo ompIoymonl agroomonls.
6"0(./40#$"% A#0' /+0'$.#0#(%
Oflon slalo aullorilios lry lo inlorvono in llo inlornaI affairs of llo unions. In
llo Torrilory of Iapua Nov Guinoa in llo 1960s, llo govornmonl insislod llal
oxisling unions slouId oslabIisl a fodoralion, bocauso a conlraI body vas
polonliaIIy a moro of!cionl parly lo lriparlilo procossos of llo infanl syslom
113
Tlo lorm sovoroignly is usod in Dorbor, Amcric.n |!c. c| |n!usiri.| Dcmccr.c,
Soclion III.
114
Cromplon, Issuos in Brilisl Trado Union Organizalion, p. 253.
115
SovoraI aullors nolo llal coIIoclivo bargaining can Ioad lo sovoro lonsions
bolvoon profossionaIs and llo rank and !Io. }oln IasIoll, for oxampIo, las vrillon:
Tlo nolion of conlracl impIios a rocognilion by llo union of ils rosponsibiIilios for llo
onforcomonl of llo agroomonl, vlicl somolimos pIacod ovon radicaI union Ioadorslip
in llo soomingIy anomaIous posilion of laving lo acl againsl ils ovn consliluoncy,
vlon llo conlracl vas vioIalod by llo mombors of llo rank and !Io. Tlus llo prico
vlicl llo union lad lo pay for llo bono!ls il rocoivod vas lo bocomo parl of llo pro-
duclivo syslom ilsoIf. IasIoll, I.ocr .n! i|c Ic|i, p. 297.
116
SlurmllaI, InduslriaI RoIalions Slralogios, pp. 910.
0,12,3 / -75
of conciIialion and arbilralion llan llo liny rogionaI vorkors associalions.
117

Wloro possibIo, poIilicaI parlios aIso lond lo uso lrado unions lo oxpand
or consoIidalo lloir sploro of in"uonco. Sucl parlios nood nol bo sociaIisl,
communisl, or Iaborisl, and may jusl as oasiIy ospouso Clrislian domocralic,
popuIisl, or sociaIIy conscious IiboraI principIos. In somo casos, parlios lavo
ovon oncouragod llo nalion-vido oslabIislmonl and conlraIizalion of lrado
unions, lo croalo nov oIocloraI volicIos.
118

ConvorsoIy, unions soon lavo lo lako a sland vill rospocl lo poIilicaI par-
lios and slalo inlorvonlion. Il may bo ono of condomnalion or rojoclion, as vill
anarclisl and rovoIulionary-syndicaIisl organizalions oxpIicilIy opposod lo
llo poIilicaI oslabIislmonl as sucl. AIlornalivoIy, llo sland may bo moro
favorabIo, and Ioad lo aclivo invoIvomonl by unions in llo poIilicaI procoss.
Unions may Iobby IocaI or conlraI aullorilios lo gol acls or roguIalions passod
vlicl forco ompIoyors lo adopl or slop corlain praclicos. Tlis slralogy is oflon
foIIovod onIy vlon ollor IogaI aclion is impossibIo, or insuf!cionlIy accos-
sibIo, or roquiros loo mucl limo or monoy.
If unions docido lo inlorvono by moans of poIilicaI aclion, lloy can pursuo
llroo kinds of approaclos. IirslIy, lloy can lako dirocl aclion llomsoIvos, for
oxampIo by submilling polilions lo llo aullorilios, organizing mass domon-
slralions, or slaging poIilicaI slrikos. SocondIy, lrado unions can slrongIy in"u-
onco imporlanl poIilicaI aclors. Somolimos cIoso lios bolvoon lrado unions and
poIilicaI parlios faciIilalo llis, as slovn by Iabor parlios or communisl parlios
in many Wosl-Iuropoan counlrios during llo Ialo ninoloonll and lvonlioll
conlurios. Il may incIudo Iobbying in poIilicaI circIos, and offorls lo convinco
union mombors lo volo for corlain poIilicaI parlios. In difforonl counlrios, aII
kinds of slralogios aro pursuod lo llis ond. Unions in llo Unilod Slalos loday
lry lo rogislor volors and provido rosourcos (monoy, slaff limo, voIunloors) for
llo campaigns of pro-union candidalos for fodoraI of!co.
119
TlirdIy, unions
may form lloir ovn poIilicaI parly, or lransform llomsoIvos inlo broador,
somi-poIilicaI organizalions. Iamous oxampIos incIudo llo Amorican Kniglls
of Iabor and llo IoIisl SoIidarno#$.
120
AIlornalivoIy, unions can oslabIisl
117
Hoss, Iapua Nov Guinoas Iirsl Ioak Union CounciI, p. 33.
118
CandIand, Trado Unionism and InduslriaI Roslrucluring, p. 70.
119
Irooman and Modoff, W|.i Dc Unicns Dc, pp. 1923.
120
Iink, Wcr|ingmcns Dcmccr.c, Claplor 2, Talur, Sc|i!.rnc!& .|s Mc!crnisicrungs-
ocucgung.
-76 / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
poIilicaI parlios llal vork vill llo unions as indopondonl organizalions.
Tlo oarIiosl oxampIos of sucl indopondonl organizalions voro probabIy llo
IocaI Working Mons Iarlios in IonnsyIvania and Nov York during llo 1820s
and 1830s. In llo Groal Doprossion (1870s90s), llo !rsl nalion-vido par-
lios oslabIislod by unions appoarod. Somolimos llo dofoal of a major slriko
causod llo formalion of a vorkors poIilicaI parly lo gain moro in"uonco. Tlis
lapponod for oxampIo in AuslraIia, vloro llo dofoal of llo Groal Slriko of
1890 appoars lo lavo boon llo singIo mosl imporlanl inspiralion for llo
oslabIislmonl of Iabor Iarlios during llo 1890s.
121
In ollor casos, llo origin of
vorkors parlios vas Ioss dramalic, sucl as in Svodon, vloro unions oslab-
Iislod llo SociaI Domocralic Workors Iarly in 1889.
122
Wlalovor courso unions clooso, slalo roguIalion of union affairs and grov-
ing invoIvomonl by unions in nalionaI poIilics acl as povorfuI slimuIi for
nalionvido union confodoralions. Sucl confodoralions may sorvo as vork-
ors roprosonlalivo boll vis--vis llo slalo, poIilicaI parlios and ompIoyors
confodoralions.
123
7("0./5#B/0#$"C @+.(/+4./0#B/0#$"C $::$%#0#$"
AIllougl coIIoclivo bargaining is conducivo lo profossionaIizalion of unions,
il doos nol .uicm.iic.|| Ioad lo a confodoralion. Horborl A. Turnor nolos llal
llo doconlraIizod |Brilislj collon unions producod llo ninoloonll conlurys
mosl oxlonsivo and oIaboralo bargaining syslom, and ils mosl of!cionl slriko
organizalion. Nor vas il ossonliaI lo poIilicaI aclion rallor llo rovorso,
sinco a moroIy fodoraI roIalionslip pormils groups vlicl aro unviIIing lo
morgo for ollor purposos lo associalo for parlicuIar IogisIalivo domands:
llo Minors Iodoralion of Groal Brilain vas probabIy llo mosl offoclivo
agoncy of poIilicaI prossuro llal any soclion of llo Brilisl vorkors las so far
121
Scalos, Ncu Ausir.|i., p. 76. Tlis inlorprolalion is aIso supporlod in Markoy,
AuslraIia, p. 595. Comparo aIso llo oslabIislmonl of llo Brilisl Indopondonl Iabour
Iarly in 1893, as an indirocl consoquonco of llo slrikos of 188990. On llal subjocl, soo
o.g. Hinlon, I.ocur .n! Scci.|ism, pp. 5775.
122
Simonson, Svodon, p. 96.
123
If lrado unions aro unabIo lo rovorso or clango corlain lronds llrougl dirocl con-
fronlalions vill ompIoyors or indiroclIy via llo slalo, lloy may vork vill fourll par-
lios in lloir ovn counlry (o.g. llo CalloIic Clurcl) or vill supra-nalionaI bodios (o.g.
llo InlornalionaI Iabor Organizalion in Gonova).
0,12,3 / -77
dovoIopod.
124
Unions may organizo lloir poIilicaI aclivilios llrougl fodoraI
and profossionaIizod clannoIs as voII.
AIllougl profossionaIizalion, coIIoclivo bargaining, and poIilicaI inlorvon-
lions aro lloroforo nol inirinsic.|| incompalibIo vill a fodoraI slrucluro, lloso
llroo procossos virluaIIy aIvays coincido vill organizalionaI conlraIizalion,
vlicl I inlorprol as llo vorlicaI dislribulion of povor boll formaI and infor-
maI among various union IovoIs, from fodoralions lo llo slop "oor.
125
Ono
possibIo oxpIanalion for llis coincidonco is llal fodoraIism roquiros slrongor
grass-rools parlicipalion llan conlraIism doos. Wlonovor rank and !Io in"u-
onco in llo organizalion diminislos for vlalovor roason, llo conlor onsur-
ing organizalionaI conlinuily viII inlorvono on bolaIf of llo absonl mombors.
And vlon inlornaI povor advancos lo a liglor IovoI in llo liorarcly as a
rosuIl, llis slifl is raroIy rovorsibIo. Irom llis porspoclivo, a slop lovard con-
lraIizalion is comparabIo lo oponing llo "oodgalos: oasy lo opon, bul virluaIIy
impossibIo lo slul aflorvards. In llo Iongor lorm, llo procoss is cumuIalivo:
llo lransilion from a fodoraI lo a conlraI slrucluro moro or Ioss inclos aIong.
Takao Malsumuras sludy of ninoloonll-conlury Brilisl "inl gIass makors
slovs lov surroplilious llo lransilion from fodoralion lo conlor can bo. Tlo
!rsl slop vas lo dosignalo ono of llo IocaI branclos of llo lrado union fod-
oralion as a gonoraI brancl, llrougl a volo among aII llo mombors. Tlo
claplor soIoclod vouId llon run llo onliro organizalion for llroo yoars. Aflor
llal poriod, llo gonoraI brancl migll lransfor lo anollor cily, and so on. Al
llo samo limo, a GonoraI Socrolary vas oIoclod iniliaIIy an unpaid of!ciaI.
As llo aclivilios of llo fodoralion oxpandod, lovovor, llis posilion bocamo
paid (profossionaI). Il bocamo apparonl llal il |vasj ullorIy impossibIo for
any ConlraI Socrolary vlo foIIov|odj lis vork as a gIass-makor lo koop sucl
a sol of books as |voroj kopl by ollor sociolios, and |voroj absoIuloIy nocos-
sary as a safoguard for llo Sociolys inlorosls |. . .j. Tlo posilion of pormanonl
socrolary, lovovor, provod dif!cuIl lo combino vill a goograplicaIIy mobiIo
load of!co: Wlo is lo pay for llo romoving of lis vifo, famiIy and furniluro`
Ho cannol do il oul of lis vagos, and il lakos a doaI of monoy lo lako a famiIy
from Birminglam lo GIasgov.
126
Tlis Iod lo prossuro lo sol up a pormanonl
124
Turnor, 1r.!c Unicn Grcui|, p. 215.
125
Slrauss, Issuos in Union Slrucluro, p. 24.
126
Quolod in Malsumura, I.ocur Arisiccr.c Rctisiic!, p. 90.
-78 / !"#$%&' )*&+&,
load of!co, and convorl llo fodoralion inlo a unilary slrucluro villin vlicl
diroclIy-domocralic docision-making conlinuod for somo limo. ConlraIizalion
aIso vory imporlanlIy onlaiIs llo lransfor of !nanciaI aullorily, vlicl may bo
a simiIarIy surroplilious procoss. Al !rsl, branclos lavo fuII conlroI ovor lloir
budgols, llon lloy slarl lo pay a conlribulion lo llo conlraI adminislralion,
and llis conlribulion graduaIIy incroasos lo llo poinl vloro llo conlor las
offoclivo conlroI.
127
As an organizalion grovs and bocomos moro conlraIizod, mombors Ioso
in"uonco in lov il is run. ConlraIizalion cIoarIy roducos opporlunilios for
individuaI mombors lo parlicipalo !ircci| in making koy docisions.
128
As
vill buroaucralizalion and anonymizalion, llis Ioss of in"uonco may mool
vill rosislanco. Undor a coIIoclivo agroomonl, llo union Ioadorslip las a
moraI (and somolimos a IogaI) obIigalion lo onsuro llal vorkors do nol go
on slriko, so Iong as ompIoyors compIy vill llo agroomonls mado. In somo
casos, lovovor, llo rank and !Io bocomo dissalis!od vill llo agroomonl and
vanl lo roopon nogolialions, ovon aIllougl llo lorm of llo agroomonl las nol
yol oxpirod. Tlis may Ioad lo a gonuino ui|!c.i siri|c, a slriko in vlicl llo
formaI union Ioadors lavo acluaIIy Iosl conlroI and llo slriko is Iod by indi-
viduaIs vloso posilion in llo formaI slrucluro doos nol proscribo sucl a roIo
for llom.
129
IvonluaIIy, nov unions may bo organizod vlicl cIaim lo lavo cIosor lios
vill llo rank and !Io mombors. In llo Unilod Slalos in llo 1940s and 50s,
many IocaI indopondonl unions voro foundod. Tloir momborslip grov from
162,000 in 1939 lo 709,000 in 1956. Tlo main causo of llis romarkabIo lrond
vas rogionaI vago difforonliaIs. NalionaI unions lriod lo slandardizo vagos
villin lloir jurisdiclions, bul vorkors in aroas vloro vagos oxcoodod llo
slandard ralos of pay voro incIinod lo arrango IocaIIy indopondonl roproson-
lalion, lo rolain lloir rogionaI advanlagos vlicl nalionaI unions sougll lo
127
Tlompson, Trado Union Organisalion, p. 166. Tlo rovorso vas aIso possibIo:
Il vas, lovovor, aImosl as common for doIogalos al congrossos lo aIIogo llal somo
brancl or ollor lad invonlod mombors and bumpod up ils subscriplions lomporariIy
lo incroaso ils onlilIomonl lo doIogalos. Again, llis vas ospociaIIy a foaluro of limos of
conlrovorsy |. . .j. (Ibid.)
128
Slrauss, Issuos in Union Slrucluro, p. 32.
129
GouIdnor, Wi|!c.i Siri|c, p. 93. AIlornalivoIy, llo union Ioadorslip may organizo
a pscu!c-ui|!c.i, vlicl is a slriko in vlicl llo formaI union Ioadors prolond lo lavo
IillIo conlroI ovor llo silualion, bul acluaIIy oxorl concoaIod in"uonco on ils courso.
(Ibid.)
0,12,3 / -79
oIiminalo.
130
Iikoviso, vorkors aiming lo rolain lloir skiII difforonliaIs, or lo
opposo conlraI aullorily on poIilicaI, ollnic, oconomic or roIigious grounds,
may objocl lo conlraIizalion. Tlis Ioads lo llo plonomonon of broakavay
unions vlicl spIil from llo nalionaI organizalion, or oporalo oulsido il.
So dospilo llo conslanl drivo lovard conlraIizalion, counlor-curronls can
aIso omorgo, rovorsing llo lrond al corlain crilicaI momonls in induslriaI
roIalions.
130
Troy, IocaI Indopondonl and NalionaI Unions, p. 489.
!"#$%&' )*&+,&
!"#$% '()*%(")'$("+',-
Tlo vords proIolarian and inlornalionaIism
voro nol usuaIIy joinod logollor in ono plraso unliI
llo Iirsl WorId War.
1
Sinco llal limo, llo oxpros-
sion proIolarian inlornalionaIism las oflon boon
abusod, juslifying opprossion and foroign miIilary
inlorvonlion by govornmonls in a vay vlicl roducos
llo vloIo idoa lo omply rloloric. If vo aro lo uso
llo concopl again loday in ils propor sonso, il sooms
advisabIo llal vo appIy il lo aclivilios from boIov,
oxcIuding llo aclivilios of govornmonls, bul incIud-
ing llo aulonomous aclivilios of subaIlorn vorkors
in fuII.
IroIolarian inlornalionaIism suggosls associa-
lions vill sociaIism and communism, and vill
offorls lo aboIisl vorId capilaIism. Consislonl vill
lloso connolalions, lloso vlo uso llo concopl lo
rofor lo vorkors aclivilios normaIIy moan i|c cc|-
|cciitc .ciicns c| . grcup c| ucr|crs in cnc ccunir u|c
sci .si!c i|cir s|cri-icrm inicrcsis .s . n.iicn.| grcup cn
oc|.|| c| . grcup c| ucr|crs in .nci|cr ccunir, in cr!cr ic
prcmcic i|cir |cng-icrm inicrcsis .s mcmocrs c| . ir.ns-
n.iicn.| c|.ss.
2
Inslancos of proIolarian inlornalion-
aIism in llis sonso lavo occurrod many limos. Tlo
1
Iriodomann and HIsclor, InlornalionaIo, InlornalionaI, InlornalionaIismus.
2
I am avaro of llo facl llal in Norll Amorica inlornalionaIism may aIso rofor lo
inlor-ollnic soIidarily in ono counlry. Tlis form of soIidarily is lovovor nol discussod
in llo prosonl claplor.
-./ 0 !"#$%&' )*&+,&
quoslion lovovor is vlollor any narrov inlorprolalion of llo concopl doos
roaI juslico lo llo inlornalionaIisl impuIso. Iirsl and foromosl, il faiIs lo oncom-
pass llo mosl numorous forms of cross-bordor vorkors soIidarily, aflor aII, in
addilion lo slralogic inlornalionaIism, lloro aro al Ioasl four ollor roasons
vly groups of vorkors in difforonl counlrios vouId joinlIy undorlako promo-
lion of lloir slarod inlorosls:
- |!cniii c| grcup inicrcsis in i|c s|cri icrm: Tlo Iiving and vorking condilions
of vorkors in lvo or moro counlrios clango in sucl a vay, llal lloir inlor-
osls bocomo moro or Ioss idonlicaI, giving riso lo llo possibiIily of a joinl
promolion of inlorosls. In sucl inslancos, lrado unions nood lo do no moro
llan 'lolaI up, as il voro, llo individuaI inlorosls invoIvod.
- |!cniii c| grcup inicrcsis in i|c |cngcr icrm: Workors in ono counlry supporl
llo inlorosls of vorkors in a vorso silualion oIsovloro, and forogo llo pros-
pocl of slorl-lorm succoss on lloir ovn, oxpocling llal lloy couId or vouId
ovonluaIIy !nd llomsoIvos in llo samo bad silualion. In llis caso, lloy lry
lo in"uonco llo improvomonl of llo silualion of foroign vorkors vlicl in
limo couId provo lo bo lloir ovn silualion.
- |n!ircci i!cniii c| grcup inicrcsis: Workors in ono counlry supporl improvo-
monl in llo posilion of vorkors in anollor counlry facing condilions info-
rior lo lloir ovn, bocauso sucl an improvomonl conslilulos a procondilion
for llo succossfuI promolion of lloir ovn inlorosls.
- Ncrm.iitc intc|tcmcni: Workors supporl foIIov vorkors abroad vloso
lroalmonl by llo slalo or by ompIoyors con"icls vill llo slandards of jus-
lico and doconcy lloy llomsoIvos uploId. No maloriaI inlorosls of lloir
ovn aro invoIvod loro. Humanilarian or poIilicaI considoralions may pIay
a parl, vliIo cuIluraI and roIigious in"uoncos (o.g. IsIam or Clrislianily)
may Iikoviso bo unifying faclors.
3
3
An imporlanl oxampIo vas llo soIidarily slovn by Brilisl and Ironcl vorkors
vill llo Norll during llo Amorican CiviI War. Aboul llo quoslion of lov oxlon-
sivo llis supporl roaIIy vas, opinions lavo difforod for a Iong limo. Soo on llis issuo:
Bornsloin, Opposilion of Ironcl Iabor, dA. }onos, Hislory of a Myll, GroonIoaf,
Brilisl Iabour Againsl Amorican SIavory, Harrison, Brilisl Iabour and llo Con-
fodoracy, Harrison, Brilisl Iabor and Amorican SIavory, Sanclon, Myll of Ironcl
Workor Supporl, Iark, IngIisl Workingmon and llo Amorican CiviI War, Wrigll,
Bradford and llo Amorican CiviI War.
1#23' 45%&'5#%435#+467 0 -.8
Normalivo invoIvomonl aIso croalos a Iink lo a furllor vidoning of llo
moro Iimilod concopl of inlornalionaIism. Workors may fooI soIidarily vill
groups llal aro nol primariIy concornod vill vorkors inlorosls, bul sook
lo acliovo ollor omancipalory goaIs. SoIidarily of llis kind can lako many
forms. IxampIos incIudo llo supporl givon by llo InlornalionaI Working
Mons Associalion (IWMA, Ialor aIso knovn as llo Iirsl InlornalionaI) lo
IoIands slruggIo for froodom aflor llo insurroclion of 1863, and simiIarIy
llal of AuslraIian and Indian Iongsloromon for Indonosias !gll for indopon-
donco in llo 1940s. Moroovor, normalivo invoIvomonl oncompassos Iong-
dislanco nalionaIism on an ollnic basis, as oxompIi!od by llo omolionaI
lios vill IroIand oxisling among Irisl vorkors in Norll Amorica.
4
Anollor
varianl is Ian-African soIidarily vlicl many African-Amoricans lavo foIl for
llo poopIo of sub-Salaran Africa sinco llo Socond WorId War, a soIidarily in
vlicl llo vorkors slruggIo las occasionaIIy pIayod an imporlanl parl.
5
IroIolarian inlornalionaIism in roaIily doscribos a moro pIuriform and
Ioss consislonl plonomonon llan is oflon supposod. Il aIso incIudos soIidarily
vill immigranl vorkors villin onos cun counlry. In llis claplor I aim lo
skolcl oul onIy llo Iong-lorm lronds in llo offorls of vorkors lo dovoIop crcss-
ocr!cr sc|i!.rii, focusing on ir.!c-unicn .ciitiiics. I bogin vill llo molivos
bolind sucl aclivilios, llon lraco difforonl plasos in llo dovoIopmonl of sucl
soIidarily from llo oarIy ninoloonll conlury up lo llo prosonl, and concIudo
vill a fov spocuIalivo romarks aboul llo conlury aload. Mucl of vlal I pro-
poso is lovovor basod onIy on incompIolo ovidonco. Rosoarcl inlo llo roaI
lislory of vorking-cIass inlornalionaIism is sliII in ils infancy, nolvillsland-
ing llo imporlanl advancos mado in roconl yoars.
6
. /%"--"% $0 -$)'1*,
Cross-bordor soIidarily may soom IogicaI, bul in praclico il is nol. Allompls
al inlornalionaIism aro invariabIy uncorlain, bocauso of llo opposilionaI
4
Andorson, Icng Disi.ncc N.iicn.|ism.
5
Von Isclon, R.cc Ag.insi |mpirc.
6
Sinco llo lisloriograply of lrado-union inlornalionaIism is far moro advancod llan
llo lisloriograply of llo vorId vorking cIass, I focus on llo dovoIopmonl of Iabor
organizalions loro. In llo Iongor lorm, lovovor, llal approacl slouId bo rovorsod, i.o.
llo dovoIopmonl of llo vorId vorking cIass viII lavo lo bocomo llo anaIylicaI back-
ground againsl vlicl lrado-union inlornalionaIism is anaIysod.
-.- 0 !"#$%&' )*&+,&
forcos aIso invoIvod. Tloro can bo many roasons for inlornalionaI coopora-
lion. Nov molivos lavo conlinuaIIy appoarod ovor llo yoars, and ollors
lavo fadod avay. Al Ioasl sovon main cccncmic molivos can bo dislinguislod.
Tloy aro:
- Ccunicring i|c impcri.iicn c| |crcign ccmpciiicrs. ImpIoyors rofusing IocaI
vorkors domands for liglor vagos or bollor vorking condilions can lry
lo allracl cloapor Iabor from ollor counlrios, proforabIy counlrios cIosoby.
Con"icls aboul llis issuo lavo oflon cryslaIIizod during slrikos. Grard Broy,
for oxampIo, doscribos lov buiIding conlraclors in Spanisl GaIicia brougll
in vorkors from norllorn IorlugaI lo broak slrikos in 1895. Iiglling back
in 1901, lrado unions in llo lvo counlrios sol up llo Unin GaIaico-Iorlu-
guoso, vlicl organizod soIidarily so offoclivoIy llal llo buiIding conlrac-
lors sloppod rocruiling unorganizod Iorluguoso Iabor aflor 1904. Tlo union
vas subsoquonlIy dissoIvod.
7
- Crc.iing insiiiuiicn.| .rr.ngcmcnis |cr ir.nsn.iicn.| |.ocr circu|.iicn, vlicl
invoIvos mainIy skiIIod and liglIy-skiIIod vorkors sooking vork in ollor
counlrios. In llo ninoloonll conlury, Iuropoan gIovors for oxampIo pIiod
lloir lrado in an inlornalionaI Iabor markol conconlralod in cilios Iiko
GronobIo, Iraguo, BrussoIs and NapIos. Ior various roasons, somo voro
ilinoranl, lravoIIing from pIaco lo pIaco in soarcl of vork. Bocauso lloso
liglIy-skiIIod vorkors numborod no moro llan a fov llousand across llo
vloIo of Iuropo, lloy voro abIo lo sol up lrado unions al quilo an oarIy
dalo, and lo gain in"uonco among gIovors arriving from ollor counlrios. As
oarIy as 1871, llo Vionna gIovors union oslabIislod conlacl vill lloir Gor-
man counlorparl, and somovlal Ialor vill simiIar organizalions in Iraguo
and Scandinavia.
8
- Ccnirc| c| crcss-ocr!cr |.ocr prcccsscs. Somo groups of lransporl vorkors (o.g.
soamon) lravoI conslanlIy from ono counlry lo anollor, and aro lloroforo
organizod on a muIlinalionaI basis aIroady. Il foIIovs llal coIIoclivo aclivi-
lios roIaling lo lloir vorking condilions slraigllavay lavo a lransnalionaI
dimonsion. Il is in llis soclion of llo vorking cIass llal cross-bordor soIi-
7
Broy, Uno lonlalivo dinlornalionaIismo concrol.
8
Doinlardl, Dio inlornalionaIon Boziolungon dor Govorksclaflon, p. 837, and
moro gonoraI, Ioguo, 'Da bIov jog svond og s log jog p vaIson.
1#23' 45%&'5#%435#+467 0 -.9
darily las Iong boon roIalivoIy liglIy dovoIopod. Tlus llo InlornalionaI
Transporl Workors Iodoralion las froquonlIy pIayod a Ioading roIo in
lransnalionaI coIIoclivo aclion.
9
- Rc!ucing ccmpciiiicn ociuccn ucr|crs in i|c s.mc in!usirics in !i||crcni ccun-
irics. In llo oarIy 1990s, llo Amorican Unilod IIoclricaI Workors (UI) bogan
lo vork logollor vill llo Moxican-basod Aullonlic Workors Ironl. A UI
roprosonlalivo oxpIainod llo movo in an inlorviov: Wo Iosl somolling Iiko
15,000 mombors in llo Iasl fov yoars, llis is a Iargo amounl for a union of
our sizo. Wo lad lo incroasingIy faco companios comparing our vagos lo
lloso in Moxico during nogolialions. Tlon il bocamo cIoar lo us vo jusl do
nol vanl Moxicans lo oarn moro, or llal vo fooI sorry for llom. Wo roaIizod
llal if Moxican vagos did nol como up, ours voro going dovn fasl. Il vas
in our unions soIf-inlorosl lo lry lo raiso slandards of Iiving in Moxico.
10

Tlo samo roasoning promplod llo 1950s docision of llo Unilod SlooI Work-
ors of Amorica lo supporl llo }amaican bauxilo minors in lloir organiza-
lionaI offorls.
11
- Icooing inicrn.iicn.| crg.niz.iicns. Sinco 1919, vlon Woslorn counlrios
rospondod lo llo BoIslovik llroal by oslabIisling llo InlornalionaI Iabor
Organizalion, a subslanliaI parl of llo inlornalionaI lrado union movomonl
las sougll lo in"uonco llis lriparlilo organizalions formuIalion of inlor-
nalionaI Iabor slandards.
12
Wlon Iuropoan uni!calion bogan lo lako slapo
in llo 1960s, Iuropoan lrado unions inlonsi!od lloir cooporalion, lo onabIo
llom lo in"uonco llo nov poIicy al llo liglosl IovoIs.
13
- 1|c prcmciicn c| inicrcsis uii|in mu|iin.iicn.| ccrpcr.iicns. In llo courso of llo
lvonlioll conlury, an incroasing numbor of corporalions oslabIislod llom-
soIvos in sovoraI or many difforonl counlrios. Tlis moanl llal vorkors in a
numbor of counlrios voro offoclivoIy undor llo samo managomonl, vlicl
9
Simon, |nicrn.iicn.|c 1r.nspcri.rociicr-Ic!cr.iicn, RoinaIda, |nicrn.iicn.| 1r.ns-
pcriucr|crs Ic!cr.iicn, Kocl-Baumgarlon, Gcucr|sc|.|isinicrn.iicn.|ismus.
10
Armbruslor, Cross-NalionaI Iabor Organizing Slralogios, p. 84.
11
Harrod, 1r.!c Unicn Icrcign Pc|ic, pp. 32930.
12
van dor Iindon, |nicrn.iicn.| Ccn|c!cr.iicn c| Ircc 1r.!c Unicns.
13
IIsnor, |WG, IIalzor, Gcucr|sc|.|ispc|iii| c|nc Grcnzcn, IorloIIi, Confdralion
Iuroponno dos Syndicals, WindmuIIor, Iuropoan RogionaI Organizalions.
-.: 0 !"#$%&' )*&+,&
caIIod for cross-bordor cooporalion. Tlo rosuIl, ospociaIIy from llo 1960s
onvard, vas llo omorgonco of muIlinalionaI coIIoclivo bargaining.
14
- 1|c cxc|.ngc c| in|crm.iicn. Trado union of!ciaIs lavo Iong rocognizod llo
nood for insigll inlo llo dovoIopmonl of vagos and pricos, Iabor IogisIalion,
olc. in ollor counlrios. As llo numbor and sizo of muIlinalionaI corporalions
grov, llo nood for dala on corporalo poIicios foIIovod. Tlo InlornalionaI
MolaIvorkors Iodoralion, for inslanco, mainlains !Ios on moro llan 500
muIlinalionaI companios. Sucl informalion las provon parlicuIarIy vaIu-
abIo lo IMI af!Iialos sooking lo impIomonl campaigns (incroasingIy gIobaI
in oxlonl) againsl corporalions.
15
In addilion lo cccncmic molivos, inlornalionaI cooporalion may lavo a pc|iiic.|
background as voII. As a ruIo, llis lakos llo form of coIIoclivo aclion aimod
al promoling or opposing a parlicuIar poIilicaI modoI. IoIilicaI aclion of
llis kind may bo unconnoclod vill slalos. Il occurrod froquonlIy bolvoon
1917 and 1921, a poriod vlicl vilnossod a vorId-vido upsurgo of aclions
originaling nol so mucl from slorl-lorm soIf-inlorosl, bul from a dosiro lo
bring aboul a nov and jusl sociaI ordor.
16
SimiIar oxampIos aro llo inlorna-
lionaI soIidarily vill RopubIican forcos in llo Spanisl CiviI War, and llo
inlornalionaI opposilion lo aparlloid in Soull Africa. Al llo samo limo, lrado
unions somolimos idonli!od vill a parlicuIar slalo, so llal lloir inlornalionaI
aclivilios voro incorporalod inlo llo foroign poIicy pursuod by llal slalo,
and sorvod primariIy lo furllor slalo inlorosls, as oxompIi!od by llo Rod
InlornalionaI of Iabor Unions (192137), vlicl quickIy bocamo an inslru-
monl of Soviol foroign poIicy.
17
ConvorsoIy, for a Iargo parl of llo lvonlioll
conlury llo Amorican Iodoralion of Iabor (and Ialor llo AII-CIO) vas a
IoyaI parlnor of llo US Govornmonl, bonl on prosoIylizing anli-communism
llrougloul llo vorId.
18

14
Barnoll and MuIIor, G|co.| Rc.c|, pp. 3129, Bondinor, |nicrn.iicn.| I.ocur A||.irs,
Cox, Iabor and TransnalionaI RoIalions.
15
Horod, Iabor as an Agonl of GIobaIizalion , p. 183.
16
Wrnor, RoIIo dos IGB, Tlorpo, 1|c Wcr|crs 1|cmsc|tcs.
17
Toslorff , Prc!nicrn.
18
Radosl, Amcric.n I.ocr .n! Uniic! Si.ics Icrcign Pc|ic, Carov, Amorican Iabor
Movomonl in IizzIand, Walors }r. And DanioIs, Wlon Youro Handod Monoy on a
IIallor.
1#23' 45%&'5#%435#+467 0 -.;
AII in aII, llo roasons vly vorkors succood in organizing inlornalionaI
soIidarily rango across a vido spoclrum. Hovovor, lloy do lond lo bo of an
oconomic naluro, and lonco roIalo lo slorl-lorm inlorosls. Tloro aro aIso silua-
lions in vlicl Iong-lorm inlorosls aro llo dominanl faclor, ospociaIIy in limos
of a cIoarIy visibIo, inlonsi!od slruggIo bolvoon sociaI cIassos inlornalionaIIy.
In praclico, llo various molivos can of courso ovorIap, bIurring llo dislinc-
lions bolvoon difforonl oxprossions of inlornalionaIism.
Tloro aro aIso many possibIo roasons vly vorkors in spoci!c silualions do
nci visl lo form inlornalionaI lios vill ollor vorkors. Tloso roasons can bo
oconomic, poIilicaI or cuIluraI. In llo oconomic sploro, ccmmc!ii c|.ins aro a
caso in poinl. Wlon a group of vorkors procossos or dislribulos a producl llal
las boon procossod or dislribulod by anollor group al a provious slago, llo
Ialor group may bono!l if llo oarIior group is paid a Iov vago. Tlo Ioss
llo Iallor oarn, llo Iovor viII bo llo prico of llo producl, and llo groalor llo
clanco llal il viII !nd a roady markol. Tlus, if vago risos abroad raiso IocaI
pricos, il may acluaIIy disadvanlago vorkors IocaIIy. Tlo pc|iiic.| cricni.iicn of
lrado unions can aIso impodo corlain forms of cross-bordor cooporalion. Ior
docados, llo idooIogy of froo lrado unionism ospousod by llo AII-CIO and
llo InlornalionaI Confodoralion of Iroo Trado Unions ruIod oul aII possibiIily
of cooporalion vill communisl lrado unions. IinaIIy, cooporalion bolvoon
lrado unions can aIso bo lamporod by cu|iur.|-i!cc|cgic.| in"ucnccs sucl as
racism, nalionaIism or roIigion.
InlornalionaIisl sonlimonls aro oflon ambivaIonl. Anli-communism, for
oxampIo, vas conducivo lo somo forms of inlornalionaI cooporalion, bul
obslruclod ollors. Moroovor, inlornalionaI cooporalion is oflon onaclod onIy
vlon llo moans avaiIabIo al llo nalionaI IovoI aro inadoqualo. A lypicaI
oxampIo is llal of llo Unilod Slalos vindov-gIass vorkors in llo 1880s, as
doscribod al llo limo by T.V. IovdorIy, llo Ioador of llo Kniglls of Iabor:
In 1883 manufaclurors of vindov gIass onlorod inlo an agroomonl lo imporl
foroign vorkmon lo lako llo pIacos of Amorican gIass-bIovors. IocaI Assom-
bIy No. 300 of llo Kniglls of Iabor lad roaclod a slago in organizalion vlicl
approaclod noaror lo porfoclion llan any ollor associalion of vorkingmon
in Amorica. |. . . Tloj manufaclurors bocamo dosirous of ovorllroving llo
povor of IocaI AssombIy No. 300, so llal lloy migll socuro llo assislanco
of cloapor vorkmon from abroad, and llrougl llo prosonco in llis coun-
lry of moro gIass-bIovors llan couId !nd ompIoymonl, lloy lopod lo rondor
-.. 0 !"#$%&' )*&+,&
llo roduclion of vagos a lask vlicl vouId bo oasy of accompIislmonl.
19

I.A. 300 fougll back vill a duaI slralogy: il sol aboul bIocking llo imporla-
lion of skiIIod gIaziors by poIilicaI moans, bringing prossuro lo boar on llo
Sonalo and llo Congross, and al llo samo limo diroclod offorls lo llo sourco,
sonding omissarios lo Iuropo lo porsuado foIIov vorkors lloro of llo impro-
prioly of lloir aclions. Tlo !rsl parl of lloir slralogy vas rovardod vill suc-
coss in 1885, vlon llo US Sonalo passod llo Ioran Acl prolibiling llo imporl
of conlracl Iabor. Tlis rondorod llo socond parl of llo slralogy supor"uous,
and llo organizalion soon rocaIIod ils roprosonlalivos from Iuropo.
In roconslrucling llo lisloricaI dovoIopmonl of proIolarian inlornalionaI-
ism, vo slouId bo avaro llal vo aro doaIing vill compIicalod, ovor clanging
causaI con!guralions. In oacl nov lisloricaI opocl, difforonl combinalions of
faclors aro imporlanl, as I viII skolcl oul in vlal foIIovs.
2'1* 3)"4*, $0 5*1*+$6-*()
Iirsi si.gc. i|c |.ocr mctcmcni !c!ncs iisc|| (prc-1848. In llo !rsl laIf of llo
ninoloonll conlury, somo liglIy-skiIIod vago-oarnors in llo Norll-AlIanlic
rogion graduaIIy acquirod a consciousnoss llal lloy formod a soparalo cIass
vill ils ovn lisloric mission, llal lloy porsoni!od loclnoIogicaI and sociaI
progross vliIo llo groalor parl of llo Iovor cIassos vas roaclionary, and dos-
linod for uIlimalo coIIapso. To approcialo llo fuII signi!canco of llis nov idoa,
ono noods lo roaIizo llal llo concopls of proIolarial and vorking cIass
voro originaIIy by no moans idonlicaI. Tlo proIolarial originaIIy moanl llo
oslalo of poopIo villoul proporly, boyond lonor.
20
Wagod vorkors voro onIy
a p.ri of llis amorplous mass. According lo llo Ironcl nobIoman AdoIplo
Granior do Cassagnac, vriling in llo 1830s, llo proIolarial vas llo Iovosl
rank, llo dooposl slralum of socioly comprising four groups: llo vorkors,
llo boggars, llo lliovos and pubIic vomon: Tlo vorkor is a proIolarian,
bocauso lo vorks in ordor lo Iivo and oarns a vago, llo boggar is a proIo-
larian, vlo doos nol vanl lo vork or cannol vork, and bogs in ordor lo
Iivo, llo lliof is a proIolarian, vlo doos nol vanl lo vork or bog, and, in
19
IovdorIy, 1|iri Yc.rs c| I.ocr, p. 442, Barkor, G|.ssm.|crs, pp. 17980, Irickson,
Amcric.n |n!usir .n! i|c |urcpc.n |mmigr.ni, pp. 14558, IoIIing, Kniglls of Iabor
in Brilain.
20
Conzo, IroIolarial, IboI, Iauporismus, p. 41.
1#23' 45%&'5#%435#+467 0 -.<
ordor lo mako a Iiving, sloaIs, llo proslilulo is a proIolarian, vlo noillor
vanls lo vork, nor bog, nor sloaI, and, in ordor lo Iivo, soIIs lor body.
21

Somo yoars Ialor, Hoinricl WiIloIm Bonson dislinguislod sovon calogorios
of proIolarians: aparl from llroo groups of vorkors lo aIso nolod llo poor,
vlo aro borofl of supporl from llo pubIic purso, |. . .j llo common soIdiors,
|. . .j gypsios, proslilulos, bandils olc. and llo smaII sorvanls of roIigious
and socuIar origin.
22
As capilaIisl roIalions cryslaIIizod moro and moro, llo dosiro aroso among
rospoclabIo vorkors lo dislinguisl llomsoIvos from llo rosl of llo proIo-
larial. Tlo Communisl Ioaguo cIoarIy arlicuIalod llis in ils M.ni|csic, pIac-
ing llo modorn vorking cIass llo proIolarians
23
bolvoon lvo sociaI slrala
vlicl il considorod lo bo doomod in llo capilaIisl procoss of sociaI poIariza-
lion: llo polly bourgooisio and llo IumponproIolarial.
Of aII llo cIassos llal sland faco lo faco vill llo bourgooisio loday, llo
proIolarial aIono is a roaIIy rovoIulionary cIass. Tlo ollor cIassos docay and
!naIIy disappoar in llo faco of modorn induslry. |. . .j Tlo Iovor middIo
cIass, llo smaII manufacluror, llo slopkoopor, llo arlisan, llo poasanl, aII
lloso !gll againsl llo bourgooisio, lo savo from oxlinclion lloir oxislonco
as fraclions of llo middIo cIass. Tloy aro lloroforo nol rovoIulionary, bul
consorvalivo |. . .j. If by clanco lloy aro rovoIulionary, lloy aro so onIy in
viov of lloir imponding lransfor inlo llo proIolarial, |. . .j lloy dosorl lloir
ovn slandpoinl lo pIaco llomsoIvos al llal of llo proIolarial. Tlo 'dangorous
cIass, llo sociaI scum, llal passivoIy rolling mass llrovn off by llo Iovosl
Iayors of oId socioly, may, loro and lloro, bo svopl inlo llo movomonl by
a proIolarian rovoIulion, ils condilions of Iifo, lovovor, proparo il far moro
for llo parl of a bribod looI of roaclionary inlriguo.
24

HisloricaIIy, llo moaning of llo concopl vorking cIass vas markod off
in llroo vays: from llo polly bourgooisio, from llo IumponproIolarial, and
from llo unfroo vorkors. AII llroo boundarios voro moroovor gondorod llo
vorking cIass boing in principIo concoivod as comprising m.|c broadvin-
nors. Il Iod lo a sloroolypo vlicl dominalod llo inloIIocluaI roprosonlalion
21
Granior do Cassagnac, Hisicirc !cs c|.sscs cutricrcs, p. 30.
22
Bonson, Prc|ci.ricr, p. 344.
23
24
Ibid., p. 77.
-.= 0 !"#$%&' )*&+,&
of llo vorkors movomonl for voII ovor a conlury. Iorcoplivo obsorvors
aIroady knov oarIy on llal llo roaI vorkors movomonls of llo day did nol
consisl onIy (or indood consislod al aII) of llo puro vorkors porlrayod in
llo Communisl Manifoslo, bul a vory Iong limo passod boforo llis insigll
Iod lo any nov concIusions. Tlo mainslroam of llo omorging Iabor movo-
monls in Woslorn Iuropo ovoIvod a soIf-imago conducivo lo lloir inlornaI
colosion, aIllougl in roaIily llis moanl llo oxcIusion of Iargo parls of llo
roaI proIolarial. Il vas an imago vlicl prodominalod unliI llo Ialo lvonlioll
conlury.
Scccn! si.gc. suo-n.iicn.| inicrn.iicn.|ism (1848180s
Tlo !rsl signi!canl oxprossions of consciousIy organizod inlornalionaIism
occurrod in Iondon, llo main conlro of vorId capilaIism during llo Ionglly
poriod of oconomic grovll from llo Ialo 1840s lo llo oarIy 1870s. SlorlIy
boforo llal limo, in llo 1830s, a fov groups of liglIy skiIIod IngIisl vork-
ors lad aIroady slovn an inlorosl in dovoIopmonls abroad. Ono of llo !rsl
vrillon oxprossions of vorkors inlornalionaIism vas a documonl ondorsod
by WiIIiam Iovolls Working Mons Associalion, dalod 1 Novombor 1836.
In llis documonl, A!!rcss ic i|c Bc|gi.n Wcr|ing C|.sscs, llo WMA slalod ils
conviclion llal our inlorosls nay, llo inlorosls of vorking mon in aII coun-
lrios of llo vorId aro idonli!od. Tlo BoIgian brollron voro advisod lo
form, if possibIo, a union vill counlrios around you bocauso a fodoralion
of llo vorking cIassos of BoIgium, HoIIand and llo Irovincos of llo Rlino
vouId form an admirabIo domocracy.
25
Tlis inlorosl inlonsi!od aflor llo uprisings of 1848, producing a numbor of
smaII organizalions vill a muIlinalionaI momborslip, sucl as llo Iralor-
naI Domocrals and llo Communislisclo Arboilor-BiIdungs-Voroin (Com-
munisl Associalion for llo Iducalion of Working Mon), vlicl Iallor counlod
many non-Gormans amongsl ils mombors.
26
A paraIIoI dovoIopmonl vas llo
provision of inlornalionaI aid for vorkors slrikos, nolabIy bolvoon IngIand
and llo Conlinonl. Tlis aid gonoraIIy look lvo forms:
25
Iolning, Ircm Bucn.rrcii ic B.|unin, pp. 2104.
26
Iallok, Boginnings of SociaIisl InlornalionaIism, idom, Rctc|uiicn.r Rc|ugccs.
1#23' 45%&'5#%435#+467 0 -.>
- Iin.nci.| .i! |cr siri|cs in ci|cr ccunirics, oillor inlra-occupalionaI in llo
sonso of supporl for vorkors in llo samo occupalion, or vidor in scopo. Tlo
!rsl varianl sooms lo lavo boon llo moro froquonl. In 1852, and again in
1862, llo Iondon Socioly of Composilors sonl funds lo a sislor organizalion
in Iaris, and Iaris conslruclion vorkors aidod lloir Iondon counlorparls in
1860. SlorlIy boforo llo oslabIislmonl of llo IWMA, llo pollors of Iimogos
appoaIod for loIp lo pollors in Slaffordsliro.
27
In llo 1850s, lloro voro ovon
allompls lo pubIisl biIinguaI lrado journaIs, sucl as llo prinlors Guicnocrg
and llo sloomakors |nnct.icr.
28
- Oppcsiiicn ic i|c usc c| siri|c-orc.|crs o cmp|ccrs. During sovoraI slrikos
in llo ninoloonll conlury, Brilisl ompIoyors lriod lo rocruil slriko-broak-
ors from llo Conlinonl, for oxampIo in llo slrikos by lin-pIalo vorkors
in WoIvorlamplon in 1851 and Birminglam in 1853, and gas-slokors, bak-
ors, cigar-makors, laiIors and pianoforlo-makors in Iondon.
29
In somo
casos lloir offorls voro succossfuIIy foiIod. Tlo Iondon lypo-foundors on
slriko in 1850 appoaIod lo llo Iaris socioly, vlo agrood lo slop mon boing
rocruilod, and circuIarizod aII lypo-foundrios in Iranco, Gormany, BoIgium,
llo NollorIands, and SvilzorIand lo llis offocl.
30
Tlo oslabIislmonl of llo Iirsl InlornalionaI (llo InlornalionaI Working Mons
Associalion, or IWMA) vas lo somo oxlonl an oulgrovll of llis dovoIop-
monl. In 1863, a numbor of IngIisl lrado unionisls drov up an addross, 1c
i|c Wcr|mcn c| Ir.ncc |rcm i|c Wcr|ing Mcn c| |ng|.n!, vlicl conlainod llo
foIIoving slalomonl:
A fralornily of poopIos is liglIy nocossary for llo causo of Iabour, for vo
!nd llal vlonovor vo allompl lo bollor our sociaI condilions by roducing
llo lours of loiI, or by raising llo prico of Iabour, our ompIoyors llroalon
us vill bringing ovor Ironclmon, Gormans, BoIgians, and ollors lo do our
vork al a roducod ralo of vagos, and vo aro sorry lo say llal llis las boon
dono, llougl nol from any dosiro on llo parl of our conlinonlaI brollron
lo injuro us, bul llrougl a vanl of roguIar and syslomalic communicalions
27
Morriman, Rc! Cii, pp. 1124.
28
Irolloro, R.!ic.| Ariis.ns, p. 116.
29
Ibid.
30
Ibid.
-</ 0 !"#$%&' )*&+,&
bolvoon llo induslrious cIassos of aII counlrios, vlicl vo lopo lo soo
spoodiIy offoclod, as our principIo is lo bring up llo vagos of llo iII-paid
lo as noar a IovoI as possibIo vill llal of lloso vlo aro bollor romunoralod,
and nol lo aIIov our ompIoyors lo pIay us off ono againsl llo ollor, and so
drag us dovn lo llo Iovosl possibIo condilion, suilabIo lo lloir avaricious
bargaining.
31
Iigll monlls Ialor, llo oxislonco of llo IWMA vas a facl. Ils !rsl pioco of
aclivism concornod an allompl al slriko-broaking in 1866. In ApriI of llal
yoar, llo Iondon laiIors organizod llomsoIvos, domanding a vago incroaso
of a ponny an lour. Tlo ompIoyors rospondod vill a Iock-oul, and lriod lo
rocruil slriko-broakors in Gormany, vlicl lloy lad dono on provious occa-
sions. Tlo IWMA loIpod lo bIock lloir offorls in Hamburg and BorIin, llus
conlribuling lo llo succossfuI oulcomo of llo laiIors aclion.
32
Il is imporlanl lo nolo llal aII cross-bordor soIidarily in lloso casos vas al
a suo-n.iicn.| IovoI. Bocauso no nalionaI lrado unions as yol oxislod, inlorna-
lionaI conlacls voro aIvays bolvoon IocaI organizalions in difforonl coun-
lrios. Il vas in facl a sub-nalionaI inlornalionaIism.
1|ir! si.gc. ir.nsiiicn (180s90s
In llo oarIy 1870s, llo provious form of coIIoclivo aclion facod incroasing dif-
!cuIlios. IirslIy, Brilisl lrado unions voro graduaIIy managing lo consoIidalo
lloir oporalions al llo nalionaI IovoI as voII. Boginning vill llo founda-
lion of llo AmaIgamalod Socioly of Inginoors in 1851, amaIgamalod union-
ism slrodo forvard. In llo Ioading induslriaI cilios of GIasgov, Slof!oId,
IivorpooI, Idinburgl, olc., and in Iondon, pormanonl Trado CounciIs voro
oslabIislod bolvoon 1858 and 1867, vlicl in lurn Iod lo llo foundalion of llo
Trados Union CounciI (TUC) in 1868. Al aboul llo samo limo and villin
llo framovork of llo inlogralion of llo vorking cIass in bourgoois socioly,
llo Iabor movomonl gainod somo govornmonl rocognilion. Tlo francliso vas
oxlondod by llo Roform Acl of 1867, llo Trado Union Acl, improving llo
IogaI slalus of llo unions, vas in forco from 1871, foIIovod by an Amonding
Acl in 1876. Tlo ovoraII offocl provod dolrimonlaI lo an aclivo Brilisl inlor-
31
Bcc|itc, Docombor 5, 1863.
32
Irolloro, R.!ic.| Ariis.ns, p. 116.
1#23' 45%&'5#%435#+467 0 -<8
osl in llo IWMA, vlicl by aboul 1870 bocamo Iukovarm anyvay.
33
In ollor
Norll AlIanlic counlrios, llo procoss of nalionaI consoIidalion conlinuod, bo
il vill somo doIay. Aflor SvilzorIand and Canada, mosl ollor counlrios in
llo rogion foIIovod villin a fov docados (TabIo 12.1).
TabIo 12.1
Iounding yoars of somo nalionaI lrado-union confodoralions
1868 Groal Brilain 1898 Svodon
1880 SvilzorIand Donmark
1883 Canada Hungary
1886 USA BoIgium
1888 Spain 1903 Sorbia
1890 Gormany 1904 BuIgaria
1893 Auslria 1906 Tlo NollorIands
Tlo NollorIands IlaIy
1895 Iranco Romania
1897 Czocl Iands 1907 IinIand
1911 Grooco
Anollor claIIongo in llo oarIy 1870s vas a rovorsaI of llo upvard lrond of
capilaIism, inauguring an ora of sIovor oconomic grovll. Tlo foIIoving yoars
up lo aboul 1895 can bo doscribod as a poriod of rolardod oconomic grovll,
slagnalion and rocossion. A dovnlurn appoarod in llo dovoIopmonl of llo
Brilisl oconomy, llo Gorman and Amorican oconomios voro in a sovoro cri-
sis, llo Ironcl oconomy of llo 'oigllios vas aIso in sorious lroubIo. Aflor llo
Iranco-Irussian War of 187071 llo vorking cIassos moroovor onlorod inlo a
cIosor roIalionslip vill lloir nalionaI govornmonls. Tlo inlrusion of a nalion-
aIisl and clauvinisl alliludo among ovor-oxpanding sociaI slrala of vorkors
vas lo a Iargo oxlonl llo rosuIl of a conscious inlogralion poIicy oxprossod
in primary oducalion, miIilary sorvico, pubIic coromonios, mass produclion of
pubIic monumonls, olc. vlicl, of courso, appoaIod lo corlain dosiros of llo
vorking cIassos.
34
33
Tlo momborslip of af!Iialod Brilisl lrado unions novor roaclod moro llan
aboul 50,000, possibIy Ioss, oul of a lolaI lrado-union momborslip al llo limo of por-
laps 800,000. Tlo unions vlicl joinod, sucl as llo brickIayors, laiIors, sloomakors,
cabinolmakors olc., voro moslIy in docIining or vuInorabIo landicrafl lrados, mainIy
in Iondon |. . .j Nor voro lloso vory assiduous in allondanco or paymonl of subscrip-
lions. Inlorosl soon dvindIod and af!Iialions coasod. Musson, Briiis| 1r.!c Unicns,
p. 58.
34
van dor Iindon, NalionaI Inlogralion of Iuropoan Working CIassos.
-<- 0 !"#$%&' )*&+,&
Tlis combinalion of circumslancos undorminod sub-nalionaI inlornalion-
aIism, as indicalod by llo docIino of llo Iirsl InlornalionaI aflor 1872. Wlal
foIIovod vas a lransilionaI poriod in vlicl llo oId form of inlornalionaIism
crumbIod avay, vliIo a nov form vas sliII no furllor llan an ombryonic
slago.
Icuri| si.gc. n.iicn.| inicrn.iicn.|ism (1890s1960s
Around llo lurn of llo lvonlioll conlury, vlon llo nalionaI consoIidalion of
lrado unions in llo Norll AlIanlic rogion vas aIroady far advancod, a nov
slago, llal of nalion-basod inlornalionaIism, omorgod. InlornalionaI coopora-
lion nov soomod lo grov moro or Ioss as a mallor of courso oul of praclicaI
aclivilios, in llroo main aroas.
IirslIy, lloro vas llo aroa of vorkors in |ig|| s|i||c! (.riis.n cccup.iicns
vlo voro inlornalionaIIy mobiIo. Amongsl prinlors, for oxampIo, lloro voro
Iong-slanding cross-nalionaI roIalionslips, ospociaIIy in corlain rogions slar-
ing a common Ianguago (o.g. llo Ironcl rogion comprising Iranco, parls of
BoIgium and SvilzorIand), lloy lad allondod llo conforoncos of fralornaI
lrado organizalions in ollor counlrios as oarIy as llo 1860s. Issuos Iiko llo
ti.iicum (lravoI monoy) Ioomod Iargo in lloso yoars.
35

|nicrn.iicn.| migr.iicn vas a socond aroa of inlornalionaIisl aclivily. Coun-
lrios vill fasl-groving oconomios allraclod lundrods of llousands of immi-
granls from Ioss dovoIopod parls of llo vorId. Clinoso and }apanoso migralod
lo CaIifornia, IoIos and IlaIians lo Gormany, olc. Trado unions in llo rocipionl
counlrios lriod oillor lo organizo llo nov arrivaIs, or lo oxcIudo llom from
llo nalionaI Iabor markol. Tlo Gorman fodoralion of conslruclion vorkors for
oxampIo sougll lo organizo IlaIian immigranls, somolimos succossfuIIy.
36
A llird aroa vas inicrn.iicn.| ir.nspcri. Horo llo Iabor markol and llo Iabor
procoss voro inloronlIy inlornalionaI, vlicl faciIilalod coIIaboralion. Tlo
londoncy lovards inlornalionaIism vas parlicuIarIy markod in llis soclion of
llo vorking cIass, as slovn by llo Iargo-scaIo inlornalionaI lransporl slriko of
1911, and by llo facl llal branclos of llo Brilisl soamons union (NAS&IU)
35
Clauvol, Outricrs !u |itrc cn Ir.ncc, pp. 6324, idom, Outricrs !u |itrc ci !u jcurn.|,
p. 245, Musson, 1pcgr.p|ic.| Asscci.iicn, pp. 3058.
36
Sclfor, IlaIionisclo 'Gaslarboilor, pp. 20810, Horborl, Gcsc|ic|ic !cr Aus|.n-
!crocsc|.|iigung, pp. 6870, doI Iabbro, 1r.ns.|pini.
1#23' 45%&'5#%435#+467 0 -<9
oxislod brio"y in llo oarIy 1890s in Norvay, Svodon, Donmark, Gormany and
llo NollorIands.
37
Tlo !rsl cross-bordor organizalions sol up voro inlornalionaI lrado socro-
larials, i.o. fodoralions of nalionaI lrado unions roprosonling difforonl occu-
palionaI groups. An imporlanl slimuIus vas llo founding of llo Socond
InlornalionaI in 1889 as a cooporalivo moclanism for sociaIisls (and anarclisls
unliI 1896). Tlo congrossos loId by llo nov InlornalionaI voro imporlanl
mooling pIacos for lrado union Ioadors from difforonl counlrios.
TabIo 12.2
Iounding yoars of InlornalionaI Trado Socrolarials
1889 Typograplors and prinlors 1898 Ioundry vorkors
Hallors 1900 Carponlors
Cigar makors and lobacco
vorkors
1902 Slono vorkors
Sloomakors 1903 Conslruclion vorkors
1890 Minors 1904 Wood vorkors
1892 GIass vorkors 1905 IorcoIain and clina vorkors
1893 TaiIors 1906 IubIic sorvico vorkors
MolaI vorkors 1907 Book bindors
RaiIvay vorkors Hairdrossors
1894 ToxliIo vorkors 1908 Iaclory vorkors
Iurriors HoloI vorkors
1896 Iillograplors 1910 Iosl of!co vorkors
Brovory vorkors 1911 Iainlors
1897 Transporl vorkors
Scurcc: Droyfus, Imorgonco of an InlornalionaI Trado Union Organizalion, pp. 369.
AIllougl lloro aro pubIicalions on llo lislory of somo of lloso lrado socro-
larials,
38
IillIo is knovn aboul mosl of llom. Many of llom oxislod onIy on
papor, or con!nod lloir aclivilios lo corrospondonco vill mombor organiza-
lions. Trado unions af!Iialod lo llo socrolarials voro iniliaIIy aImosl oxcIu-
sivoIy Iuropoan and, lo a Iossor oxlonl, Norll Amorican.
37
Marsl and Ryan, Sc.mcn, pp. 512.
38
Horrmann, Gcsc|ic|ic !cs |nicrn.iicn.|cn Bcrg.rociicrtcro.n!cs, Kocl-Baumgarlon,
Gcucr|sc|.|isinicrn.iicn.|ismus, CarI and KboIo, Au| !cr Suc|c n.c| Sc|i!.rii.i, KuIo-
mann, InlornalionaIo Organisalion dor Bucldruckor, Nyslrm and Rullors, Hisicr c|
i|c |UI, Robrioux, Naissanco du Socrlarial lypograpliquo inlornalionaI, RoinaIda,
|nicrn.iicn.| 1r.nspcriucr|crs Ic!cr.iicn, Rullors, C|.nccn inicrn.iicn.|cr Gcucr|sc|.|i-
spc|iii|, idom, Hisloiro ol dvoIoppomonl dos socrlarials profossionoIs inlornalion-
aux, idom, |nicrn.iicn.|c Bcrg.rociicrtcro.n!, Sclnoidor, An|.ngc, Sclnorbacl, Ic|rcr
im inicrn.iicn.|cn Gcucr|sc|.|isoun!, Simon, |nicrn.iicn.|c 1r.nspcri.rociicr-Ic!cr.iicn.
-<: 0 !"#$%&' )*&+,&
Will llo oslabIislmonl of llo inlornalionaI lrado socrolarials voII undor
vay, inlornalionaI cooporalion bolvoon nalionaI lrado union confodoralions
gallorod paco. In 1903, llo InlornalionaI Socrolarial of NalionaI Trado Union
Confodoralions (ISNTUC) vas oslabIislod. IoIIoving proparalory moolings
of lrado unionisls from various counlrios in Coponlagon (1901) and Slullgarl
(1902), an inlornalionaI conlro vas sol up in DubIin in 1903 undor llo aogis of
CarI Iogion, llo Ioador of llo Gorman lrado union movomonl. Al llo urging
of llo AII, il bocamo llo InlornalionaI Iodoralion of Trado Unions (IITU) in
1913. Tlo ISNTUC and llo IITU vas primariIy focusod on llo Norll AlIanlic
rogion unliI voII inlo llo lvonlioll conlury.
39
Tlo yoars bolvoon 1889 and 1903 voro of oxcoplionaI imporlanco for llo riso
of an inlornalionaI lrado union movomonl, bocauso llo slrucluros dovisod in
lloso yoars porsislod, IargoIy unclangod, llrougloul llo lvonlioll conlury.
Iabor oconomisl }amos ScoviIIo rigllIy obsorvos llal llo iniliaI slrucluro of
llo Iabor movomonl oxorcisos an impacl on llo fuluro courso of ils ovoIulion.
Ho allribulos llis lo llo porsislonco of idooIogy formod al llo boginning, llo
survivaI imporalivo of inslilulions, and llo Iabor movomonls in"uonco on llo
surrounding socioly, vlicl subsoquonlIy rovorboralos on llo movomonl.
40
So in facl a courso of ovonls occurring a conlury ago ondovod llo inlorna-
lionaI lrado union movomonl onduringIy vill ils claraclorislic duaI slruc-
luro of inlornalionaI lrado socrolarials and inlornalionaI confodoralions (vill
clanging namos). Yol il is nol aIlogollor llo mosl IogicaI slrucluro. Tlo inlor-
nalionaI lrado socrolarials couId lavo formod an inlornalionaI fodoralion of
lloir ovn. Had lloy dono so, onIy ono inlornalionaI umbroIIa organizalion
vouId oxisl loday, an arrangomonl llal vouId probabIy lavo boon moro
offoclivo. Roorganizing llo movomonl aIong lloso Iinos vas indood suggoslod
by a fov individuaIs (o.g. llo Dulcl Iabor Ioador Ido Iimmon in llo 1920s)
bul lo no avaiI. Tlo forcos of inslilulionaI inorlia provaiIod. Wly did llo inlor-
nalionaI lrado socrolarials nol form lloir ovn fodoralion al llo oulsol` Ono
possibIo oxpIanalion is llal lloy voro focusod on diroclIy oconomic mallors
(llo vorIdvido probIoms of corlain induslrios), vloroas llo inlornalionaI
confodoralions voro moro poIilicaIIy orionlod. Tlo aclivilios of llo socrolari-
39
Van Goollom, Amsicr!.m |nicrn.iicn.|.
40
ScoviIIo, Somo Dolorminanls of llo Slrucluro of Iabor Movomonls, p. 74.
1#23' 45%&'5#%435#+467 0 -<;
als and llo confodoralions novorlloIoss oflon ovorIappod, causing lonsions
bolvoon llom.
WliIo llo slrucluro consoIidalod al llo boginning of llo lvonlioll conlury
romainod unclangod for many docados, sovoraI signi!canl slifls did occur
ovor llo yoars uii|in llo slrucluro. Irior lo llo Iirsl WorId War, Gormany
occupiod llo dominanl posilion. In 1913, llo loadquarlors of al Ioasl sovon-
loon of llo lvonly-oigll lrado socrolarials voro in llal counlry. Tlo major
oxcoplions voro llo minors and loxliIo vorkors, vloso loadquarlors voro in
Mancloslor.
41
Aflor 1918, Groal Brilain and llo USA assumod llo Ioading roIo.
Wloroas llo Gorman lrado union movomonl lad slood moro or Ioss oulsido
ils ovn slalo, in llo posl-var yoars llo TUC and AII(-CIO) onlorod inlo cIoso
coIIaboralion vill lloir rospoclivo slalos. Ior a vliIo, coIIaboralion bolvoon
llo US Iabor fodoralion and llo US govornmonl and big businoss vas so cIoso,
llal il vas Iikonod by somo lo a corporalivo slrucluro, a o|cccc sicricc Ia Anlo-
nio Gramsci.
42
During llo Socond WorId War, llo Brilisl TUC movod lovard
a cIoso roIalionslip vill llo govornmonl in dovoIoping Iabour poIicy in llo
coIonios, oflon omuIaling llo onIigllonod oxlonsion of a coIoniaI povor in
Africa, Asia and llo Caribboan.
43
As Iolor WoiIor nolos:
TUC aclivilios |. . .j loIpod lo porpolualo llo Brilisl ompiro. In parl, llis
offocl vas uninlonlionaI. Tlo TUC urgod coIoniaI lrado unions lo foIIov
llo samo modoralo roformisl pall llal il did al lomo, aIllougl roformism
producod difforonl rosuIls in llo coIonios llan il did in Brilain. Brilisl
vorkors lad al Ioasl llo poIilicaI possibiIily lo clango lloir socioly vliIo
coIoniaI vorkors did nol. Tlus aIllougl roformism vas nol ondorsod as
parl of a caIcuIalod slralogy lo prosorvo Brilisl ruIo, il inovilabIy lad llal
offocl. On anollor IovoI, lovovor, llis offocl vas inlondod bocauso Brilisl
Iabor Ioadors accoplod llo idoa of Brilains imporiaI mission and rojoclod
any vioIonl allompls lo ond il.
44
In llo courso of llo nalionaI plaso of inlornalionaIism, llo numbor of
inlornalionaI lrado socrolarials vas svoIIod by addilionaI umbroIIa organi-
zalions, and dvindIod as llo rosuIl of amaIgamalion. Tlo sociaI-roformisl
41
Droyfus, Imorgonco of an InlornalionaI Trado Union Organizalion, pp. 369.
42
Cox, Iabor and Hogomony.
43
Davios, IoIilics of llo TUCs CoIoniaI IoIicy, p. 24.
44
WoiIor, Iorming RosponsibIo Trado Unions, p. 384.
-<. 0 !"#$%&' )*&+,&
mainslroam of llo IITU and ils succossor aflor 1949, llo InlornalionaI
Confodoralion of Iroo Trado Unions (ICITU), vas in limo confronlod vill
a numbor of rivaIs. Tloy incIudod nol onIy a syndicaIisl InlornalionaI caIIing
ilsoIf, Iiko llo Iirsl InlornalionaI, llo IWMA (sinco 1922) bul aIso llo commu-
nisl Rod InlornalionaI of Iabor Unions (RIIU, 192137) and llo InlornalionaI
Iodoralion of Clrislian Trado Unions (IICTU, sinco 1920).
45
In 1945, Tlo
IITU joinod forcos vill llo communisl lrado unions in llo WITU, bul lloir
aIIianco ondod vill llo onsol of llo CoId War. Tlo ICITU vas foundod in
1949, vliIo llo WITU foII undor communisl dominalion.
46
In llo inlor-var yoars, inlorosl in lrado unionism incroasod in counlrios
villin llo poriplory and somi-poriplory of llo capilaIisl vorId oconomy.
Tlo RIIU aimod lo pul dovn rools in lloso rogions aImosl from llo momonl
of ils foundalion in 1921. Il vas foIIovod in llis somo yoars Ialor, from aboul
1928, by llo IITU, in parl lo counlor llo rivaI communisl organizalion, and
lo gain moro in"uonco in llo coIoniaI and somi-coIoniaI counlrios.
47
Anollor
faclor vas llo concurronl grovll of llo Iabor movomonl in llo Tlird WorId,
making llo quoslion of vlal courso il vouId pursuo aII llo moro urgonl. Tlo
IICTU foIIovod llo samo pall somovlal Ialor. UnliI llo Socond WorId War,
llo IICTU vas soIoIy orionlod lovard Iuropo, bul llis clangod of nocossily
aflor 1945, in parl bocauso sovoraI of ils formor mombor organizalions lad dis-
bandod or amaIgamalod vill lrado unions oncompassing aII idooIogios (o.g.
in Gormany and Auslria). Tlo IICTU sol up a roasonabIy succossfuI rogionaI
organizalion in Ialin Amorica (1954), and rocruilod supporl in Violnam and
Africa as voII.
48
Tlo IITU and ICITU voro boll dominalod by llo Brilisl TUC and llo
Amorican AII(-CIO), vlicl gavo llom llo ropulalion of aIIios of coIoniaI-
ism and noo-coIoniaIism in llo Tlird WorId. Tloso suspicions voro nol
onliroIy unfoundod, bocauso for many yoars llo ICITU lriod lo propagalo
a corlain modoI of propor unionism. Ono of llo aims formuIalod al llo
45
Tlorpo, 1|c Wcr|crs 1|cmsc|tcs, idom, SyndicaIisl InlornalionaIism boforo WorId
War II, Iasluro, Hisicirc !u sn!ic.|ismc c|rciicn inicrn.iicn.|, Tosslorff, Prc!nicrn. Tlo
IICTU bocamo llo WorId Confodoralion of Iabor (WCI) in 1968, and morgod vill
llo ICITU in 2006, oul of vlicl llo InlornalionaI Trado Union Confodoralion (ITUC)
omorgod.
46
Carov, IaIso Davn, idom, Tovards a Iroo Trado Union Conlro.
47
Iosl, Rctc|uiicns Oi|cr Wcr|!, p. 49.
48
WalIors, CIA1, Iasluro, Hisicirc !u sn!ic.|ismc c|rciicn inicrn.iicn.|.
1#23' 45%&'5#%435#+467 0 -<<
limo of ils founding in 1949 vas lo provido assislanco in llo oslabIislmonl,
mainlonanco and dovoIopmonl of lrado union organizalions, parlicuIarIy
in oconomicaIIy and sociaIIy undor-dovoIopod counlrios.
49
Il vas assumod
llal propor lrado unions vouId romain fuIIy indopondonl of poIilicaI par-
lios and slalos, conconlralo on coIIoclivo bargaining and Iobbying for sociaI
socurily IogisIalion, dofond and promolo parIiamonlary domocracy. Bul lloso
principIos oflon provod dif!cuIl lo appIy in llo so-caIIod Tlird WorId.
50
Mucl
Ialor, AdoIf SlurmllaI obsorvod llal ospociaIIy in llo AngIo-Amorican coun-
lrios (vloso lrado unions dominalod llo ICITU) lloro lad boon a navo
boIiof in llo univorsaI appIicabiIily of somo form of coIIoclivo bargaining.
51

Ho Iislod a sorios of condilions for a gonuino coIIoclivo bargaining syslom,
incIuding a IogaI and poIilicaI syslom pormilling llo oxislonco and funclion-
ing of roasonabIy |rcc Iabor organizalions (a condilion llal vas fuIIy compal-
ibIo vill llo oarIy ICITU viovs) and llo roquiromonl llal unions bo moro
or Ioss slabIo, roasonabIy voII organizod, and fairIy ovonIy malclod vill llo
ompIoyors in bargaining slrongll.
52

Iffoclivo unions lavo raroIy if ovor boon organizod by 'non-commillod
vorkors, i.o. casuaI vorkors vlo clango jobs froquonlIy, rolurn poriodicaIIy
lo lloir nalivo viIIago, and lavo no spoci!c induslriaI skiII, ovon of a vory
simpIo kind. Yol ovon fuIIy commillod induslriaI vorkors vill IillIo or no
skiII aro capabIo of ongaging in offoclivo coIIoclivo bargaining onIy undor
corlain condilions vlicl aro raroIy found. In mosl (llougl by no moans
aII) novIy induslriaIizing counlrios, Iargo oxcoss suppIios of common Iabor
aro avaiIabIo for nonagricuIluraI vork. Nol onIy aro unskiIIod vorkors
raroIy capabIo of forming unions of lloir ovn undor sucl condilions, if lloy
succood in doing so, lloir unions lavo IillIo or no bargaining povor.
53
49
O|!ci.| Rcpcri, p. 226.
50
Somolimos lloy aIso soomod insincoro. As rogards llo omplasis pIacod by llo
Brilisl TUC in llo 1950s on llo non-poIilicaI naluro of propor lrado unionism,
Davios las corroclIy obsorvod: Somo of lloso sonlimonls sound odd in llo conloxl of
llo lislory of llo Brilisl lrado union movomonl, vlicl lad supporlod a gonoraI slriko,
mainlainod a cIoso associalion vill llo Iabour Iarly, and in ils annuaI congrossos
roguIarIy dobalod rosoIulions on a Iargo numbor of issuos oulsido llo !oId of indus-
lriaI roIalions Davios, IoIilics of llo TUCs CoIoniaI IoIicy, p. 26.
51
SlurmllaI, InduslriaI RoIalions Slralogios, p. 5.
52
Ibid., p. 9.
53
Ibid., p. 10. Soo aIso Claplor 11.
-<= 0 !"#$%&' )*&+,&
Ii|i| si.gc. . ncu ir.nsiiicn (sincc i|c 1960s
Sinco llo 1960s, llo inlornalionaI lrado union movomonl las boon confronlod
vill many nov claIIongos vlicl logollor undorminod llo oId modoI of
nalionaI inlornalionaIism. Signi!canl clangos incIudo llo docoIonizalion
procoss, llo nov lransnalionaI division of Iabor, llo omorgonco of rogionaI-
ism and lrading bIocs, sucl as llo Iuropoan Union, NAITA, ASIAN and
Morcosur, llo coIIapso of communisl govornmonls in llo Soviol Union and
Iaslorn Iuropo, llo riso of fominisl movomonls, llo grovll of vago Iabor
in llo poriplory and somi-poriplory, boll oxpanding llo so-caIIod informaI
soclor vill broalllaking spood and incroasing llo in"uonco of vomon, and
llo digilaI oIoclronics rovoIulion.
Tlo foIIoving major claIIongos curronlIy facing inlornalionaI lrado union-
ism aro vorll noling:
- Tlo improssivo grovll of |crcign !ircci intcsimcni in llo coro counlrios and
llo somi-poriplory of llo vorId oconomy, and of lransnalionaI corpora-
lions. In rosponso lo llis dovoIopmonl, WorId Corporalion CounciIs voro
sol up in llo mid-1960s, nolabIy in llo clomicaI and aulomobiIo induslrios.
AIllougl many lrado union miIilanls lad ligl oxpoclalions of lloso nov
bodios, lloy lavo boon Ioss offoclivo llan anlicipalod, bocauso of con"icling
inlorosls bolvoon ompIoyoos in difforonl counlrios.
54
- Tlo formalion of inicrn.iicn.| ir.!ing o|ccs. Tloy Iod lo a corlain oquaIiza-
lion of IogaI and poIilicaI paramolors, so llal founding lransnalionaI lrado
union slrucluros villin oacl bIoc vas an obvious slop. In NAITA, llis coI-
Iaboralion is nol ovoIving primariIy al llo lop IovoI of nalionaI lrado union
confodoralions, bul al llo sub-nalionaI or brancl IovoI. In many casos, insli-
lulions ollor llan lrado unions (sucl as roIigious and luman riglls orga-
nizalions) aro aIso parlnors in projocls of llis kind. IxampIos incIudo llo
1980s CoaIilion for }uslico in llo MaquiIadoros, llo Comil Ironlizoro do
Obroras, and Ia Mujor Obrora.
55
IquaIIy nolovorlly in llis conloxl is llo
CounciI of Iord Workors, foundod by llo Unilod Aulo Workors.
56
54
Bondinor, |nicrn.iicn.| I.ocur A||.irs, OIIo and WoIlor, WorId Markol Compoli-
lion, Tudyka, WoIlkonzornrlo in dor Kriso.
55
Armbruslor, Cross-NalionaI Iabor Organizing Slralogios, pp. 778, 802, aIso
Borgors, ClaIIongos of Iconomic GIobaIizalion, pp. 815: Carr, GIobaIizalion from
BoIov.
56
Bina and Davis, TransnalionaI CapilaI, pp. 1656.
1#23' 45%&'5#%435#+467 0 -<>
- Tlo formalion of ncu supr.n.iicn.| insiiiuiicns lo roguIalo llo dynamics of
llo novcapilaIism. Tlo foromosl oxampIo is llo WorId Trado Organiza-
lion oslabIislod in 1995.
- Scci.| .n! cccncmic c|.ngcs in i|c pcrip|cr .n! scmi-pcrip|cr of llo capilaIisl
vorId oconomy, faciIilaling llo omorgonco of nov, oflon miIilanl, vorkors
movomonls (sociaI movomonl unions) in counlrios sucl as BraziI, Soull
Africa, llo IliIippinos, Taivan and Soull Koroa.
- Ncu |crms c| r.n|-.n!-!|c ir.!c unicnism oulsido llo oslabIislod clannoIs,
omorging sinco llo 1970s, vill inlornalionaI connoclions al llo slop-"oor
IovoI bypassing aIlogollor llo socrolarials, vlicl lloy soo as loo oflon
boloIdon lo llo buroaucracios of lloir various nalionaI af!Iialos.
57
A voII-
knovn oxampIo is llo TransnalionaIs Informalion Ixclango (TII), a conlro
in vlicl many rosoarcl and aclivisl Iabor groups oxclango informalion on
TNCs. Anollor oxampIo is llo counlor foroign poIicy oxisling sinco llo
oarIy 1980s in llo AII-CIO.
58
- jcini .ciicns .g.insi 1NCs conduclod ovor llo pasl docado by lrado unions
roprosonling parlicuIar occupalions in difforonl counlrios (o.g. coaI minors,
oIoclricaI vorkors).
59
Wlon llo Ironcl car-makor RonauIl announcod llo
cIosuro of ils BoIgian faclory in Iobruary 1997, soIidarily slrikos and dom-
onslralions voro organizod in Iranco, Spain, IorlugaI and SIovonia, giving
birll lo llo lorm Iuro-slriko.
- Spurrod by llo unovon dovoIopmonl of lrado unions in coro and poriplory
counlrios, a groving londoncy oxisls for inlornalionaI lrado socrolarials lo
ongago in llo !ircci rccruiimcni c| mcmocrs in i|c pcrip|cr. (vilnoss o.g. llo
aclivilios of llo socrolarial for llo sorvico soclor Union Nolvork Inlorna-
lionaI, roIaling lo IT spociaIisls in India).
60
- Tlo incroasing numbor of aclivilios carriod oul by ncn-gctcrnmcni.| crg.-
niz.iicns (NGOs) roprosonling slakoloIdors aclivilios llal slouId, in
lloory, bo llo rosponsibiIily of llo inlornalionaI lrado union movomonl (for
oxampIo, llo slruggIo lo roguIalo and aboIisl cliId Iabor).
57
Horod, Iabor as an Agonl of GIobaIizalion, p. 184.
58
SpaIding, Tvo Ialin Amorican Ioroign IoIicios.
59
Horod, Iraclico of InlornalionaI Iabor SoIidarily, p. 342, Armbruslor, Cross
Bordor Iabor Organizing.
60
S!!cuisc|c Zciiung, 89 Soplombor 2001.
-=/ 0 !"#$%&' )*&+,&
AII lloso claIIongos novadays forco llo inlornalionaI lrado union movomonl
lo roviov ils aims and aclivilios. Sucl a roviov is mado aII llo moro nocos-
sary bocauso llo clanging composilion of llo vorIds vago-oarning vorking
cIass is liglIiglling llo roIalivo voaknoss of llo movomonl gIobaIIy. In 2008,
llo af!Iialod momborslip of llo ITUC (a morgor of llo ICITU and llo WCI
llo succossor of llo Clrislian ICITU ) slood al somo 168 miIIion vorkors,
i.o. bolvoon !vo and lon por conl of llo vorIds vago and saIary oarnors.
Tlal is lo say, llo lugo majorily of vago-oarnors in llo vorId aro nol ovon
roaclod by llo lradilionaI lrado union movomonl. Il vouId of courso bo
vrong lo say llal llis majorily Iacks roprosonlalivo organizalions aIlogollor
aIlornalivo organizalionaI modoIs lavo sprung up loro and lloro bul llis
roaIily corlainIy iIIuslralos llo slorlcomings of llo prosonl silualion.
36*78+")'$(, "#$8) )9* 08)8%*
Tlo poriodizalion I suggosl can bo roIalod lo Iong vavos of faslor and
sIovor grovll in llo lislory of capilaIism, as piclurod in TabIo 12.3.
TabIo 12.3
Iong vavos and lypos of lrado-union inlornalionaIism
182548 Dovn Domarcalion of
Working CIass
GoograplicaI
Iocus on
Norll-AlIanlic
Rogion
184873 Up Sub-NalionaI
InlornalionaIism
Brilisl
Hogomony
187394 Dovn Iirsl Transilion
18941917 Up
NalionaI
InlornalionaIism
Gorman
Hogomony
191740 Dovn Brilisl-Amorican
(+ Tomporary
Russian)
Hogomony
194068 Up GoograplicaI
Ixpansion in
Asia, Africa, Ialin
Amorica
1968 Dovn Socond Transilion
1#23' 45%&'5#%435#+467 0 -=8
Il is obvious from llis labuIalion llal inlornalionaI lrado unionism doos nol
oxaclIy foIIov llo samo rlyllms as llo gIobaI accumuIalion of capilaI. Ior
inslanco, logomonic in"uonco villin llo inlornalionaI Iabor movomonl is nol
synclronic vill logomonic in"uonco villin llo vorId syslom, and nalionaI
inlornalionaIism vas dominanl during onIy ono and a laIf Iong vavos.
61
In llo Iigll of llo dovoIopmonls ovor llo pasl lundrod and !fly yoars, I
llink llal llo curronl proIongod lransilionaI plaso can Ioad lo an onliroIy nov
slago, llal of ir.nsn.iicn.| inicrn.iicn.|ism. Tlo conlours of llis nov form of
lrado union inlornalionaIism aro sliII vaguo, bul sovoraI minimum proroqui-
silos aro aIroady cIoarIy apparonl:
- Tlo largol group las lo bo domarcalod anov. Tlo !rsl-plaso domarcalion
of llo vorking cIassos vas oxlromoIy narrov and Iuroconlric, and noods lo
bo rovisod and oxpandod.
62
A considorabIo numbor of lrado unions in llo
poriplory and somi-poriplory of llo vorId oconomy lavo nov abandonod
llo oId domarcalion, and rocruil aII kinds of subaIlorn vorkors.
- Tloro can bo no doubl llal llo novIy-do!nod largol group viII no Ion-
gor bo dominalod by vlilo maIo vorkors in llo Norll AlIanlic rogion, bul
incIudo vomon and poopIo of coIor, many in forms of soIf-ompIoymonl,
procarious jobs, or dobl bondago. Trado unions viII nood lo clango lloir
oporalions draslicaIIy lo assisl lloso nov vorkors offoclivoIy in advanc-
ing lloir inlorosls. Doing so impIios onding llo conlraIily of coIIoclivo bar-
gaining slralogios in lrado union vork.
63

- Tlo duaI slrucluro of llo inlornalionaI lrado union movomonl coIIabora-
lion of nalionaI confodoralions pIus inlornalionaI lrado socrolarials (vlicl
aro novadays caIIod GIobaI Union Iodoralions) is a probIomalic roIic of
llo pasl vlicl is IikoIy lo bo discardod. IrobabIy llo bosl oplion vouId bo
a nov unilary slrucluro faciIilaling llo incIusion of llo nov largol groups
in llo inlornalionaI lrado socrolarials.
61
My poriodizalion doos nol impIy llal sub-nalionaI and nalionaI inlornalionaIism
aro muluaIIy oxcIusivo. Cross-bordor soIidarily can lako various forms. Ior inslanco,
llo inlornalionaI soIidarily vill llo slriko slagod by llo IivorpooI dockors in llo 1990s
vas lo a Iargo oxlonl sub-nalionaI. Soo Caslroo, Goograplic ScaIo and Grass-Rools
InlornalionaIism.
62
Soo aIso Anlunos, Scnii!cs !c ir.o.||c, pp. 10117.
63
Soo Honsman, Organizing Againsl llo Odds.
-=- 0 !"#$%&' )*&+,&
- Tlo somovlal aulocralic approacl sliII provaiIing in llo inlornalionaI lrado
union movomonl viII nood lo bo ropIacod by a domocralic approacl, and
groalor parlicipalion of llo rank-and-!Io vorkors. Tlo possibiIilios offorod
by llo inlornol and mobiIo plonos aro a posilivo conlribulion lo a ronovod
slrucluro of llis kind.
64

- WliIo Iobbying govornmonls and lransnalionaI organizalions las lo dalo
boon llo principaI aclivily of inlornalionaI lrado union bodios (vill llo
nolabIo oxcoplion of llo anli-aparlloid campaign of llo 1980s), and offorls
aro mado lo cuIlivalo llo goodviII of govornmonls,
65
offoclivo aclion roquiros
mucl groalor offorl in aclivo moasuros, sucl as boycolls, slrikos, and so on,
vlicl in lurn domands a subslanliaI slronglloning of inlornaI slrucluros.
As Dimilris Slovis rigllIy obsorvos, inlornalionaI Iabor organizalions aro
nol simpIy sIooping gianls, bul fundamonlaIIy voak inlorsociolaI fodora-
lions.
66
Tlo quoslion romains vlollor llo oxisling inlornalionaI lrado union movo-
monl can mool lloso claIIongos. During llo !rsl lransilionaI plaso of llo
Ialo ninoloonll conlury, llo dif!cuIlios voro so immonso llal llo oId orga-
nizalions simpIy coIIapsod. OnIy a quarlor of a conlury Ialor, i.o. aflor a gap
spanning a vloIo gonoralion, did il bocomo possibIo again lo buiId nov
inlornalionaI organizalions. Of courso, unions in llo sub-nalionaI plaso
voro oflon sliII oxlromoIy fragiIo, and Iackod organizalionaI oxporionco. In llo
curronl lransilionaI plaso, lloro is moro clanco llal oxisling organizalionaI
forms viII manago lo adapl.
Hovovor, il sooms IikoIy llal llo omorging lransnalionaI inlornalionaIism
viII bo a dif!cuIl, prolraclod procoss, inlorsporsod vill faiIod oxporimonls
and momonls of doop crisis. OrganizalionaI slrucluros, cusloms and labils
porsisling across a vloIo conlury aro nol oasiIy clangod, al Ioasl nol unliI il
bocomos vory cIoar in praclico llal clango is absoIuloIy nocossary. Moroovor,
il is vory unIikoIy llal nov slrucluros and pallorns viII bo slapod llrougl
roforms from abovo, via llo conlraI Ioadorslip. If lislory loaclos us anylling
in llis rospocl, il is llal lrado union slrucluros aImosl novor dovoIop smoollIy
64
Ioo, I.ocur Mctcmcni .n! i|c |nicrnci.
65
Groon!oId, ICITU and llo IoIilics of Compromiso.
66
Slovis, InlornalionaI Iabor Organizalions, p. 66.
1#23' 45%&'5#%435#+467 0 -=9
by moans of piocomoaI onginooring. Tloir claraclorislics omorgo moslIy in
rosponso lo roaI con"icls, or as an oulcomo of risky oxporimonls in advorso or
vloIIy nov silualions. Irossuro from boIov (llrougl compolilivo nolvorks,
aIlornalivo aclion modoIs, olc.) viII bo a vory imporlanl faclor in dociding llal
oulcomo.
Wlal kinds of prossuro lloro viII bo, and vlollor lloy viII bo suf!cionl lo
bring aboul major posilivo clangos, no ono can say yol vill corlainly.
!"#$%&'# )*+, -./-01"' .$#0$23$"1#
!"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
4+*3.5#6#'1, '&1+*6
In Soplombor 1976, llo Iornand BraudoI Conlor for
llo Sludy of Iconomios, HisloricaI Sysloms, and
CiviIizalions oponod ils doors al llo Slalo Univor-
sily of Nov York Binglamlon. Tlo nov inslilulion
vonl off lo a !ying slarl, aflor jusl llroo monlls, il
prosonlod ils Iroposod Rosoarcl Irograms in a
subslanliaI bookIol. In llo summor of 1977, llo "rsl
issuo of ils journaI Rcticu vas pubIislod. Tlal samo
yoar, a soclion on llo IoIilicaI Iconomy of WorId-
Sysloms (IIWS) inspirod by llo BraudoI Conlor
vas oslabIislod villin llo Amorican SocioIogicaI
Associalion. Tlo IIWS soclion las loId annuaI con-
foroncos and pubIislod lloir procoodings ovor
sinco. Irom 1979, llo Conlor las aIso sponsorod a
book sorios caIIod Sludios in Modorn CapilaIism
logollor vill llo M.iscn !cs scicnccs !c ||cmmc of
Iaris, pubIislod by Cambridgo Univorsily Iross.
AII llis lomposluous aclivily vas mado possibIo
by llo facl llal ils diroclor ImmanuoI WaIIorsloin,
llo moving spiril of llo nov inslilulion, lad boon
al vork sinco 1967 on ils mosl imporlanl llooroli-
caI foundalions.
1
Koy concopls of lis vorId-syslom
1
Tlo foIIoving vorks provido informalion aboul WaIIorsloins inloIIocluaI caroor:
}ovsiovicki, African Irism of ImmanuoI WaIIorsloin, Ionlini, ImmanuoI WaIIor-
sloin, and GoIdfrank, Iaradigm Rogainod`.
,-- . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
lloory lad aIroady boon prosonlod in a numbor of lis scloIarIy arlicIos.
2
His
magnum opus, 1|c Mc!crn Wcr|!-Ssicm pubIislod in 1974 as llo "rsl parl
of vlal bocamo a projoclod four-voIumo vork vas a Ioarnod and innova-
livo sludy in vlicl llo nov concopls voro pul lo vork.
WaIIorsloin vas drivon by lis dislaslo for llo oflon-unquoslionod a priori
assumplions llal lavo roignod in llo sociaI scioncos sinco llo mid-nino-
loonll conlury. His ovn rosoarcl and llal of llo BraudoI Conlor associalos
signify a prolosl againsl llis oId mola-paradigm.
3
Tlus, llo vorId-syslom
approacl dravs logollor "vo sclooIs of llougll: Marxs vision of capilaIism
as a gIobaI roaIily from ils vory boginnings, llo lisloriograply of llo Ann.|cs
sclooI (and abovo aII of Iornand BraudoI limsoIf), socioIogicaI llinking aboul
sociaI sysloms anaIyzing llo muluaI coloronco and funclionaIily of aII lloir
oIomonls, Iong vavo lloory in oconomics, and dopondoncy lloory, vlicl
posluIalos roIalions of slrucluraI dopondoncy bolvoon llo poriplory of llo
capilaIisl vorId oconomy and ils coro (molropoIilan) rogions.
Tlo ossonliaIs of llo vorId-syslom approacl lavo boon doscribod aIroady
many limos in llo Iiloraluro, and aro novadays loxlbook knovIodgo. In briof,
il is arguod llal sinco llo sixloonll conlury llo Iuropoan (capilaIisl) vorId
syslom las oxlondod lo llo vloIo vorId. Tlo syslom is claraclorizod by cnc
inlornalionaI division of Iabor and mu|iip|c poIilicaI lorrilorios (slalos). Il is
an inicr!cpcn!cni vloIo consisling of a coro, a poriplory oxpIoilod by llo
coro llrougl unoquaI oxclango in vorId lrado, and a somi-poriplory vill
an oconomic Iocalion laIfvay bolvoon llo coro and poriplory. Tlo syslom is
aIso lisloricaIIy !n.mic, upvard mobiIily occurs llrougl vlicl a poriploraI
rogion can ovor limo bocomo a somi-poriploraI or coro rogion, bul lloro is
aIso dovnvard mobiIily. Willin llo coro rogion, "orco rivaIry occurs among
slalos slriving for gIobaI logomony and in!uonco. On llroo occasions, ono
coro slalo succoodod in bocoming |cgcmcnic in vorId commorco: llo Dulcl
RopubIic in llo sovonloonll conlury, Brilain in llo ninoloonll conlury and
llo Unilod Slalos aflor 1945. Tlo vorId syslom dovoIops in Iong cycIos of
riso and faII. Il is c.pii.|isi, i.o. ils oconomy is basod on markol produclion for
2
WaIIorsloin, Tlroo Ialls of NalionaI DovoIopmonl, idom, ImporiaIism and
CapilaIism, idom, Dopondonco in an Inlordopondonl WorId, idom, Riso and Iuluro
Domiso of llo WorId CapilaIisl Syslom, idom, CIass-Iormalion in llo CapilaIisl
WorId Iconomy, idom, IaiIod Transilions.
3
WaIIorsloin, WorId-Sysloms AnaIysis.
/0'123454%&6 %"&0'5 . ,-7
pro"l. Sinco llo ninoloonll conlury, virluaIIy ovory cornor of llo vorId las
boon inlogralod inlo llo syslom, ovon incIuding apparonlIy foudaI or sociaI-
isl rogions.
Tlis grand lloory bocamo ono of llo mosl discussod conlribulions lo llo
sociaI scioncos in llo Iasl quarlor of llo lvonlioll conlury. Tlo "rsl voIumo of
1|c Mc!crn Wcr|!-Ssicm slimuIalod many rosponsos from Ioading scloIars,
4

and in subsoquonl vrilings, WaIIorsloin oflon lriod lo incorporalo lloir crili-
cisms vloro lloy slruck lim as roIovanl. In llo socond voIumo of 1|c Mc!crn
Wcr|!-Ssicm (1980), for oxampIo, lo considors sovoraI objoclions vlicl Tloda
SkocpoI and Roborl Bronnor mado lo llo "rsl voIumo.
5
Many of lis coIIoaguos
and sludonls lavo aIso mado adjuslmonls, broadonod or rollougll llo lloory.
Tlo accumuIalod Iiloraluro broadIy slaring llo porspoclivo of vorId-syslom
llougll, as I doscribo il, is novadays vory oxlonsivo bul in no sonso lomog-
onous in lloorolicaI posilions.
6
Tlo ovorarcling vision pormils considorabIo
!oxibiIily and pIuraIism among ils supporlors.
Iorlaps llo mosl imporlanl objoclion advancod by ils crilics is llal llo
approacl is anaclronislic: il projocls claraclorislics of ninoloonll- and lvon-
lioll-conlury vorId capilaIism back on llo llroo procoding conlurios, or ovon
oarIior. InlornalionaI lrado vill coIonios vas indood ono of llo foundalions
of oconomic grovll in Woslorn Iuropo, bul onIy from llo Ialo oiglloonll
conlury on. Bolvoon 1450 and 1750, lislorians nov gonoraIIy agroo, coro-
poriplory lrado vas noillor oxlonsivo nor unusuaIIy pro"labIo, and as fov
induslrios roIiod upon imporlod rav maloriaIs, foroign lrado oxorlod IillIo
4
WaIIorsloin, Mc!crn Wcr|!-Ssicm |. Tlo mosl imporlanl roviovs voro probabIy,
in clronoIogicaI ordor: SkocpoI, WaIIorsloins WorId CapilaIisl Syslom, Dupuy and
IilzgoraId, Conlribulion lo llo Criliquo of llo WorId-Syslom Iorspoclivo, Bronnor,
Origins of CapilaIisl DovoIopmonl, Murray, Roconl Viovs on llo Transilion from
IoudaIism lo CapilaIism, ospociaIIy pp. 73f., Gourovilcl, InlornalionaI Syslom and
Rogimo Iormalion, ModoIski, Iong CycIo of GIobaI IoIilics, Hunl, Riso of Iou-
daIism in Iaslorn Iuropo, WorsIoy, Ono WorId or Tlroo, ZoIborg, Origins of llo
Modorn WorId Syslom, Aronovilz, MolalloorolicaI Criliquo.
5
Ior an oxlondod accounl soo: Garsl, WaIIorsloin and His Crilics. In gonoraI,
WaIIorsloin and lis coIIoaguos lavo aIvays lad an opon-mindod alliludo, vlicl is
visibIo in llo crilicaI rosponsos llal lloy lavo pubIislod in lloir ovn journaI. Tlo
odiloriaI poIicy slalomonl of llo Rcticu says: Wo invilo conlribulions of arlicIos llal
faII villin llo gonoraI porspoclivo, vory IoosoIy do"nod, of llo journaI, or arlicIos llal
aro spoci"caIIy crilicaI of llo porspoclivo.
6
In llis claplor I do nol discuss llo compoling vorId-syslom lloorios llal lavo
boon formuIalod sinco llo Ialo 1970s. On llis lopic soo o.g.: Tlompson, Ccnicn!ing
Apprc.c|cs ic Wcr|!-Ssicm An.|sis.
,78 . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
prossuro lovard spociaIizalion in llo domoslic oconomios.
7
IarlIy for llis
roason, WaIIorsloins nolion of unoquaI oxclango is poIyvaIonl.
8
Tlo llo-
orys anaclronislic claraclor aIso moans llal il roIios on an ovorIy broad,
subjoclivo do"nilion of capilaIism, namoIy markol-orionlod produclion for
pro"l. On lop of llal, llo vloIo conslruclion is slrucluraIisl and funclionaIisl
in claraclor, and londs lo roduco poIilicaI procossos lo oconomic onos.
9
Bul I
do nol vanl lo discuss aII lloso objoclions in dolaiI loro. As Slovo Slorn rigllIy
commonls: WaIIorsloins vork raisos provocalivo and voiglly issuos and
conlribulos spoci"c lisloricaI and lloorolicaI insiglls vloso vaIuo slouId nol
bo ovorIookod ovon if ono concIudos llal llo gonoraI paradigm is fundamon-
laIIy !avod.
10
UndoniabIy WaIIorsloin and ollor scloIars associalod vill
llo Iornand BraudoI Conlor lavo lad an oxcoplionaIIy slimuIaling impacl on
numorous "oIds of sludy across llroo docados.
In llis claplor, my aim is lo slov lov lloir conlribulions can bo usofuI for
llo furllor dovoIopmonl of GIobaI Iabor Hislory, a Iabor lislory llal sludios
Iabor roIalions and Iabor movomonls from a lransnalionaI or ovon lranscon-
linonlaI porspoclivo. In facl, supporlors of llo vorId-syslom approacl lavo
pubIislod many sludios on Iabor movomonls, vorkors and ollor objoclivo
proIolarians sinco 1976. I llink lloso conlribulions provido nov insiglls from
vlicl Iabor and vorking cIass lislorians can bono"l, ovon if lloy do nol, or
nol compIoloIy, subscribo lo llo lloorolicaI assumplions of llo vorId-syslom
approacl.
7
DuIIossis, IarliaI Transilion lo WorId-Sysloms AnaIysis, loro p. 20. Soo aIso:
OBrion, Iuropoan Iconomic DovoIopmonl, WaIIorsloin, Commonl on OBrion,
OBrion and Irados do Ia Iscosura, Cosls and Bono"ls of Iuropoan ImporiaIism.
8
Somo of WaIIorsloins coIIoaguos admil llis. Soo aIso llo farroacling crilicisms
in Buscl, Myllon ubor don WoIlmarkl.
9
Tloso objoclions can bo found in o.g. Bronnor, Origins of CapilaIisl DovoIop-
monl, Aronovilz, MolalloorolicaI Criliquo, ZoIborg, WorId and 'Syslom,
Nodorvoon Iiolorso, |mpirc .n! |m.ncip.iicn, pp. 2945, ZoilIin, Citi| W.rs in C|i|c,
pp. 22237.
10
Slorn, RopIy, p. 889, nolo. Comparo SkocpoIs lypollosis llal llo lruo conlribu-
lion of 1|c Mc!crn Wcr|!-Ssicm viII Iio, nol in llo proIiforalion of ompiricaI rosoarcl
basod uncrilicaIIy upon il, bul in llo lloorolicaI conlrovorsios and advancos il can spark
among ils frionds. SkocpoI, WaIIorsloins WorId CapilaIisl Syslom, p. 1076.
/0'123454%&6 %"&0'5 . ,79
7&1 0+&1*1"01 +) 8,+.1# +) 3-9+* 0+"'*+3:
;;
Will claraclorislic boIdnoss, WaIIorsloin drov up a nov do"nilion of llo
proIolarial. In lis oyos, proIolarians aro aII lloso vlo yioId parl of llo vaIuo
lloy lavo croalod lo ollors and In llis sonso lloro oxisls |sicj in llo capi-
laIisl modo of produclion onIy bourgoois and proIolarians. Tlo poIarily is
slrucluraI.
12
Tlis approacl oIiminalos as a !c!ning claraclorislic of llo pro-
Iolarian llo paymonl of u.gcs lo llo producor.
13
Tlo koy crilorion is llal
Iabor producls aro ccmmc!i!c!, and lo rocognizos llal llis commodi"calion
can occur in many difforonl vays. A divorsily of modos of Iabor conlroI
lloroforo oxisls villin llo modorn vorId syslom. WaIIorsloin dislinguislos
sovoraI modos of llis kind, incIuding sIavory (a kind of indo"niloIy Iasling
vork obIigalion of ono porson lo anollor from vlicl llo vorkor may nol
uniIaloraIIy villdrav),
14
coorcod casl-crop Iabor (i.o. a syslom of agricuI-
luraI Iabor conlroI vloroin llo poasanls aro roquirod by somo IogaI procoss
onforcod by llo slalo lo Iabor al Ioasl parl of llo limo on a Iargo domain
producing somo producl for saIo on llo vorId markol),
15
soIf-ompIoymonl
and slaro-cropping.
Tlo many difforonl kinds of proIolarians can bo groupod in lvo calogo-
rios: lloso vlo musl roIinquisl .|| llo vaIuo llal lloy produco, and lloso
vlo musl roIinquisl p.ri of llal vaIuo. Boll lloso groups can bo furllor sub-
dividod inlo lloso vlo in rolurn rocoivo nolling, and lloso vlo rocoivo
goods, monoy, or goods pIus monoy. In llis vay, a malrix can bo conslruclod
vill oigll calogorios, onIy ono of vlicl consisls of lypicaI vago Iaborors
(TabIo 13.1):
11
As far as I knov, llo concopl modos of Iabor conlroI appoars onIy in WaIIor-
sloins middIo poriod, from llo oarIy 1970s lo llo mid-1980s. In Ialor vrilings lo
no Iongor usod llis concopl (il is nol lo bo found in o.g. voIumo III of 1|c Mc!crn
Wcr|!-Ssicm). Soo aIso Marlin, GIobaI SociaI Slrucluro`, p. 244.
12
WaIIorsloin, CIass Con!icl in llo CapilaIisl WorId-Iconomy, p. 289.
13
Ibid.
14
WaIIorsloin, Mc!crn Wcr|!-Ssicm, III, p. 164.
15
WaIIorsloin, Mc!crn Wcr|!-Ssicm, I, p. 91.
,7, . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
TabIo 13.1
WaIIorsloins oigll proIolarian lypos
Nolling in
rolurn
Goods in
rolurn
Monoy in
rolurn
Goods +
monoy in
rolurn
YioId parl of llo
vaIuo croalod
YioId aII of llo
vaIuo croalod
CIassicaI
vorkor
Scurcc: WaIIorsloin, CIass Con!icl in llo CapilaIisl WorId-Iconomy, pp. 28990. Nolo: WaIIor-
sloin limsoIf did nol "II in llo boxos.
Bocauso oconomic roIalions vary bolvoon llo coro, llo poriplory and llo
somi-poriplory, llo combinalions of modos of Iabor conlroI llal provaiI in
oacl of lloso sploros aIso vary. Tlo coro aroas lavo inlogralod oconomios
vill roIalivoIy capilaI-inlonsivo produclion and ligl IovoIs of produclivily, in
vlicl vago Iabor and modium-sizod yoomon prodominalo.
16
Tlo poriplory
foaluros oxporl-drivon commorco vill roIalivoIy voakIy dovoIopod domoslic
markols and liglIy Iabor-inlonsivo produclion, in vlicl sIavory and coorcod
casl-cropping Iabor prodominalo. Tlo somi-poriplory lrados vill boll coro
aroas and llo poriplory, and las on avorago modoraloIy capilaI-inlonsivo and
modoraloIy Iabor-inlonsivo produclion, slaro-cropping among ollor forms
pIays a major roIo.
17
Varialions in llo prodominanl modos of Iabor conlroI
aro llus an ossonliaI foaluro of llo capilaIisl vorId syslom: Iroo Iabor is
indood a do"ning foaluro of capilaIism, bul nol froo Iabor llrougloul llo
produclivo onlorprisos. Iroo Iabor is llo form of Iabor conlroI usod for skiIIod
vork in coro counlrios vloroas coorcod Iabor is usod for Ioss skiIIod vork in
poriploraI aroas. Tlo combinalion lloroof is llo ossonco of capilaIism. Wlon
Iabor is ovoryvloro froo, vo slaII lavo sociaIism.
18

Il is, abovo aII, llo markol moclanism of suppIy and domand vlicl dolor-
minos llo spoci"c mix of modos of Iabor conlroI in a givon rogion. Il is
aIvays a cloico |for llo ompIoyorj aboul llo oplimaI combinalion of maclin-
16
WaIIorsloin, Tlroo Ialls of NalionaI DovoIopmonl, p. 38.
17
WaIIorsloin, Mc!crn Wcr|!-Ssicm, I, idom, Tlroo Ialls of NalionaI DovoIop-
monl. Soo aIso Claso-Dunn and Rubinson, Tovard a SlrucluraI Iorspoclivo on llo
WorId-Syslom, pp. 4567.
18
/0'123454%&6 %"&0'5 . ,7:
ory (doad Iabor) and Iiving Iabor.
19
Tlo ompIoyor considors vlicl aIlorna-
livo is oplimaI and poIilicaIIy possibIo in i|c s|cri run: (a) vago Iabor,
(b) coorcod casl-crop Iabor, (c) sIavory, (d) slaro-cropping, (o) lonancy or
(f ) addilionaI maclinory.
20
AIllougl WaIIorsloin novor ssicm.iic.|| oxpIainod
lov ompIoyors soIocl lloir favorilo modos of Iabor conlroI, various passagos
in lis vork provido indicalions:
- Ho arguos, for oxampIo, llal lonancy is in principIo moro pro"labIo llan
slaro-cropping (no suporvision cosls, no probIom vill llo poasanls vork
inconlivos). Bul lonanls lavo "xod conlracls and gain al momonls of in!a-
lion, al Ioasl lo llo oxlonl llal llo conlracls aro roIalivoIy Iong-lorm. Of
courso, llo rovorso is lruo vlon llo markol docIinos. Tonancy is llus risk-
ior for llo Iandovnor llan slaro-cropping. Il foIIovs llal slarocropping
is mosl IikoIy lo bo considorod in aroas of spociaIizod agricuIluro vloro llo
risks of varianco oulvoigl llo lransaclion cosls.
21
- Wlon Iabor suppIy is pIonlifuI, slaro-cropping is probabIy moro pro"l-
abIo llan coorcod casl-cropping. Hovovor, AIllougl slarocropping lad
llo disadvanlago, comparod lo coorcod casl-cropping, of groalor dif"cuIly
in suporvision, il lad llo advanlago of oncouraging llo poasanls offorls
lo incroaso produclivily, providod of courso llo poasanl vouId conlinuo
lo vork for llo soignior villoul IogaI compuIsion. In slorl, vlon Iabor
is pIonlifuI, slarocropping is probabIy moro pro"labIo llan coorcod casl-
cropping.
22
- Coorcod casl-crop Iabor is in lurn cloapor llan sIavory. Tlo ompIoyor musl
pay an iniliaI oulIay for sIavos .n! llo coorcod casl-crop vorkors and
lloir cousins producod parl of lloir 'vagos in llo form of food crops on
Iand oulsido llo conlroI of llo ompIoyor, vlicl voro lloroupon doducod
from llo Iabor cosls of llo ompIoyor. Tloroforo: Tlo lolaI of llo rocurronl
cosl of Iabor vas |ig|cr if ono usod sIavo Iabor llan if ono usod coorcod
casl-crop Iabor.
23
SIavory vas for llis roason a Iasl rosorl, onIy inlroducod
on a Iargo scaIo vlon coorcod casl-crop Iabor vas nol foasibIo for ono roa-
son or anollor.
19
WaIIorsloin, Mc!crn Wcr|!-Ssicm, II, p. 174, nolo.
20
Comparo ibid.
21
22
Ibid.
23
Ibid., p. 174.
,7; . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
- Wago Iabor is proporlionaIIy ovon moro oxponsivo, bocauso vagos for froo
vago Iabor musl covor llo fuII cosls of providing for proIolarian famiIios,
vloroas in ollor modos llo proIolarians llomsoIvos pay parl of llo cosls
of kooping llomsoIvos aIivo. |Ifj llo vago-incomo vork is bul a smaII pro-
porlion of lolaI lousoloId incomo, llo ompIoyor of llo vago vorkor is abIo
lo pay a suominim.| lourIy vago, forcing llo ollor 'compononls of lolaI
lousoloId incomo lo 'mako up llo difforonco bolvoon llo vago paid and
llo minimum noodod for survivaI. Tlus llo vork roquirod lo oblain supra-
minimaI incomo from subsislonco Iabor or polly commodily produclion in
ordor lo 'avorago oul al a minimum IovoI for llo vloIo lousoloId sorvos
in offocl as a 'subsidy for llo ompIoyor of llo vago Iaboror.
24
CapilaIisls lloroforo rosorl lo liring vago Iabor onIy if lloy cannol mobiIizo
Iabor povor in any ollor vay. Tlal is vly vago Iabor las nctcr boon llo
oxcIusivo, and unliI roconlIy nol ovon llo principaI, form of Iabor in llo cap-
ilaIisl vorId-oconomy.
25
Ono imporlanl roason vly ompIoyors lavo mado
uso of vago Iabor dospilo ils ligl cosl is s|i||. |Moroj skiIIod Iabor can insisl
on Ioss juridicaI coorcion.
26
Tlis oxpIains vly froo vago Iabor is dominanl
in capilaI- (and llus skiII-)inlonsivo branclos of llo vorId oconomy. SIav-
ory by conlrasl is convonionl for unskiIIod Iabor procossos vill a smaII pcr
c.pii. pro"l, vlicl is componsalod by llo Iargo quanlily of produclion.
27
- Tlo ovoraII vorId-vido pcrccni.gc of vago Iabor as a form of Iabor las
boon sloadiIy incroasing llrougloul llo lislory of llo capilaIisl vorId-
oconomy.
28
WaIIorsloin oxpIains llis as an offocl of roguIarIy occurring
bollIonocks of inadoqualo vorId domand: llrougl llo lransformalion
of non-vagod Iabor inlo vagod Iabor llo porlion of producod vaIuo llo
producor koops incroasos, rosuIling in an incroaso of vorId domand.
29

24
WaIIorsloin, Marx and Hislory, p. 130.
25
26
27
Ibid., p. 88.
28
29
Ibid., p. 290. WaIIorsloin froquonlIy mainlains llal coorcod Iaborors lavo IillIo
offoclivo domand. Ior inslanco, Tlo lropicaI coIonios voro a voak markol procisoIy
bocauso lloy londod lo uso coorcod Iabor |. . .j. Mc!crn Wcr|!-Ssicm, II, p. 103.
/0'123454%&6 %"&0'5 . ,7<
|Rjopoalod slagnalions of llo vorId-oconomy Ioad lo disconlinuous bul
nocossary (llal is, slop-Iiko) incroasos of llo purclasing povor of somo
(oacl limo nov) soclor of llo (vorId) popuIalion.
30
Workors llomsoIvos
mako a major conlribulion lo llis groving domand llrougl lloir coIIoc-
livo aclion: Workors organizo llomsoIvos in various vays and lloroby
acliovo somo of lloir domands, vlicl in facl pormils llom lo roacl llo
llrosloId of a lruo vago-basod minimum incomo. Tlal is, by lloir ovn
offorls, vorkors bocomo proIolarianizod, and llon sloul viclory!
31

WaIIorsloins opinions aboul modos of Iabor conlroI slimuIalod furllor
rosoarcl, in llo pasl docados, llo BraudoI Conlors coIIaboralors and frionds
lavo producod a Iargo quanlily of pubIicalions in vlicl modos of Iabor con-
lroI in various parls of llo vorId aro roconslruclod. Bul in mosl casos, llo
vorId-syslomic cc|crcncc bolvoon difforonl forms of oxpIoilalion romains
unoxaminod, nor is lloro any allompl lo givo a syslomalic oxpIanalion of u|
a parlicuIar mix of modos of Iabor conlroI aroso. Tlo vrilors aro oflon con-
lonl lo domonslralo llal llo conlours of llo lislory of a parlicuIar parl of llo
vorId lavo boon slapod by llo capilaIisl vorId-oconomy.
Marlin Murray, for oxampIo, pubIislod an improssivo book aboul coIoniaI
Indoclina, in vlicl mucl allonlion is dovolod lo Iabor conlroI. Ho slovs llal
in llo "rsl docados of lloir ruIo, Ironcl coIonisls found il impraclicaI and
ovon lopoIoss lo roIy upon markol forcos lo gonoralo adoqualo suppIios of
Iabor-povor. Tloy voro lloroforo compoIIod lo appIy oulrigll coorcion in
ordor lo inilialo oconomic aclivilios llal couId nol lavo boon accompIislod by
markol prossuros aIono.
32
Bul lo doos nol ansvor llo quoslion of vly coIo-
nisls rosorlod in llis silualion lo corvo Iabor, rallor llan lo anollor unfroo
modo of Iabor conlroI. Sucl Iacunao llo rosuIl of a Iack of syslomalic lis-
loricaI comparisons aro oflon found in sludios of llis kind. In a numbor of
casos, llo roforoncos lo llo vorId-syslom approacl romain quilo supor"ciaI,
vlal lloy slov is mainIy llal dovoIopmonls in a parlicuIar rogion cannol bo
undorslood villoul laking accounl of inlornalionaI Iinkagos.
33
Bul lloro aro
aIso sludios llal lako llo anaIysis furllor. Horo aro somo oxampIos:
30
WaIIorsloin, Marx and Hislory, pp. 1301.
31
Ibid., p. 131.
32
Murray, Dctc|cpmcni c| C.pii.|ism in Cc|cni.| |n!cc|in., pp. 845.
33
Soo o.g. WoiskoI, Iabor in llo Imorgonl Ioriplory, AImaguor, Inlorproling
Clicano Hislory, Marlin, Boyond llo Ioasanl lo IroIolarian Dobalo. To avoid
,7= . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
- DaIo Tomicl sludiod llo conlradiclions arising from llo docIino of sIavory
in llo Woslorn Homisploro during llo "rsl laIf of llo ninoloonll conlury:
on llo ono land, Brilain aboIislod sIavory, bul on llo ollor land sIavory
oxpandod massivoIy in llo Amoricas. Tomicl soos a causaI Iink bolvoon
lloso lvo dovoIopmonls: llo doslruclion of sIavory villin llo Brilisl
Impiro Iod lo llo inlonsi"calion of sIavory oIsovloro. Tlo domand for cof-
foo, sugar and collon muslroomod, and, sinco Brilisl coIonios voro pro-
ducing lloso goods al roIalivoIy ligl pricos llanks lo aboIilion, produclion
by sIavos !ourislod in Cuba, BraziI and llo Unilod Slalos. Tlis produc-
lion vas "nancod lo a Iargo oxlonl by Iondon-basod "nanciaI inslilulions,
bocauso llis socond sIavory (as Tomicl caIIs il) providod oulIols for sur-
pIus Brilisl capilaI. Il aIso consoIidalod a nov inlornalionaI division of
Iabor and providod imporlanl rav maloriaIs and foodsluffs for induslriaI-
izing coro povors.
34
- Ann Iorsyllo and Roborlo Korzoniovicz slov lov clangos in llo Iuro-
poan coro in!uoncod Iabor roIalions in llo Argonlinian poriplory. Wlon
IngIands vooIon induslry inlroducod innovalions in llo socond laIf of llo
ninoloonll conlury, onlropronours in llo Conlinonl voro forcod lo mocla-
nizo and adopl faclory produclion mollods. Tlo loclnoIogicaI clangos and
incroasod compolilion lad lvo consoquoncos. On llo ono land, domand
grov for Argonlinoan vooI as a rav maloriaI, and on llo ollor land llo
suppIy of Iuropoan vooIon goods in Argonlina bocamo cloapor. Tlis duaI
dovoIopmonl doslroyod llo lradilionaI colosion bolvoon vooI produclion
and vooI procossing in Argonlina and slimuIalod sloplording, domoslic,
landicrafl loxliIo produclion virluaIIy coIIapsod in llo 1870s and 1880s.
IaraIIoI vill lloso slifls, llo gondorod division of Iabor clangod in boll
Iuropo and Argonlina. As llo ninoloonll conlury drov lo a cIoso, llo caII
for a famiIy vago rosoundod moro and moro IoudIy.
35
- Arllur AIdorson and Sloplon Sandorson drav on socondary sourcos
in ordor lo oxamino lousoloId pallorns in oarIy modorn Iuropo from
WaIIorsloins porspoclivo. Tloy concIudo llal llo difforonl modos of Iabor
conlroI corroIalo fairIy cIosoIy vill difforonl lousoloId pallorns. In somo-
misundorslandings I slouId omplasizo llal aII lloso sludios aro usofuI conlribulions
lo llo vriling of Iabor lislory.
34
Tomicl, 'Socond SIavory, p. 115.
35
Iorsyllo and Korzoniovicz, Gondor RoIalions in llo WorId Iconomy.
/0'123454%&6 %"&0'5 . ,7>
vlal sclomalic lorms, llo froor a modo of Iabor conlroI is, llo Ioss compIox
lousoloId slrucluro bocomos. In coro counlrios (llo NollorIands and Ing-
Iand) proIolarian lousoloId slrucluro vas prodominanlIy simpIo. Tlis vas
quilo ralionaI, lloy oxpIain, sinco il makos no sonso for farm Iaborors vlo
aro vorking for vagos lo lavo Iargo famiIios for llo simpIo roason llal,
undor condilions of IandIossnoss, famiIy mombors bocomo oconomic IiabiIi-
lios rallor llan assols (or al Ioasl aro moro of a IiabiIily llan an assol).
36
In
llo Iaslorn Iuropoan poriplory vill ils Iargo IandloIdings, by conlrasl,
lousoloIds voro vory compIox, bocauso llis moanl moro Iabor lo vork
llo Iand, vlicl moanl a bollor opporlunily lo mool subsislonco noods and
lo rospond lo llo domands for surpIus imposod by IandIords.
37
IinaIIy, in
llo slaro-cropping somi-poriplory (Auslria, Gormany, Iranco, IlaIy), lloro
vas a combinalion of simpIo and compIox lousoloIds. Compuling llo ralio
of simpIo lo compIox lousoloIds in llo llroo zonos, AIdorson and Sandor-
son "nd llal llo ralio in llo coro is approximaloIy 5.9: 1, llal in llo poripl-
ory llo ralio is rouglIy 1.1: 1 (or 0.7: 1 if llo alypicaI casos aro omillod), and
llal in llo somiporiplory llo ralio is aboul 1.6: 1.
38
- In a caso sludy, Torry Dickinson invosligalos WaIIorsloins llosis llal llo
proporlion of non-vago incomo doponds on llo Iocalion of vorking cIass
lousoloIds in llo difforonl zonos of llo vorId syslom. Slo lypollosizos
llal (i) vorking-cIass lousoloIds in llo coro rocoivo liglor vago incomos
llan lousoloIds in llo poriplory, and llal (ii) lloso liglor vago incomos
covor a groalor porlion of llo cosls of lloir mainlonanco. Using sourcos
incIuding llo arclivaI rocords of IliIadoIplias vorklouso (llo Houso of
Induslry), Dickinson loslod llis lypollosis for llo posl-1830 poriod. Dur-
ing llis poriod, llo US cIimbod up llo vorId liorarcly from llo poriplory
lo a logomonic coro posilion, and according lo Dickinson llis dovoIopmonl
vas ro!oclod in gondor and ago divisions in lousoloIds. As llo slaro of
vagos in lousoloId incomo grov, nol onIy did llo imporlanco of infor-
maI vork and soIf-ompIoymonl docroaso, bul moro poIarizod vork roIa-
lions aIso dovoIopod bolvoon mon and vomon and bolvoon cliIdron and
aduIls. Dickinson concIudos llal nov idoas aboul gondor and ago ovoIvod
36
AIdorson and Sandorson, Hisloric Iuropoan HousoloId Slrucluros, p. 425.
37
Ibid., p. 426.
38
Ibid., pp. 4278.
,7- . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
procisoIy from llo limo vlon moro llan lvo-llirds of lousoloId incomo
consislod of vagos. Al llis 'lvo-llirds vago-oarning lurning poinl,
famiIios sonl lloir cliIdron lo sclooI, vomon bogan lo do"no llomsoIvos
llrougl llo domoslic sploro and mon bogan lo considor llomsoIvos llo
main broadvinnors.
39
4+*<1*#= 0+3310'$>1 -0'$+"
Slralogios of rosislanco and survivaI of subaIlorn groups or cIassos novor
occupiod a conlraI pIaco in WaIIorsloins vorId-syslom approacl. Tloro is
IillIo anaIysis lo bo found in lis vrilings aboul, for oxampIo, llo inlorac-
lion bolvoon sIavo roboIIions and modos of sIavo oxpIoilalion. His nogIocl
of sociaI prolosl is somolimos ovon compoundod by nogalivo ovaIualions of
il, parlicuIarIy as far as vorkors movomonls aro concornod. AIroady oarIy
on WaIIorsloin admirod Iranlz Ianon, a lloorisl voII-knovn for lis Iack
of approcialion for llo rising vorkors movomonls in coIoniaI counlrios.
40

GonoraIizing Ianons porspoclivo, WaIIorsloin docIaros: Has il nol boon lruo
|. . .j of llo majorily of vorkors movomonls llal lloir slrongll and lloir
cadros lavo boon dravn from a sogmonl of llo vorking popuIalion vlicl
vas somovlal 'bollor off, vlollor llis sogmonl voro loclnicaIIy indopon-
donl arlisans or moro liglIy paid skiIIod (and/or crafl) vago vorkors` Tlo
soarcl for lloso vlo lruIy lad nolling lo Ioso bul lloir clains |. . .j Ioads us
loday lo vlal is variousIy caIIod llo subproIolarial, llo IumponproIolarial,
llo unskiIIod (oflon immigranl) vorkors, llo marginaI, llo clronicaIIy unom-
pIoyod.
41
AIongsido llis argumonl aboul sociaI slrali"calion, WaIIorsloin offors a soc-
ond roason for lis Iov opinion of Iabor movomonls. Tlanks lo lloir form of
39
Dickinson, Ccmmcn Wc.|i|, idom, Gondor Division villin llo U.S. Working
CIass. }oan Smill ondorsos Dickinsons llosis, bul adds lor ovn surmiso llal llo
inlonsily of unvagod domoslic Iabor is mucl Ioss affoclod by vago IovoIs: Il is pro-
cisoIy llis roIalivo indopondonco from vago IovoIs llal forcos aII bul llo mosl voaIlly
famiIios inlo privalizod lousoloId Iabor and oxlonds llo duralion of llis Iabor moro
or Ioss lo llo samo dogroo, vlollor or nol lloro is llo samo amounl of avaiIabIo limo
lo accompIisl il. Slo admils llal ompiricaI ovidonco for llis lypollosis is sliII Iack-
ing. Smill, Nonvago Iabor and Subsislonco, p. 81.
40
WaIIorsloin, Ianon, Iranlz, idom, Ianon and llo RovoIulionary CIass.
41
WaIIorsloin, Mc!crn Wcr|!-Ssicm, III, p. 108.
/0'123454%&6 %"&0'5 . ,77
organizalion, lo mainlains, lloy aro in roaIily povorIoss in faco of llo vorId
syslom. Tlo capilaIisl oconomy is a vorId oconomy, and llo vorking cIass
.n sic| |in ilsoIfj is lloroforo by do"nilion a vorId cIass. On llo ollor land,
cIassos |r sic| |for llomsoIvosj organizo llomsoIvos (or porlaps ono slouId
say disorganizo llomsoIvos) al llo IovoI of llo lorriloriaI slalos,
42
bocauso
poIilicaI povor is organizod in llo capilaIisl vorId syslom llrougl slalos.
Tlo vorId vorking cIass is lloroforo llo viclim of a fundamonlaI, insoIubIo
diIomma, vlicl makos il impossibIo for ils movomonls lo oporalo offoc-
livoIy on a gIobaI scaIo.
Bul nol aII of WaIIorsloins co-llinkors foIIovod llo oxaclIy samo opinion
on llis poinl. Iorlaps inspirod by llo vork of }amos Cronin and Irnosl Man-
doI (vlo suggoslod a causaI roIalionslip bolvoon Kondraliov vavos and llo
poriodic romaking of vorking cIassos),
43
somo of llo BraudoI Conlors coI-
Iaboralors formod a Rosoarcl Working Group on WorId Iabor in 1980 (vlicl,
incidonlaIIy, sooms lo lavo lad somo iniliaI dif"cuIlios in "nding ils fool).
In 1985, llo group draflod a rosoarcl proposaI. Tloy obsorvod llal llo lvo
dominanl paradigms in US Iabor lislory (Marxism and llo Wisconsin SclooI
of }oln Commons, SoIig IorIman and ollors) faiIod lo undorsland oillor llo
lrajoclory of Iabor movomonls or llo muIli-facolod vorking cIass cuIluros in
advancod capilaIisl counlrios. A major parl of llo probIom, llo group arguod,
vas llo unil of anaIysis: boll of lloso lradilionaI paradigms focusod on
nalionaI and IocaI Iabor movomonls, and usuaIIy covorod slorl poriods of
limo and narrov aroas of gIobaI spaco.
44
Tlo group poinlod oul llal in llo
aflormall of WorId Wars I and II, and in llo Ialo 1960s/oarIy 1970s, lugo
lransnalionaI vavos of con!icl bolvoon Iabor and capilaI broko oul. Tlis sug-
goslod llal a common sol of sociaI procossos Iink logollor Iabor movomonls
in various nalionaI IocaIos.
45
By sludying lloso lransnalionaI vavos of con-
!icl, nalionaI Iabor lislorios couId bo pul in a difforonl porspoclivo:
42
WaIIorsloin, Hov Do Wo Knov CIass SlruggIo Wlon Wo Soo Il`, p. 105. Tlis
is a ropIy lo Ira Gorsloins Tloorios of llo WorId Iconomy and ImporiaIism.
43
Cronin, Slagos, CycIos, and Insurgoncios, MandoI, Icng W.tcs c| C.pii.|isi
Dctc|cpmcni, osp. Claplor 2.
44
Rosoarcl Working Group on WorId Iabor, GIobaI Iallorns of Iabor Movo-
monls, p. 138.
45
Ibid., p. 139.
:88 . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
Wo aro no by no moans advocaling llal llo invosligalion of llo vorId Iabor
movomonl somolov suporsodos llo anaIysis of nalionaI Iabor movomonls
(jusl as no ono vouId cIaim llal sludios of nalionaI Iabor movomonls
suporsodo llo sludy of IocaI movomonls). Quilo llo conlrary. Wo aro
suggosling llal an anaIysis of llo lrajoclory of Iabor-capilaI con!icl al a
vorId IovoI can assisl in roinlorproling llo sludios of Iabor movomonls al
llo nalionaI and IocaI IovoIs. If gIobaI procossos of accumuIalion and of
slruggIo lavo slapod llo pallorn of con!icl in aII IocaIos (aIllougl mosl
corlainIy nol in a lomogonoous faslion), llon llo insiglls from vorId-IovoI
anaIysis slouId bo brougll lo boar on lloso con!icls.
46

Tloso iniliaI llosos voro Ialor spoci"od in llo foIIoving lvo conlraI rosoarcl
promisos:
1. SociaI con!icl (and parlicuIarIy Iabor-capilaI con!icl) is a conlraI procoss
driving llo lisloricaI ovoIulion of llo vorId-syslom. Major vavos of Iabor
unrosl provoko poriods of major vorIdvido sociaI, poIilicaI, and oconomic
roslrucluring. Tlo Iallor roslrucluring croalos, ovor limo, nov vorking cIassos
and nov vavos of slruggIo, and
2. Workors and vorkors movomonls Iocalod in difforonl slalos/rogions
aro Iinkod lo oacl ollor by llo vorId-scaIo division of Iabor and inlorslalo
syslom. A major vavo of Iabor unrosl in ono Iocalion can sol off a clain
of procossos (o.g., capilaI roIocalion) llal las a profound impacl on llo
Iivos of vorkors, boll in llo originaI silo of unrosl, and in dislanl Iocalions
llrougloul llo vorId-syslom.
47
To anaIyzo gIobaI pallorns in Iabor miIilancy moro carofuIIy, llo group sol
up a dalabaso, using llo indoxos of 1|c 1imcs (Iondon) (from 1906 on) and
1|c Ncu Ycr| 1imcs (from 1870 on).
48
Informalion on llo yoar, lypo of aclion,
counlry, cily and induslry vas rocordod for ovory monlion of Iabor unrosl
anyvloro in llo vorId. To bogin vill, aII llo numoricaI dala assombIod in
llis vay for llo poriod 18701985 vas usod in furllor anaIysos.
49
Ialor llo
ccmoinc! sorios of dala from boll novspapors for llo poriod 190690 voro
46
Ibid.
47
SiIvor, Iabor Unrosl and WorId-Sysloms AnaIysis, p. 11.
48
Tlo indox lo 1|c 1imcs of Iondon bogins in 1906. Soo aIso DangIor, Tlo 1imcs
(Iondon) and llo Ncu Ycr| 1imcs.
49
Soo SiIvor, CIass SlruggIo and Kondralioff Wavos.
/0'123454%&6 %"&0'5 . :89
usod as llo basis for a maximum sorios, llal is, llo maximum numbor of
incidonls of Iabor unrosl monlionod in oci| of llo lvo sourcos (83,964 casos).
50

Aflor rogionaI roIiabiIily sludios voro dono vill posilivo rosuIls,
51
llo group
bogan idonlifying vavos of Iabor unrosl. Tlo provisionaI rosuIls voro romark-
abIo. Tlo group obsorvod llal lloro vas no slrong ovidonco of any cIoso
connoclion bolvoon Iabor unrosl and so-caIIod Iong vavos (Kondraliovs).
52

TabIo 13.2 boIov givos grovll ralos (moan slandardizod sIopos) and moan
IovoIs of inlonsily. Tlo lloorios of Cronin, MandoI and Scropanli
53
lad sug-
goslod llal grovll ralos slouId riso in plasos of oconomic oxpansion and
docIino in rocossivo plasos. Bul llo dala do nol con"rm sucl an inlorprola-
lion. Rallor, lloy indicalo llal, on a gIobaI scaIo, llo Ialo ninoloonll conlury
rovoaIs moro of a slraigll upvard lrond llan any Kondralioff-roIalod aIlora-
lion of plasos.
54
TabIo 13.2
Tlo inlonsily of vorId-scaIo Iabor unrosl according lo llo WorId Iabor Rosoarcl
Working Group, BraudoI Conlor
Yoar Iconomic
aclivily
Indox of inlonsily of
Iabor unrosl (191448 = 100)
Grovll ralos ()
WorId Coro Non-coro WorId Coro Non-coro
187293 Dovn 2 10 0.2 8 7 12
18931917 Up 9 18 5 9 8 9
191740 Dovn 105 106 107 5 6 4
194068 Up 143 96 195 2 0 4
196885 Dovn 110 58 174 0 5 4
Scurcc. CIass SlruggIo and Kondralioff Wavos, p. 285, idom, WorId-ScaIo Iallorns of Iabor-
CapilaI Con!icl, p. 157. Tlo indox of inlonsily of Iabor unrosl is llo muIlipIicalion of an indox
of aculonoss (llo numbor of roporls of Iabor unrosl por yoar) and an indox of oxlonsion (llo num-
bor of counlrios in vlicl Iabor unrosl is roporlod por yoar).
An arlicIo pubIislod in 1992 (basod on llo oId dalabaso for llo vloIo poriod
18701985) concIudos llal four slorl poriods sland oul as oxpIosions of
50
SiIvor, Iabor Unrosl.
51
Tlo roIiabiIily sludios voro pubIislod in Rcticu, 18 (1995), issuo 1. Tloy concornod
IlaIy (Giovanni Arrigli), Clina (Mark SoIdon), Soull Africa (Mark BoilloI), Argonlina
(Roborlo M. Korzoniovicz), Igypl (DonaId Qualaorl), llo Unilod Slalos (MoIvyn
Dubofsky), and Gormany ( }oln Casparis and Giovanni Arrigli).
52
SiIvor, WorId-ScaIo Iallorns of Iabor-CapilaI Con!icl, idom, CIass SlruggIo
and Kondralioff Wavos.
53
Scropanli, Iong Iconomic CycIos, idom, Iong CycIos in Slriko Aclivily.
54
SiIvor, CIass SlruggIo and Kondralioff Wavos, p. 285.
:8, . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
Iabor unrosl: llo yoars 188990, 191112, 191920 and 194648. In oacl of
lloso poriods, cIass-slruggIo inlonsily lad lo bo al Ioasl doubIo llo avorago
of llo procoding "vo yoars for lvo or moro consoculivo yoars. Tlis criloria
lad lo bo mol for llo vorId-scaIo indox .n! for llo indicos of llo coro and non-
coro counlrios lakon soparaloIy for al Ioasl ono yoar in oacl sol.
55
In anollor
anaIysis pubIislod llroo yoars Ialor, using llo maximum sorios for 190690
and a somovlal difforonl do"nilion of yoars of oxpIosion, onIy llo yoars
191920 and 194647 voro prosonlod as oxpIosions on a vorId scaIo, llougl
ollor yoars voro addod soparaloIy for llo coro, somi-poriplory and poriplory
(TabIo 13.3).
56

TabIo 13.3
IxpIosion yoars of Iabor unrosl, 190690
WorId Coro Somiporiplory Ioriplory
1912 1913
191920 191820 191920
1925
192729
1932 1936
1937
194647 19467 1946 1946
1949
195051 195356
1959 1959
1962
1965
1981
Scurcc: SiIvor, WorId-ScaIo Iallorns of Iabor-CapilaI Con!icl, p. 172.
Tlo Working Groups Ialor anaIysos soom lo lavo focusod abovo aII on llo
yoars 191920 and 194647. Tloso lvo sociaI oxpIosions lavo in common llal
lloy foIIovod vorId vars, and roaclod poak IovoIs (2,085 monlions of Iabor
unrosl in 191920, 1,469 in 194647).
57
Bul invorsoIy, il vas aIso llo caso llal
Iabor unrosl docIinod al llo boginning of llo vorId vars. Moro spoci"caIIy,
llo dala supporl llroo apparonlIy conlradiclory lypollosos:
55
SiIvor, CIass SlruggIo and Kondralioff Wavos, p. 285.
56
In llis 1995 roporl, yoars of oxpIosion voro do"nod as yoars in vlicl llo
numbor of monlions/vavos vas oquaI lo lvico llo moan of llo monlions/vavos
sorios. (SiIvor, WorId-ScaIo Iallorns, p. 189).
57
SiIvor, WorId-ScaIo Iallorns, p. 159.
/0'123454%&6 %"&0'5 . :8:
- IirslIy, il sooms as if invoIvomonl in var incroasos sociaI colosion al llo
nalionaI IovoI and llus brings aboul inlornaI poaco, bocauso govornmonls
uso combinalions of roprossion and cooplalion in ordor lo onsuro llo
cooporalion of vorkors in llo var offorl.
58
Tlis lypollosis is backod up by
llo vork of DougIas Hibbs and ClarIos TiIIy,
59
bul Hibbs and TiIIy Iimilod
lloir anaIysos lo Woslorn Iuropo and Norll Amorica, vliIo llo Working
Group providos roasons lo concIudo llal llo docIino in miIilancy during
llo vorId vars vas far moro gonoraI.
60
Tlo rools of llis docIino may bo
llo samo for molropoIilan and coIoniaI counlrios. Indood, al llo limo of llo
Socond WorId War, coIoniaI and somicoIoniaI counlrios lad bocomo ligllIy
inlogralod inlo llo rosourco suppIy-Iinos of llo imporiaI povors.
61
- SocondIy, llo Working Group suggosls llal invoIvomonl in var incroasos
sociaI con!icl al llo nalionaI IovoI and incroasos llo clancos of rovoIu-
lion.
62
Tlis lypollosis is of courso aIroady famiIiar from llo vrilings of
Ioon Trolsky, for oxampIo, and from scloIars sucl as ClarIos TiIIy and oll-
ors.
63
In boll vorId vars, llo caIming offocl of roprossion and co-oplalion
voro off aflor a fov yoars, and sociaI unrosl grov. Aflor llo vars ondod,
roboIIiousnoss incroasod onormousIy, abovo aII bocauso llo domands
mado by vorkors and ollor cilizons on llo slalo incroaso, al llo samo limo
as llo slalos abiIily lo salisfy and/or ropross lloso domands docroasos.
64

Oulbursls of Iabor unrosl aIso look pIaco in (somi-)poriploraI rogions. Tlis
"ls vill WaIlor GoIdfranks lypollosis (soo boIov) llal var and inslabiI-
ily in coro counlrios opon up spaco for sociaI con!icl in llo poriplory and
somi-poriplory.
- TlirdIy, llo Working Group concIudos llal sociaI con!icl al llo nalionaI
IovoI oncouragos govornmonls lo invoIvo llomsoIvos in inlorslalo vars.
65

Ividonco for llis cIaim is found in llo groving Iabor unrosl prccc!ing llo
vorId vars. According lo llo Working Groups dala, lloro voro oxpIo-
sions in llo vorId sysloms coro in 1912 and 1937, and in llo somi-poriplory
58
SiIvor, WorId-ScaIo Iallorns, pp. 1624.
59
Hibbs, IoIilicaI Iconomy of Iong-Run Tronds, TiIIy, Inlroduclion.
60
61
Ibid.
62
Ibid., pp. 162, 1649.
63
TiIIy, Ircm Mcoi|iz.iicn ic Rctc|uiicn, pp. 189222.
64
65
Ibid., p. 162.
:8; . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
in 1913 and 1936. Givon llal llo vorId vars originalod in llo coro and
somi-poriplory, and llal oxpIosions of unrosl occurrod in llo immodi-
alo prc-vorId var yoars in llo coro and somiporiplory, llis suggosls llal
vlon muIlipIo counlrios oxporionco oxpIosions of sociaI con!icl al llo
nalionaI IovoI, govornmonls and capilaIisls sook soIulions lo inlornaI lon-
sions llrougl moans llal incroaso llo IikoIilood of vorId var.
66
TabIo 13.3 aIso slovs llal lloro voro no moro oxpIosions .|icr 1947 in llo coro,
bul llal lloy did occur in llo poriplory and somi-poriplory. Tlo Working
Group soos llis as a ro!oclion of llo USs riso lo logomonic povor. WliIo
roprossion of radicaI vorkors groups vas accompaniod in coro counlrios by
co-oplalion via Iordisl mass consumplion, llo grovll of llo vorking cIass
in non-coro counlrios Iod lo vory difforonl dovoIopmonls.
67

Tlo Working Groups conlribulions aro llougll-provoking and suggoslivo.
Bul somo mollodoIogicaI doubls romain. Ior oxampIo, lov vaIid aro dala
sorios basod on llo Iondon 1imcs and 1|c Ncu Ycr| 1imcs` Tvo crilics lavo
nolod llal as a rosuIl of lloir idooIogicaI porcoplion lloso lvo novspapors
onIy pay allonlion lo somo vorkors slruggIos, and nol ollors.
68
Bul ono migll
aIso ask vly onIy IngIisl-Ianguago novspapors voro usod. Wly vas llo
do"nilion of yoars of oxpIosion clangod bolvoon llo lvo pubIicalions, and
vly vas llis clango nol jusli"od lo lloir roadors` Wly voro oxpIosions in
191213 (bul nol in 1914) and in 193637 (bul nol in 193839) lroalod as ovi-
donco llal vorId vars aro causod in parl by sociaI unrosl` Ollor subslanlivo
quoslions aIso ariso. Ior oxampIo, vlal oxpIains llo vorIdvido fracluro in llo
avorago IovoIs of inlonsily of Iabor unrosl aflor 1917 (TabIo 13.2)` Is llo disap-
poaranco of oxpIosions of Iabor unrosl in llo coro aflor 1947 (TabIo 13.3) roaIIy
llo consoquonco of US logomony, or aro lloro aIso ollor causos`
IaraIIoI vill lloir aclivilios in llo Working Group, mombors aIso pub-
Iislod ollor sludios of vorkors coIIoclivo aclion. Difforoncos in omplasis
lavo bocomo visibIo bolvoon llo lislorians vork and llal of llo socioIo-
gisls. MoIvyn Dubofsky, for oxampIo, a Ioading Iabor lislorian, losilalos
66
Ibid., p. 173.
67
Ibid., pp. 174182.
68
Moynon and ScloIIiors, Commonl, p. 299.
/0'123454%&6 %"&0'5 . :8<
lo gonoraIizo quickIy. WliIo lo occasionaIIy monlions porsislonl pallorns
or roIalionslips, lo nolos nonolloIoss llal in mosl aroas |. . .j sorondipily
and inconsisloncy provaiI.
69
SocioIogisls Iiko Giovanni Arrigli and BovorIy
SiIvor by conlrasl aro nol afraid lo skolcl oul broad oulIinos, and summa-
rizo dovoIopmonls across a conlury and a laIf in a fov gonoraI lypollosos.
Hovovor, lloso difforoncos do nol provonl llo difforonl conlribulions from
compIomonling oacl ollor, or from furllor omplasizing llo imporlanco of
vars and Kondraliov vavos:
- Tlo roIo of vars in llo dovoIopmonl of vorkors coIIoclivo aclion is fro-
quonlIy omplasizod. In a sludy of Iabor movomonls in Norll Amorica
(18731970) Dubofsky dislinguislos "vo major surgos in union momborslip
and slrikos: 188586, 18981903, 191619, 194145 and 195153. A compara-
livo anaIysis brings lim lo llo concIusion llal noillor oconomic cycIos, nor
oconomic conconlralion (morgor movomonls), nor cycIos of proIolarianiza-
lion can oxpIain lloso surgos. Ho doos poinl oul llal llo Iasl four of llo "vo
surgos voro associalod vill vars: llo impacl of var and ils aflormall
oconomic, sociaI, and poIilicaI is llo faclor (porlaps ovon llo indopondonl
variabIo) mosl cIosoIy roIalod vill risos in union momborslip, slriko ralos,
and aII forms of vorkor miIilancy.
70
In a comparalivo sludy of vorkors
movomonls in Clina and }apan (18501950) Mark SoIdon roaclos a simiIar
concIusion, poinling lo llo congruonco of inlornalionaI calacIysm (llo lvo
WorId Wars) vill llo possibiIily for povorfuI vorking-cIass inlorvonlion
in llo lisloricaI procoss undor vory difforonl lisloricaI condilions.
71
- IspociaIIy Arrigli and SiIvor omplasizo llo imporlanco of Kondraliov
vavos. Tloy baso lloir poriodizalion of Iabor movomonls in Woslorn Iuropo
and Norll Amorica (184896, 18961948 and 1948-prosonl) on lloso vavos,
and suggosl aII sorls of connoclions vlicl couId bo invosligalod furllor.
Tloy poinl oul, for oxampIo, llal llo modorn Iabor movomonl omorgod
during llo "rsl Iong vavo of oconomic grovll (vlon Brilain vas llo vorId
logomon). During llo rocossivo plaso of llal vavo llo Groal Doprossion
(187396) llrougl inlonsifying compolilivo prossuros and vidonod
69
Dubofsky, Workors Movomonls in Norll Amorica, p. 38.
70
Ibid.
71
SoIdon IroIolarial, p. 111.
:8= . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
and dooponod procossos of proIolarianizalion vill llo corrosponding
muIlipIicalion of occasions of con!icl bolvoon Iabor and capilaI, llo con-
dilions voro croalod for llo Iabor movomonl in ils modorn form vill ils
nalionaI lrado union fodoralions and vorking cIass parlios. In llo poriod
18961948 llo Iabor movomonl in llo coro roaclod ils apogo as llo con-
lraI anli-syslomic forco. Tloroaflor, a graduaI voakoning bocamo appar-
onl, cIoarIy visibIo in llo rocossivo Kondraliov from 1968 on, as Iuropoan
and }apanoso "rms, foIIoving llo Ioad sol by US capilaI, bogan lo oxpand
inlornalionaIIy. Tlis inlonsi"od inlornalionaI compolilion, and Iod lo llo
cosl-culling raco of llo 1970s and 1980s as voII as lo incroasod "nanciaI
spocuIalion. Tlo main impacl of lloso clangos vas a Iimilod bul vory roaI
sproad of mass misory lo llo coro zono. Cosl-culling look llo forms of
fominizalion of llo vagod Iabor forco, pIanl roIocalion, aulomalion and sci-
onco-basod loclnoIogios. Tlo rosuIl vas a major rosluf!ing of llo vorId
vorking cIass.
72
- Tlo mosl imporlanl pubIicalion from llo circIos of llo Working Group
vas BovorIy SiIvors Icrccs c| I.ocr (2003). In llis sludy, llomos from oIdor
pubIicalions obviousIy rolurnod, sucl as llo in!uonco of vorId vars on
Iabor unrosl. Bul imporlanl nov oIomonls aro aIso inlroducod. Using llo
oxampIos of llo loxliIo and car induslry, SiIvor aims lo slov llal llo inlor-
roIalionslip bolvoon Iabor movomonls and capilaI las a do"nilo Iogic.
Doponding on various faclors (incIuding producl Iifo cycIos and inlor-slalo
con!icls) and drivon by rocurronl vorkors rosislanco, businoss dovoIops
al Ioasl four slralogios in ils allompl lo mainlain pro"labiIily: (i) llo spa-
liaI "x, i.o. llo goograplicaI roIocalion lo rogions vill cloapor and moro
dociIo vorkors, (ii) llo loclnoIogicaI/organizalionaI "x, i.o. llo lransfor-
malion of Iabor procossos, (iii) llo producl "x, i.o. llo slifl of capilaI lo
nov induslrios and producl Iinos, and (iv) do "nanciaI "x, i.o. llo slifl of
capilaI from produclion and lrado lo monoy Ionding and spocuIalion. AII
lloso rosponsos lo Iabor prolosl undorminod oslabIislod cusloms and Iivo-
72
Arrigli, Marxisl Conlury, Amorican Conlury, pp. 34, 36, 51. Soo aIso Arrigli,
Iabor Movomonl in Tvonlioll Conlury Woslorn Iuropo. Arrigli and SiIvor aIso
formuIalod ollor lypollosos aboul Iabor movomonls in coro counlrios (o.g. aboul llo
Iink bolvoon llo riso of conlinuous !ov produclion and incroasod vorkpIaco bar-
gaining povor for vorkors), bul lloso aro nol diroclIy connoclod lo llo vorId-syslom
approacl. Soo o.g. Arrigli and SiIvor, Iabor Movomonls and CapilaI Migralion.
/0'123454%&6 %"&0'5 . :8>
Iiloods, bul lloy simuIlanoousIy croalod and slrongllonod nov vork-
ing cIassos vill slralogic bargaining povor in llo oxpanding and pro"labIo
sogmonls of llo gIobaI oconomy.
73
!".$*10' 0+"'*$9?'$+"#
Il is ovidonl, llon, llal supporlors of llo vorId-syslom approacl lavo assom-
bIod somo insigllfuI fragmonls of lloory ovor llo yoars, vlicl aro usofuI
in llo conslruclion of a GIobaI Iabor Hislory. Tlis concIusion is in no vay
undorminod by llo facl llal lloso fragmonls aro nol aIvays oquaIIy coloronl,
and llal, from a lislorians poinl of viov, lloy aro somolimos rallor crudoIy
formuIalod or nood lo bo quaIi"od moro. Moroovor, boyond llo !ircci appIi-
calions of llo vork of llo BraudoI Conlor and ils sympallizors vlicl aro of
inlorosl lo Iabor lislorians, lloro aro aIso in!ircci appIicalions llal may bo
roIovanl. I viII monlion a fov:
- Ccmmc!ii c|.ins. Tlo division of Iabor bolvoon poriplory, somi-poripl-
ory and coro, vill lloir difforonl modos of Iabor conlroI so conlraI lo
WaIIorsloins approacl, can aIso bo inlorprolod in anollor vay. Il can bo
undorslood in roIalion lo commodily clains, a concopl in voguo in vari-
ous forms sinco llo 1960s (as in llo Ironcl !|icrc approacl) and vlicl las
bocomo inlornalionaIIy knovn sinco llo 1990s, abovo aII llrougl llo vork
of Gary Gorof" and MiguoI Korzoniovicz.
74
In a 1986 ossay, Toronco Hop-
kins and ImmanuoI WaIIorsloin doscribo llo concopl commodily clain
as a nolvork of Iabor and produclion procossos vloso ond rosuIl is a
"nislod commodily.
75
Claso-Dunn is somovlal moro prociso, doscrib-
ing a commodily clain as a lroo-Iiko soquonco of produclion procossos
and oxclangos by vlicl a producl for "naI consumplion is producod.
Tloso Iinkagos of rav maloriaIs, Iabor, llo suslonanco of Iabor, inlormodialo
73
SiIvor, Icrccs c| I.ocr, pp. 1312. Soo aIso Arrigli, SpaliaI and Ollor 'Iixos.
74
As oarIy as llo 1980s Hopkins and WaIIorsloin inlogralod llis concopl inlo lloir
vorId-syslom lloory. Soo lloir Commodily Clains. Gorof" and Korzoniovicz llon
loslod llo concopl in a conlomporary sludy: Commodily Clains and Ioolvoar Ixporls
in llo Somiporiplory. Tlo broakllrougl camo vill an anlloIogy llal Gorof" and
Korzoniovicz odilod, Ccmmc!ii C|.ins .n! G|co.| C.pii.|ism.
75
Hopkins and WaIIorsloin, Commodily Clains, p. 159.
:8- . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
procossing, "naI procossing, lransporl, and "naI consumplion maloriaIIy con-
nocl mosl of llo poopIo villin llo conlomporary vorId-syslom.
76

Tlo ossonco of llo idoa is simpIo: ovory commodily omorgos llrougl a pro-
duclion procoss in vlicl Iabor povor and moans of produclion lavo boon
combinod. Tlo moans of produclion llomsoIvos aro in lurn a producl of a
combinalion of Iabor povor and ollor moans of produclion. Tlo Iabor forco
aIso consumos goods Iiko cIollos and food, vlicl aIso lavo boon producod
llrougl a combinalion of Iabor povor and moans of produclion. In slorl,
llo uIlimalo produclion procoss llal rosuIls in a "nislod producl is onIy
llo ond poinl of a bundIo of clains of produclion procossos. Tlis llougll
las unliI nov mainIy inspirod conlomporary oconomisls, vlo lavo sludiod
commodilios incIuding lourism, llo sorvico soclor, frosl fruil and vogola-
bIos, cocaino, foolvoar, oIoclronics, cars and somiconduclors.
77
HisloricaI caso
sludios aro sliII vory mucl oconomicaIIy orionlod.
78
TloorolicaI vork in llis
aroa as voII las vory mucl focusod on oconomic aspocls, moro parlicuIarIy
on curronl so-caIIod gIobaIizalion.
79

- Cc|cni.|ism. AIborl Borgoson and RonaId Scloonborg doscribo llo Iong-
lorm dovoIopmonl of coIoniaIism. Tloy baso lloir vork on a sludy by David
Honigo daling coIoniaI adminislralions for 412 coIonios (incIuding llo yoars
during vlicl coIoniaI govornors loId of"co) in llo poriod 14151969.
80
Borgo-
son and Scloonborg caIcuIalod from Honigos vork lov many coIonios voro
oslabIislod, lorminalod and oxislod oacl yoar. Tloir rosuIls slov cIoarIy llal
coIoniaIism unfoIdod in lvo vavos (soo Iiguro 13.1).
76
Claso-Dunn, G|co.| Icrm.iicn, p. 346.
77
Soo o.g. Gorof" and Korzoniovicz, Ccmmc!ii C|.ins .n! G|co.| C.pii.|ism. An
oxlonsivo bibIiograply on commodily clains is avaiIabIo from GIobaI Obsorvalorys
Rosourco Informalion (vvv.sliIo.Iul.ac.uk/~gyobs/gIobaI).
78
zvoron, SlipbuiIding, IoIizzon, Grain IIour, TaIbol, SlruggIo for ConlroI
of a Commodily Clain, Hunlor, Commodily Clains and Nolvorks, Duguid,
Nolvorks and KnovIodgo.
79
Soo Iaurol, Sur Ios ludos do "Iiros agro-aIimonlairos, Monforl, A Ia roclor-
clo dos "Iiros do produclion, Raikos, }onson and Ionlo, GIobaI Commodily Clain
AnaIysis, Ionz, Barbara. Das IiIiro-Konzopl aIs AnaIysoinslrumonl, IosIio and
Roimor, SpaliaIizing Commodily Clains.
80
Honigo, Cc|cni.| Gctcrncrs.
/0'123454%&6 %"&0'5 . :87
Tlo "rsl vavo bogan in 1415 (vill llo Iorluguoso coIony in Coula, Norll
Africa) and roaclod ils poak in 1770 (147 dislincl coIonios) and ils Iov poinl
in 1825 (81 coIonios). Tlo socond vavo bogan in 1826, roaclod ils poak in
1921 (168 coIonios) and llon docIinod lo 58 coIonios in 1969.
81
Borgoson and
Scloonborg nolo a cIoar corrospondonco bolvoon slabiIily or inslabiIily in llo
coro of llo vorId syslom, and llo oxpansion or conlraclion of coIonios. In
81
Borgoson and Scloonborg, Iong Wavos. Soo aIso Claso-Dunn, G|co.| Icrm.-
iicn, pp. 27982, and TayIor, Pc|iiic.| Gccgr.p|, pp. 10010. Claso-Dunn is of courso
rigll in saying llal Borgoson and Scloonborgs oporalionaIizalion lroals oacl novIy
oslabIislod coIony oquaIIy, bul suroIy somo voro moro imporlanl llan ollors in lorms
of llo amounl of lorrilory or numbor of poopIo subjugalod. UnforlunaloIy, onIy rougl
oslimalos of llo lorriloriaI or popuIalion sizo of llo coIoniaI ompiros aro avaiIabIo for
oarIior conlurios. Tlo uso of llo numbor of nov coIonios oslabIislod is, lovovor rougl,
llo bosl conlinuous moasuro vo lavo avaiIabIo al llis limo. (Ibid., p. 280)
Scurcc: AIborl Borgoson and RonaId Scloonborg, Iong Wavos of CoIoniaI Ixpansion and
Conlraclion, 14151969, in: AIborl Borgoson (od.), Siu!ics c| i|c Mc!crn Wcr|!-Ssicm (Nov
York: Acadomic Iross, 1980), p. 236.
Iiguro 13.1
Tlo cumuIalivo nol numbor of coIonios, 14151969
:98 . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
llo poriods 15001815, 18701945 and from 1973 lo llo prosonl, llo coro vas
muIliconlric and unslabIo: no cIoar logomonic povor oxislod, and il Iod lo
proloclionism and oxpanding coIoniaIism. CoIoniaIism is in llis sonso an
oxlra-oconomic moclanism for rosolling llo basic coro-poriplory division of
Iabor in limos of disordor and slross.
82
By conlrasl, vlon lloro |.s boon a
logomonic povor in llo coro (uniconlricily), llon llo moro oxpIicil poIili-
caI roguIalion of coro-poriplory roIalions coIIapsos, as soon in llo vavos of
docoIonizalion.
83
Tloy arguo llis lapponod during llo P.x Brii.nnic. (1815
70) and again in llo P.x Amcric.n. (194573). Tloir llosis slimuIalod furllor
scloIarIy discussion.
84
- Rctc|uiicns. WaIlor GoIdfrank cIaims llal a loIoranl or pormissivo vorId
conloxl is imporlanl for llo occurronco of rovoIulions. Ho dislinguislos llroo
difforonl favorabIo sconarios: Iirsl, vlon llo cals avay, llo mico viII pIay: llo
prooccupalion of major povors in var or sorious inlornaI dif"cuIly incroasos
llo IikoIilood of rovoIulion. Tlis loIds boll in a gonoraI sonso for llo WorId-
Syslom as a vloIo, and in ils spoci"c appIicalion lo inslancos of rovoIulion in
sociolios dominalod by a singIo povor. Socond, vlon major povors baIanco
ono anollor, ospociaIIy if llal baIanco is anlagonislic, llo IikoIilood of rovoIu-
lion is incroasod. Tlird, if roboI movomonls rocoivo groalor oulsido supporl
llan lloir onomios do, llo IikoIilood of rovoIulion is incroasod. Al llo samo
limo, GoIdfrank obsorvos llal 'oulsido inlorvonlion in supporl of llo oId
ordor may doopon and furllor llo rovoIulionary procoss if il comos loo IillIo or
loo Ialo, llis is llo Iosson llo U.S. drov from Cuba and pul lo uso in GualomaIa,
VonozuoIa, and CliIo.
85
David KovaIovski gallorod and anaIyzod dala on
rovoIulions in llo poriplory and inlorvonlions from llo coro in 34 poriploraI
nalions ovor a 165-yoar poriod (18211986). Ho concIudos llal coro inlorvon-
lion is signi"canlIy condilionod by rovoIulions in llo poriplory. Ovor llo |cnguc
82
Borgoson and Scloonborg, Iong Wavos, p. 239.
83
Ibid.
84
McGovan, IilfaIIs and Iromiso, Borgoson, Hov lo ModoI, Scloonborg,
SlalislicaI ModoIs Musl Bo Approprialo, BosvoII, CoIoniaI Impiros, Claso-Dunn,
G|co.| Icrm.iicn, pp. 2802.
85
GoIdfrank, Tloorios of RovoIulion, p. 149.
/0'123454%&6 %"&0'5 . :99
!urcc, llo moro rovoIulion, llo moro inlorvonlion. Tlo coro-poriplory slruc-
luro, doslabiIizod by rovoIulion, is roslabiIizod by inlorvonlion.
86
- Rc|igicn. SocioIogisl of roIigion Roborl Wullnov arguos llal llo riso and
grovll of roIigious movomonls in modorn sociolios slouId bo inlorprolod
in conjunclion vill major clangos in llo lransnalionaI division of Iabor. A
popuIalions pIaco in llo Iargor vorId ordor slrongIy affocls llo mannor in
vlicl il do"nos llo major probIoms of ils oxislonco, and lloroforo, llo naluro
of ils roIigious orionlalions. Tloso roIigious orionlalions, for lloir parl, clan-
noI llo kinds of aclions llal poopIo lako, and lloroforo, affocl lloir in!uonco
upon llo vorId ordor.
87
Wullnov dislinguislos llroo kinds of poriods llal
provoko inlonso roIigious aclivily. IirslIy, pcric!s c| cxp.nsicn, llal is pori-
ods in vlicl llo dominanl vorId ordor las oxpandod rapidIy lo llo poinl of
producing slrain in llo basic inslilulions Iinking logollor coro and poriplory
aroas.
88
SocondIy, pcric!s c| pc|.riz.iicn bolvoon coro and poriplory. Tlird,
pcric!s c| rcccnsiiiuiicn, poriods in vlicl novIy slabiIizod pallorns of vorId
ordor aro boing roconslilulod.
89
Tlo kinds of roIigious aclivily gonoralod in
oacl poriod aIso vary doponding on vlollor group povor is rising or docIin-
ing. AIlogollor, lloroforo, six difforonl lypos of roIigious movomonls can bo
dislinguislod.
90
86
KovaIovski, Coro Inlorvonlion and Ioriplory RovoIulion, p. 86. Soo aIso
KovaIovskis Ioriplory RovoIulions.
87
Wullnov, WorId Ordor and RoIigious Movomonls, p. 60.
88
Ibid., p. 59.
89
Ibid.
90
Wullnov Ialor parlIy vorkod oul and modi"od lloso llouglls in a Iargo book, bul
ils roforoncos lo llo vorId ordor romain mainIy impIicil. In llis book lo discussos llroo
roIalivoIy abrupl, opisodic idooIogicaI innovalions: llo Roformalion, llo InIigllon-
monl and sociaIism. Ho concIudos among ollor llings llal aII of lloso broad clangos
in dominanl idooIogios voro faciIilalod by ovoraII incroasos in llo IovoI of rosourcos
avaiIabIo in llo sociaI onvironmonl. Moro concroloIy, Domograplic, commorciaI,
and poIilicaI oxpansion oponod llo vay for nov oIilos lo gain povor and for nov
moclanisms of idooIogicaI produclion lo omorgo villoul fundamonlaIIy undormin-
ing oslabIislod inslilulions (unliI Ialor in llo procoss). Hcu lloso offocls of rosourco
oxpansion vorkod oul vas cIosoIy roIalod lo inlormodialo faclors sucl as pro-oxisl-
ing pallorns of sociaI roIalions, llo parlicuIar kinds of rosourcos avaiIabIo, and llo
provaiIing modos of approprialing and dislribuling rosourcos. In broad lorms, llo
docisivo offocl of roIalivoIy rapid capilaIisl oxpansion in oacl poriod vas lo loigllon
llo divisions bolvoon fraclions of llo ruIing oIilo, and lloso divisions, in lurn, sup-
pIiod opporlunilios, rosourcos, and molivalion lo llo producors and dissominalors of
nov idooIogios. Wullnov, Ccmmuniiics c| Disccursc, pp. 546, 548, 573.
:9, . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
- Uicpi.s. RoIying on I.T. Sargonls annolalod bibIiograply of Brilisl and
Amorican ulopian Iiloraluro,
91
Kriss Drass and Idgar Kisor lry lo discovor
connoclions bolvoon llo produclion of oulopian and dyslopian Iiloraluro
in llo poriod 18831975. (Iulopias croalo posilivo and dyslopias nogalivo
imagos of aIlornalivo sociolios.) Tloy concIudo llal in poriods of logomony,
a narrov, consonsuaI idooIogicaI discourso dominalos, vliIo logomonic
docIino brings dissonsus (a vidoning scopo of idooIogicaI discourso, in our
lorms) as llo basic promisos of llo logomonic poriod aro oponIy quoslionod.
92

Tloir oxpIanalion is roIalivoIy simpIo: Ioriods of logomony aro poriods of
ligl consonsus and roIalivo slabiIily in llo vorId-syslom. Moroovor, lloy aro
poriods in vlicl lloro is ono cIoarIy succossfuI modoI in llo syslom: llo logo-
monic nalion. Ollor nalions |. . .j viII gonoraIIy lry lo imilalo llo succoss of llo
logomon.
93
As a rosuIl, Tlo oulopia is llougll lo oxisl aIroady in llo form
of llo logomon, and dyslopias aro supor!uous. If llo slabiIily of llo syslom
docIinos, lovovor, llon llinking aboul aIlornalivo sociolios is foslorod and
produclion of Iilorary oulopias incroasos.
94
Tloso "vo oxampIos aro, of courso, onIy in!ircci| of inlorosl lo Iabor lislori-
ans, yol lloy may lavo a lourislic vaIuo. Iurllor rosoarcl viII probabIy mako
il nocossary lo roviso or corrocl llom. Hovovor, lloy provido an indicalion of
llo voaIll of nov quoslions and inlorprolalions llal llo BraudoI Conlor and
ils frionds lavo gonoralod in llo Iasl docados.
91
Sargonl, Briiis| .n! Amcric.n Uicpi.n Iiicr.iurc.
92
Drass and Kisor, SlrucluraI Rools of Visions of llo Iuluro, p. 433. Soo aIso
Kisor and Drass, Clangos in llo Coro.
93
Drass and Kisor, SlrucluraI Rools, p. 425.
94
Randy BIazak las nolod a connoclion bolvoon Drass and Kisors Iilorary cycIo
and llo riso and faII of Bolomias (oncIavos vloro arlisls, vrilors, sludonls, and
ollors can Ioad oxprossivo, as opposod lo inslrumonlaI Iivos). Dominanl bolomias
oxisl in coro nalions, bul nol in llo logomonic cilios. Wlon Iondon dominalod
llo oconomic vorId in llo ninoloonll conlury, Iaris dominalod llo cuIluraI vorId.
Iikoviso, in llo 1960s, vliIo Nov York vas llo logomonic cily, San Irancisco sol
llo cuIluraI lronds. Tlo vanguard Bolomian subcuIluro !ourislos in llo Ialor laIf of
Iong oconomic upsvings, coinciding vill Drass and Kisors dyslopian plaso. BIazak
oxpIains llis as foIIovs: If llo logomonic cilios roprosonl llo load of llo coro, cuIluraI
conlors roprosonl llo loarl. Bolomians aro imporlanl cuIluraI innovalors croaling nov
arlislic lronds and faslions. BIazak, Riso and IaII of Bolomian IncIavos, p. 118.
/0'123454%&6 %"&0'5 . :9:
@+"03?#$+"
I llink llo vorId-syslom approacl can bo an imporlanl sourco of inspiralion
for lislorians. Ils spociaI vaIuo is llal il porsislonlIy lrios lo mako connoclions
visibIo among dovoIopmonls in difforonl Iocalions in llo vorId, lransconding
parocliaI oulIooks. IronicaIIy, lovovor, vliIo WaIIorsloin and lis co-llinkors
slrongIy in!uoncod socioIogisls and poIilicaI scionlisls in llo Iasl 35 yoars
llal in!uonco is docIining nov lislorians onIy raroIy foIl dravn lo lloir
idoas. Roborl DuIIossis obsorvalion in llo Ialo 1980s is sliII vaIid: unIiko,
say, I.I. Tlompsons 1|c M.|ing c| i|c |ng|is| Wcr|ing C|.ss, vloso pubIi-
calion markod a fundamonlaI rupluro in Iabor lislory and indood in sociaI
lislory as a vloIo, forcing roconcopluaIizalions among aII vlo foIIovod,
irrospoclivo of idooIogicaI or scloIarIy aIIogianco, llo conlinuing discussion
of WaIIorsloins vork is nol indicalivo of ils signi"canl assimiIalion oillor by
Marxisls or by ollor lislorians.
95
Tlis roIuclanco can probabIy bo oxpIainod
by llroo inlorroIalod voaknossos of llo vorId-syslom approacl.
- IirslIy, llo vorId-syslom approacl oxlibils a slrong ponclanl lovard a
monumonlaI dolorminism, in llo sonso of conjuring up a vision of lislory
in vlicl llo oxisling vorId division of Iabor compIoloIy dolorminos and
dominalos ollor dovoIopmonls. In Bronnors summary: as llo vorId mar-
kol oxpands, llo oco-domograplic claraclorislics of an aroa dolormino ils
spociaIizalion, vlal viII bo producod and llo mosl approprialo mollod of
coorcion. Tlis carrios vill il, in lurn, a syslom of Iabor conlroI and rovard
lo Iabor. Tlo rosuIl is maximaI oulpul ovoryvloro, maximaI grovll for llo
syslom as a vloIo.
96
Sucl a viov is impIausibIo. In roaIily, llo dovoIop-
monl of inlornalionaI capilaIism is moro conlingonl moro conslrainod,
buffolod, and drivon by llo forco of indopondonl causaI 'molors and by
inlornaI conlradiclions llan is suggoslod by WaIIorsloins lloorolicaI
framovork.
97
Sidnoy Minlz, for oxampIo, poinls oul llal llo inlogralion
of variod forms of Iabor-oxlraclion uii|in any compononl rogion addrossos
llo vay llal rogion, as a lolaIily, "ls villin llo so-caIIod vorId-syslom.
95
DuIIossis, IarliaI Transilion, pp. 1213.
96
Bronnor, Origins of CapilaIisl DovoIopmonl, p. 58.
97
Slorn, IoudaIism, CapilaIism, and llo WorId Syslom, p. 864.
:9; . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
Tloro vas givo-and-lako bolvoon llo domands and inilialivos original-
ing vill llo molropoIilan conlors of llo vorId-syslom, and llo onsombIo
of Iabor forms lypicaI of llo IocaI zonos vill vlicl lloy onmoslod.
98

Somo of WaIIorsloins ovn coIIaboralors lavo roconlIy advancod simiIar
crilicisms. Giovanni Arrigli slalos !alIy llal vorId-syslom anaIysls can-
nol cIaim anymoro llal cIass roIalions and cIass con!icls aro roducibIo lo
coro-poriplory roIalions. Tlo soonor vorId-syslomisls slop sooking an
oxpIanalion for aImosl ovorylling in coro-poriplory roIalions and lloir
lomporaI oquivaIonl A-B plasos of Kondralioffs and suclIiko cycIos llo
bollor for llo crodibiIily of lloir anaIysos lo anybody vlo is nol aIroady
a lruo boIiovor.
99

- SocondIy, llo lloorys dolorminism romains impIicilIy Iuroconlric, bocauso
il suggosls llal llo roquiromonls of llo coro capilaIisl rogions viII com-
pIoloIy dolormino vlal lappons in llo poriplory.
CIoarIy lloso lvo voaknossos aro Iinkod lo oacl ollor. Many aullors lavo
poinlod oul llal roaIily is in lrull vaslIy moro compIicalod. In lis sludy of
oarIy modorn vinicuIluro, Tim Unvin slrossos llo nood lo incorporalo sociaI,
poIilicaI and idooIogicaI faclors aIongsido oconomic onos in any oxpIanalion
of llo omorgonco of a modorn vorId-syslom.
100
Many ollor aullors lavo pul
forvard simiIar argumonls.
101

Slovo Slorn usos llo oxampIo of Iabor roIalions in Spanisl-Amorican siIvor
minos as a crilicaI losl of WaIIorsloins lloory. Tlo lloory vouId in llis caso
impIy llal llo vorId sysloms cycIos and lronds couId oxpIain llo broad oul-
Iinos of coIoniaI Ialin Amorican Iabor roIalions. Bul Slorn concIudos llal llis
vouId bo an impormissibIo ovorsimpIi"calion: lisloricaI oxpIanalion llal
roducos pallorns of Iabor and oconomy in llo poriplory lo a ro!oclion of llo
capilaIisl vorId-syslom is ono-dimonsionaI and misIoading ovon for siIvor,
llo oarIy vorId-sysloms mosl vaIuod Amorican lroasuro.
102
Slorn offors an
aIlornalivo modoI, in vlicl llroo groal molors icgci|cr oxpIain llo dovoI-
98
Minlz, So-CaIIod WorId Syslom, p. 254.
99
Arrigli, CapilaIism and llo Modorn WorId-Syslom, p. 121. Soo aIso DaIo
Tomicls crilicaI romarks in lis WorIds of CapilaI, WorIds of Iabor.
100
Unvin, Wino in llo IarIy Modorn WorId-Syslom, p. 262.
101
Bosidos llo conlribulions monlionod oIsovloro in llis arlicIo, soo aIso Wasl-
brook, Soull Asia.
102
Slorn, IoudaIism, CapilaIism, and llo WorId Syslom, p. 858.
/0'123454%&6 %"&0'5 . :9<
opmonl of poriploraI Iabor roIalions: llo vorId-syslom, popuIar slralogios
of rosislanco and survivaI villin llo poriplory, and llo morcanliIo and oIilo
inlorosls joinod lo an Amorican 'conlor of gravily.
103
Ho adds llal Wosl-
orn Iuropos ovn inlornaI divisions and compolilions affoclod llo poIilicaI
coloronco and viII of llo ' vorId-syslom, and llal, villin Spanisl Amorica,
coIoniaI oIilos and aullorilios pursuod muIlipIo goaIs and inlorosls llal somo-
limos dividod llom againsl llomsoIvos dospilo lloir slarod inlorosl in siIvor
produclion.
104
In roconl yoars, llis crilicism las aIso boon adoplod lo somo
oxlonl by coIIaboralors of llo BraudoI Conlor ilsoIf. WiIIiam Marlin, ono of llo
Conlors prominonl socond-gonoralion coIIaboralors, vrolo: Wlal vo lavo
nol acliovod, I llink vo musl frankIy admil, is a concopluaI rondoring of llis
vorId-vido, lisloricaI procoss of cIass formalion vo romain sliII prisonors
of an oulvard movomonl from Iuropo and llo Unilod Slalos.
105

- TlirdIy, llo Iooso do"nilion of capilaIism usod by WaIIorsloin and lis
foIIov llinkors, as a syslom of produclion for saIo in a markol for pro"l
and approprialion of llis pro"l on llo basis of individuaI or coIIoclivo
ovnorslip,
106
Ioads lo .n.|iic.| ccn|usicn. Tlo oxacl moaning and scopo
of produclion for saIo in a markol for pro"l romains uncIoar. GoraId
Colon poinls oul in anollor conloxl llal somo furllor dislinclions aro
roquirod. Willin produclion for oxclango-vaIuo, vo can conlrasl llo caso
vloro llo producor or lis oxpIoiling suporior sooks as ligl a rolurn as
lo can oblain, vlicl viII bo caIIod produclion for m.ximum oxclango-
vaIuo, vill llo caso vloro a Iimilod oxclango-vaIuo is sougll, any
moro llan vlicl vouId bo supor!uous. And furllor, produclion for
maximum oxclango-vaIuo dividos inlo llal vlicl doos and llal vlicl
doos nol subsorvo llo accumuIalion of capilaI. A soIf-ompIoyod com-
modily producor vlo aims onIy lo suslain limsoIf as sucl may sook
maximum oxclango-vaIuo for lis varos, yol dovolo lo porsonaI con-
sumplion vlalovor lo rocoivos in oxcoss of vlal is noodod lo sorvico and
103
Ibid., pp. 8578. As llis quolalion slovs, Slorn doos nol opposo llo idoa of a
vorId syslom as sucl, bul is onIy againsl lroaling il as an absoIulo. In lis ovn vords:
An oxpIanalion llal ignoros llo vorId-syslom is as Iimilod and roduclionisl as ono
dorivod from llo vorId-syslom. (Ibid., p. 863)
104
Ibid., p. 858.
105
Marlin, SliII Iarlnors and SliII Dissidonl, p. 244.
106
WaIIorsloin, Dopondonco in an Inlordopondonl WorId, p. 66.
:9= . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
ropIaco lis moans of produclion.
107
Tlo absonco of lloso difforonlialions
roIalos lo anollor poinl. Do"ning capilaIism oxcIusivoIy on llo basis of
saIo for pro"l and approprialion of pro"l obscuros llo facl llal capilaI-
ism is basod on ccmpciiiicn among commodily ovnors. Compolilion is, as
Marx pul il, llo basic Iav of capilaIism llal govorns llo gonoraI ralo of
pro"l.
108
Tloso quaIi"calions mako cIoar nol onIy llal WaIIorsloin and lis
co-llinkors oflon lako an oxlraordinariIy svooping (and lloroforo vaguo)
viov of llo moaning of capilaIism and ils oporalionaI Iogics (impIausibIy
incIuding ovon llo formor Soviol Union as capilaIisl). Il is aIso llal a
fundamonlaI aspocl of llo dynamics of capilaIism (llo quosl lo mainlain
and incroaso pro"ls forcod on capilaI by conslanl compolilion) disappoars
from viov. Il is lloroforo unsurprising llal mosl Marxian scloIars lavo
dissonlod from WaIIorsloins sclooI.
Tloso faiIings suggosl llal llo vorId-syslom approacl vouId bo mucl moro
porsuasivo (i) if il considorod lislory as a roIalivoIy opon-ondod procoss, in
vlicl sociaI formalions aro slapod by a muIliludo of forcos, in vlicl no sin-
gIo forco dominalos, bul slapod nonolloIoss in pallornod, oxpIicabIo vays,
109

and (ii) if il lroalod capilaIism Ioss as a cIosod syslom, and moro as a dynamic,
conlradiclory procoss. SovoraI aullors, incIuding Iric WoIf and Kay Trim-
borgor, lavo mainlainod llal a good aIlornalivo oxisls lo WaIIorsloins con-
copluaIizalion of llo Modorn WorId-Syslom: Irnosl MandoIs lloory of llo
capilaIisl vorId oconomy as an arlicuIalod syslom of capilaIisl, somi-capilaI-
isl and pro-capilaIisl roIalions of produclion, Iinkod lo oacl ollor by capilaIisl
roIalions of oxclango and dominalion by llo capilaIisl vorId markol.
110
Man-
107
Colon, K.r| M.rxs 1|ccr c| Hisicr, p. 81.
108
Marx, C.pii.|, III, pp. 1278. Soo aIso Marx, Grun!rissc, p. 650: Ircc ccmpciiiicn
is llo llo roIalion of capilaI lo ilsoIf as anollor capilaI, i.o. llo roaI conducl of as
capilaI
109
Smill, Iabor and InlornalionaI CapilaI, p. 152. CaroI Smill addod: Iabor and
Iabor procossos aro givon form by IocaI cIass inlorosls llal aro slapod by llo ici.|ii
of sociaI Iifo in a parlicuIar lisloricaI conloxl, lloy aro aIso givon form by oxlornaI
oconomic and sociaI procossos, vlicl impingo upon IocaI inlorosls in signi"canl vays.
If vo aro lo accounl for varialion as for simiIarily in llo vorId-syslom poriplory, vo
cannol nogIocl oillor sido of llo picluro.
110
MandoI, I.ic C.pii.|ism, pp. 489. Iric WoIf ondorsos llis doscriplion and con-
cIudos: MandoIs do"nilion poinls in a diroclion difforonl from llo modoIs of llo
capilaIisl syslom dovoIopod by A.G. Irank and ImmanuoI WaIIorsloin. |. . .j Tloso
modoIs coIIapso llo concopl of llo capilaIisl modo of produclion inlo llo concopl of
/0'123454%&6 %"&0'5 . :9>
doI allaclod mucl moro voigll lo llo lisloricaI impacl of mass slruggIos,
and considorod llo grovll of llo capilaIisl modo of produclion sinco llo Ialo
oiglloonll conlury as a diaIoclicaI unily of llroo momonls: (a) Ongoing capi-
laI accumuIalion in llo domain of aIroady capilaIisl procossos of produclion,
(b) Ongoing primilivo accumuIalion of capilaI oulsido llo domain of aIroady
capilaIisl procossos of produclion, (c) Dolorminalion and Iimilalion of llo soc-
ond momonl by llo "rsl, i.o. slruggIo and compolilion bolvoon llo socond
and llo "rsl momonl.
111

Sucl an approacl divorgos in llroo ossonliaI vays from vorId-syslom
lloory. IirslIy, il idonli"os llo driving forco of capilaIism nol simpIy as llo
oxpansion of lrado, bul aIso as compolilion in llo broadosl sonso.
112
SocondIy,
as a roIalod poinl, il dislinguislos llo riso of llo vorId m.r|ci from llo riso of
a gIobaI capilaIisl mc!c c| prc!uciicn. A vorId markol (as dovoIopod sinco llo
"floonll conlury) can connocl divorso modos of produclion vill oacl ollor
llrougl lrado, villoul aII lloso modos of produclion nocossariIy bocoming
capilaIisl.
113
TlirdIy, an approacl of llis kind rocognizos llal cruciaI quaIila-
livo difforoncos oxisl in llo modaIilios of Iabor roguIalion villin gIobaI capi-
laIism.
114
AdmillodIy MandoIs lloory vlicl las nol boon subjocl lo mucl
|isicric.| oIaboralion aIso roquiros sorious modi"calions, lovovor. His usuaI
lisloricaI poriodizalion of capilaIisl dovoIopmonl (frooIy compolilivo capilaI-
ism cIassicaI imporiaIism Ialo capilaIism) is inadoqualoIy groundod,
115
and
assumos llal froo vago Iabor is llo onIy possibIo form of Iabor-povor com-
modi"calion in a dovoIopod capilaIisl oconomy.
llo capilaIisl vorId markol. WoIf, |urcpc .n! i|c Pccp|c Wii|cui Hisicr, p. 297. Soo
aIso Trimborgor, WorId Sysloms AnaIysis, and van dor Iindon and Sluljo, Irnosl
MandoI.
111
MandoI, I.ic C.pii.|ism, p. 47.
112
MandoI, Iavs of Unovon DovoIopmonl, p. 27.
113
On llis poinl soo a llinkor vloso approacl rosombIos MandoIs, Novack: Irob-
Iom of TransilionaI Iormalions, idom, Hybrid Iormalions.
114
Bul lo drav from llis llo concIusion llal llo difforoncos in form and dogroo
of llis oxpIoilalion lavo bocomo socondary and insigni"canl or lo arguo llal bocauso
oxpIoilalion is univorsaI, il is aIso lomogonoous, is lo lavo a compIoloIy Iopsidod
viov of vorId roaIily undor imporiaIism |. . .j. MandoI, Iavs of Unovon DovoIop-
monl, p. 22.
115
Massaral, H.upicniuic||ungssi.!icn, pp. 14756. Massarals book, virluaIIy un-
knovn in llo IngIisl-spoaking vorId, is a briIIianl conlribulion lo llo lloory of llo
capilaIisl vorId markol.
:9- . !"#$%&' )"*'%&&+
In any ovonl, I llink il is ligl limo for nonboIiovors lo ongago in a con-
slruclivo diaIoguo vill llo BraudoI Conlors co-vorkors and sympallizors.
Moro llan a quarlor of a conlury ago, DanioI Clirol and Tlomas HaII quippod,
Tloso vlo disIiko |vorId-syslom llooryj moro or Ioss ignoro il, and lloso
vlo praclico il lond lo lako ils fundamonlaI assorlions as rocoivod lrulls.
116

Tlis muluaI Iack of inlorosl sliII prodominalos. Wlal I lavo skolclod oul loro
suggosls llal sucl Iack of diaIoguo is rogrollabIo, bocauso aII lloso vlo sook
lo Iiboralo Iabor lislory from ils nalionaI Iimilalions vouId bono"l from an
oncounlor vill llo vorId-syslom approacl.
116
Clirol and HaII, WorId-Syslom Tloory, p. 97.
!"#$%&' )*+'%&&,
!"#$"%&'( *+,*-*#'".' &$,/0
Subsislonco Iabor novor rocoivod gIoving roviovs
from dovoIopmonl oconomisls. Nol so Iong ago
Iolor Bauor, an ominonl scloIar in llo !oId, indood
docIarod rosoIuloIy: Markol-orionlod oconomisls
and advocalos of oxlonsivo slalo oconomic conlroI
aro agrood on ono mallor, namoIy llal advanco from
subsislonco produclion lo vidor oxclango is indis-
ponsabIo for a sociolys oscapo from oxlromo pov-
orly.
1
In llis dominanl viov sliII vidoIy loId by
anllropoIogisls and lislorians as voII llo subsisl-
onco soclor and llo markol oconomy aro muiu.||
cxc|usitc .|icrn.iitcs: lloir quanlilalivo varialions
roprosonl a zoro-sum gamo in vlicl llo gain of ono
is al llo oxponso of llo ollor.
Bul is llal roaIIy lruo` Wlal roaI dala do vo roIy
upon vlon vo dopicl llo roIalionslip bolvoon sub-
sislonco Iabor and capilaIism in llis vay, and lov
mucl is llal dopiclion simpIy an arlicIo of faill in
modornizalion idooIogios` AIllougl il las yol lo bo
inlogralod in llo acadomic mainslroam, vaslIy moro
is knovn aboul llo lopic llan ono migll llink al !rsl
sigll. Bul, unforlunaloIy, llo grovll of knovIodgo
in llo sociaI scioncos is raroIy cumuIalivo and Iinoar,
il is moroovor suscoplibIo lo llo inloIIocluaI fasl-
ions of llo day. Vory imporlanl insiglls may romain
1
Bauor, Ircm Suosisicncc ic |xc|.ngc, p. 7, a simiIar romark appoars on p. 45.
-./ 0 !"#$%&' )*+'%&&,
virluaIIy unknovn, for oxampIo bocauso lloy dovialo loo mucl from llo
provaiIing popuIar viovs, or bocauso lloy lappon lo bo pubIislod in llo
vrong pIacos, al an inauspicious limo, or in unroadabIo Ianguagos. I
llink llo rosoarcl aboul subsislonco Iabor prosonlod by llo BioIofoId SclooI
in dovoIopmonl socioIogy in llo Ialo 1970s and oarIy 1980s sufforod llis falo.
Al llo limo, llo mombors of llis SclooI mainIy londod lo pubIisl in unroad-
abIo Gorman.
2
Moroovor, in addilion lo bocoming goograplicaIIy disporsod
llrougl llo pasl lvo docados, parlicipanls in llo originaI projocl ondod up
pursuing vory difforonl inloIIocluaI roulos. As a rosuIl, llo SclooI vas no
Iongor idonli!od as a dislincl group.
Tlis roIalivo disrogard for llo BioIofoId conlribulions is unforlunalo,
bocauso lloy uncovorod vory imporlanl insiglls aboul llo survivaI slralo-
gios of llo Iaboring poor in llo pasl and llo prosonl. In llis claplor, I viII
roconslrucl lloso insiglls nol by summarizing llo vloIo (and in somo parls
inconsislonl) ccutrc of llo BioIofoIdors, bul rallor by saIvaging soIoclod idoas
llal in my viov aro sliII vory porlinonl.
Tlo movomonl knovn as llo BioIofoId SclooI oxislod from llo 1970s unliI llo
oarIy 1990s, bul il focusod on llo quoslion of subsislonco Iabor onIy during
llo !rsl laIf of llis poriod. Tlo SclooI originalod in 1974, vlon Hans-Diolor
Ivors, agod 38 al llo limo, vas appoinlod Irofossor of DovoIopmonl IIanning
and DovoIopmonl IoIicy al llo novIy oslabIislod univorsily in BioIofoId,
Wosl Gormany. Ivors lad vorkod in counlrios sucl as AuslraIia, llo Unilod
Slalos and Singaporo, and spociaIizod in llo socioIogy of Soull and Soulloasl
Asia.
3
Ivors soon gallorod sovoraI Ild candidalos and posl-docloraI sludonls
around lim, and inilialod a discussion vill llom lo oIaboralo a nov llooroli-
caI porspoclivo, knovn in Gorman as llo Vcr!cc|iungs.ns.iz (InlangIomonl
Approacl), in vlicl llo roIo of subsislonco Iabor vas cruciaI. Tlis approacl
rosuIlod in a Iargo numbor of !oId sludios, in counlrios sucl as Bonin, Igypl,
2
In IngIisl-spoaking circIos llo SclooI bocamo knovn primariIy llrougl a confor-
onco organizod vill ImmanuoI WaIIorsloins Iornand BraudoI Conlor (Binglamlon,
NY) llal rosuIlod in an odilod voIumo: Smill, WaIIorsloin, and Ivors, Hcusc|c|!s .n!
i|c Wcr|!-|ccncm.
3
In lis docloraI llosis, Ivors addrossod llo riso of a cIass of induslriaI onlropronours
on Sri Ianka: Ku|iuru.n!c| in Cc|cn. His oarIy pubIicalions in IngIisl incIudod llo
lvo odilod voIumos Iccsc| Siruciurc! Scci.| Ssicms, and Mc!crniz.iicn in Scui|-|.si
Asi..
1,%#,23&4 5+6575%&,8& 3#6*' 0 -.9
Indonosia, MaIaysia, Moxico, TlaiIand, and VonozuoIa.
4
An ossay coIIoclion
pubIislod in 1979 offorod an inlorim roporl aboul llo rosoarcl. Il vas quilo
in"uonliaI in Gorman-spoaking counlrios.
5
Irom llo mid-1980s, lovovor,
many mombors of llo !rsl gonoralion of BioIofoIdors disporsod lo conlinuo
lloir caroors oIsovloro.
Tlo SclooI bocamo knovn for ils dislinclivo vorking slyIo, vlicl Tlomas
Biorsclonk doscribos as foIIovs: SociaI dovoIopmonl issuos arising from gon-
oraI sociaI scioncos aro caplurod in lloir cuIluraI conloxl llrougl Ionglly !oId
rosoarcl and oxlonsivo knovIodgo of indigonous Ianguagos and subjoclod lo
comparalivo sludy villin llo loam. Tlo oulcomo is a cIoso rapproclomonl
bolvoon dovoIopmonl socioIogy and ollnoIogy |. . .j, vliIo dovoIopmonl soci-
oIogy usuaIIy givos riso lo rosoarcl quoslions, llo rosoarcl mollods and llo
inlorosl in loIislic ro"oclions aro moro IikoIy lo ariso from ollnoIogy.
6

12' !"#$"%&'3'"# 4550/$.2
Tlo InlangIomonl Approacl ovod ils origin lo a crilicaI ovaIualion of a
Ironcl dobalo in llo 1960s and oarIy 1970s aboul llo arlicuIalion of modos
of produclion in Africa. Tlis dobalo rovoIvod around llo idoa llal in pon-
olraling pro-capilaIisl aroas, capilaIism did nol doslroy oIdor modos of pro-
duclion, bul rallor incorporalod llom, lransforming llom ovor limo.
7
Soull
African minors aro a voII-knovn caso in poinl: lloir vagos couId bo kopl
Iov, bocauso lloy suslainod llomsoIvos parlIy by llo subsislonco Iabor of
lloir vivos in lloir viIIagos of origin. CIaudo MoiIIassoux obsorvod: Tlo
agricuIluraI soIf-suslaining communilios, bocauso of lloir comprolonsivonoss
and lloir r.iscn !circ, aro abIo lo fuI!I funclions llal capilaIism profors nol
4
Tlo mosl imporlanl monograpls aro: BonnloIdl-Tlomson, B.ucrn in Mcxi|c,
CIauss, |ccncmic .n! Scci.| C|.ngc .mcng i|c Sim.|ungun B.i.|, IIvorl, B.ucrn un! Si..i
in Wcsi.|ri|., Slaull, Ic||.c|cn im Ni|!c|i., von WorIlof, Wcnn !ic B.ucrn uic!cr|cmmcn,
Korff, B.ng|c|, Wong, Pc.s.nis in i|c M.|ing.
5
Arboilsgomoinsclafl BioIofoIdor InlvickIungssozioIogon, Suosisicnzprc!u|iicn
un! A||umu|.iicn.
6
Biorsclonk, H.ns-Dicicr |tcrs, p. 10.
7
Tlo bosl-knovn prolagonisls in llo dobalo voro CIaudo MoiIIassoux, Iiorro-
IliIippo Roy and ImmanuoI Torray. Ior crilicaI roviovs in IngIisl of llis dobalo, soo:
Bradby, Doslruclion of NaluraI Iconomy, and Ioslor-Carlor, Modos of Iroduclion
Conlrovorsy.
-.. 0 !"#$%&' )*+'%&&,
lo assumo in llo undordovoIopod counlrios: llo funclions of sociaI socurily.
8

MoiIIassoux oxpIorod llis lloory in lis voII-knovn book Icmmcs, grcnicrs ci
c.pii.ux (1975).
9
Ironcl anllropoIogisls impIicilIy assumod llal llo difforonl modos of
produclion invoIvod voro roIalod, yol soparalo oconomic sysloms. Tlo
BioIofoIdors disagrood. In a rolrospoclivo, Ivors Ialor romarkod llal llo Ironcl
arlicuIalion dobalo lad boon misIoading, as nc soparalo oconomic sysloms
oxislod: llo samo mombors of socioly producod boll for llo markol and for
lloir ovn uso. Insload of llo onlangIomonl of difforonl mc!cs of produclion,
llo onlangIomonl of difforonl |crms of produclion villin a singIo modo of
produclion, i.o. llo capilaIisl ono, vas fundamonlaI lo llo anaIysis.
10
Tlo
BioIofoIdor Goorg IIvorl lad proviousIy obsorvod in Bonin llal llo bordor
bolvoon produclion soclors couId cul across llo individuaIs concornod. Tlo
samo porson migll porform subsislonco produclion al lomo, commodily pro-
duclion in llo !oId and vago Iabor on a pIanlalion, llo roIalionslip bolvoon
lloso rospoclivo soclors and llo dovoIopmonl of lloir onlangIomonl, lovovor,
dopondod on an accumuIalion modialod by llo vorId markol.
11
Irom llis
porspoclivo, subsislonco produclion is nol a soparalo modo of produclion (as
MarslaII SalIins suggoslod)
12
bul is moro IikoIy lo bo organizod villin aII
kinds of difforonl roIalions of produclion.
13
Tlo primary unil of anaIysis is llo
lousoloId, aIllougl llis unil is nol a slabIo and cIoarIy doIinoalod slrucluro,
as is apparonl in parl from llo froquonl casos of marilaI inslabiIily. Il impIios
llal, for vomon and cliIdron in parlicuIar, unils ollor llan llo lousoloId
may, in limos of crisos, bo cruciaI lo lloir survivaI.
14
In addilion lo llo arlicuIalion dobalo, llo inlornalionaI fominisl dobalo
aboul domoslic Iabor omorging from llo Ialo 1960s aIso inspirod llo BioIofoId
SclooI. Margarol Bonslon lad sol llo slago oarIy on, vlon slo liglIigllod llo
8
MoiIIassoux, Irom Roproduclion lo Iroduclion, p. 102.
9
IubIislod in IngIisl as M.i!cns, Mc.| .n! Mcnc. Tlo anaIysis of Soull African
migralion appoars in Iarl II. HaroId WoIpo oIaboralod on MoiIIassouxs anaIysis in
CapilaIism and Cloap Iabour-Iovor.
10
Ivors, Subsislonzproduklion, Markl und Slaal, p. 138. AIso soo Ivors and Korff,
Scui|c.si Asi.n Uro.nism, p. 140.
11
IIvorl, UborIobon in Krison, p. 343.
12
SalIins, Sicnc Agc |ccncmics.
13
IIvorl and Wong, Tloson zum VorlIlnis von Subsislonzproduklion und
Waronproduklion, p. 257.
14
Wong. Iimils of Using llo HousoloId, pp. 589.
1,%#,23&4 5+6575%&,8& 3#6*' 0 -.-
imporlanco of lousoloId Iabor, incIuding cliId caro in 1969. Bonslon ligl-
Iigllod llo facl llal llo Iabor of lousovivos vas unp.i!, and lloroforo vaIuo-
Ioss and ullorIy Iacking in prosligo: In slrucluraI lorms, llo cIososl lling lo
llo condilion of vomon is llo condilion of ollors vlo aro or voro aIso oul-
sido of commodily produclion, i.o., sorfs and poasanls.
15
In llo 1970s, a vory
oxlonsivo and soplislicalod dobalo look pIaco aboul llo poIilicaI oconomy of
domoslic Iabor, vlicl simmorod on unliI voII inlo llo 1980s. Il cIari!od lo llo
BioIofoIdors llal subsislonco produclion vas omniprosonl, il vas a condilion
and parl of aII sociaI produclion (and vas lloroforo inloronlIy sociaI in ils
ovn rigll), il vas aIso a procondilion for porpolualing aII forms of commod-
ily produclion and vago Iabor, ovon llo mosl soplislicalod onos.
16
WliIo
somo lousoloIds did nol porform subsislonco Iabor, lloso lousoloIds voro
llo oxcoplion lo llo ruIo, and usuaIIy voII-off. Tlo onIy proIolarian roproduc-
ing villoul porforming subsislonco Iabor vas llo 'yuppio (Young Urban
IrofossionaI) vlo, as a Ioading oxoculivo cIimbing llo liorarclicaI Iaddor of
llo muIli-nalionaI company lo vorks for, ordors a sandvicl for Iuncl, and in
llo ovoning mools lis 'yuppio-vifo (vlo is IikoIy lo bo a profossor or a slock-
brokor) ovor dinnor in a roslauranl, vliIo al llo coupIos ronlod aparlmonl llo
maid is doing llo lousoloId claro.
17
So llo coro idoas of llo BioIofoId projocl voro formuIalod oarIy on: (i) llo
Iaboring poor ccmoinc !i||crcni surtit.| sir.icgics (and consoquonlIy difforonl
modos of produclion as voII), (ii) in aII casos, a nocossary compononl of llis
mix of slralogios is suosisicncc |.ocr, i.o. Iabor diroclod nol al llo markol bul
al soIf-suslonanco, (iii) ono individuaI may pursuo sovoraI survivaI slralogios
al onco. Tlis lloorolicaI foundalion vas cIoar from 197677. WliIo Ivors vas
llo cliof sourco of inspiralion, somo fominisl mombors of llo group (Voronika
BonnloIdl-Tlomson and CIaudia von WorIlof) voro aIso in"uoncod by Maria
Mios (nol a mombor of llo group).
18
Tloir porspoclivo difforod signi!canlIy
from llal of llo ollor BioIofoIdors.
15
Bonslon, IoIilicaI Iconomy of Womons Iiboralion, pp. 156.
16
SclioI and Slaull, Subsislonzproduklion und UnloronlvickIung, p. 134.
17
Ivors and Korff, Scui|c.si Asi.n Uro.nism, p. 139, Ivors, Sclallonvirlsclafl,
p. 360.
18
Tlo mosl signi!canl programmod pubIicalion in IngIisl by llo dovoIopmonl
socioIogisl Maria Mios (b. 1931) is: P.iri.rc| .n! Accumu|.iicn cn . Wcr|! Sc.|c.
-.: 0 !"#$%&' )*+'%&&,
62$# -* *+,*-*#'".' &$,/07
Tlo coro concopl of subsislonco Iabor vas of inlorosl lo llo BioIofoIdors nol
onIy for anaIylicaI roasons bul aIso as a rudimonlary vorsion of a possibIo
aIlornalivo lo capilaIism. In lloir program slalomonl from 1977, lloy slalod:
By oIovaling suosisicncc rcprc!uciicn lo a conlraI posilion rallor llan oco-
nomic grovll, i.o. llo oxlonsion of a markol oconomy, vo lopo lo conlrib-
ulo lovard llo dovoIopmonl of a sociaI lloory, llal is diroclod lovards llo
salisfaclion of basic luman noods in llo !rsl pIaco rallor llan capilaI accu-
muIalion.
19

Tlo BioIofoIdors voro nol aIvays vory forllcoming aboul lloir prociso
do!nilion of subsislonco Iabor. Somolimos lloy Iimilod llo concopls scopo
lo produclion of uso vaIuos, vliIo al ollor limos lloy oxlondod il lo incIudo
commorciaI aclivilios as voII, providod llal llo monoy oarnod llrougl sucl
aclivilios rolurnod diroclIy lo llo lousoloId. And somolimos lloy roslriclod
llo concopl lo goods and sorvicos, vloroas in ollor silualions lloy oxpandod
il lo oncompass producing and raising cliIdron. OvoraII, four doscriplions
appoar lo lavo rosuIlod, as slovn in TabIo 14.1.
TabIo 14.1
Iour do!nilions of subsislonco Iabor
Iroduclion of uso vaIuos Iroduclion of uso vaIuos
pIus polly commodily
produclion and lrado
Goods and sorvicos I II
Goods, sorvicos and
cliIdcaro
III IV
Do!nilion I is usod in Ivors vork: According lo our do!nilion, subsislonco
produclion comprisos aII produclion of goods and sorvicos inlondod nol for
llo markol bul for porsonaI consumplion by llo producors. Subsislonco pro-
duclion is lloroforo focusod on uso vaIuo rallor llan on oxclango vaIuo and
is nol diroclIy drivon by markol and prico moclanisms.
20
According lo Do!nilion II, in addilion lo llo Iabor of lousovivos, subsisl-
onco Iabor comprisos produclion by smaII farmors, smaII arlisans, poddIing,
19
BonnloIdl-Tlomson ci .|., UndordovoIopmonl, p. 3.
20
Ivors, Subsislonzproduklion und Hausarboil, p. 471.
1,%#,23&4 5+6575%&,8& 3#6*' 0 -.;
soIf-ompIoymonl in llo sorvico soclor, soasonaI vork, migranl Iabor, proslilu-
lion, olc.
21
Do!nilion III is dorivod from Maria Mios, vlo doscribos subsislonco pro-
duclion as llo prc!uciicn c| |i|c in ils vidosl sonso, llo produclion of uso vaI-
uos for llo day-lo-day suslonanco as voII as llo produclion of nov Iifo.
22

According lo Mios, llo oIomonls of subsislonco Iabor incIudo a varioly of
luman aclivilios ranging from prognancy, llo birll of cliIdron, lo produc-
lion, procossing and proparalion of food, cIolling, making a lomo, cIoaning,
as voII as llo salisfaclion of omolionaI and soxuaI noods.
23
Voronika BonnloIdl-Tlomson appIios Do!nilion IV in arguing llal llo
producl of subsislonco Iabor is moasurod in lorms of uso vaIuos, ovon if llis
producl uIlimaloIy bocomos a commodily. Tlo lousovifo doos nol llink
(consciousIy al any ralo) of lor Iabour procoss as producing llo commod-
ily 'Iabour povor. As far as slo is concornod, slo is roaring luman boings
and vorking for llo voII-boing of lor cliIdron and lusband. In offocl, vlal
slo is croaling bocomos a commodily. Tlo samo appIios lo poasanls. Ivon
vlon lloy cuIlivalo casl-crops, a uso-vaIuo orionlod vay of lroaling llo crop
provaiIs, and il is oxaclIy llis alliludo vlicl makos llis form of agricuIluraI
produclion so pro!labIo.
24
Inlorprolalions I and III appoar lo prodominalo in llo sludios of llo BioIofoId
SclooI.
25
I profor Do!nilion III, as il cIoarIy dislinguislos bolvoon llo pro-
duclion of uso vaIuos and llo produclion of commodilios, and acknovIodgos
llal llo roproduclion of Iabor povor in capilaIism comprisos llroo oIomonls:
susicn.ncc of llo vorkors during poriods of ompIoymonl (i.o. rcccnsiiiuiicn
of immodialo Iabour-povor), m.inicn.ncc during poriods of unompIoymonl
21
Arboilsgruppo BioIofoIdor InlvickIungssozioIogon, Icrsc|ungs|cnzcpiicn, p. 5.
Soo aIso Ivors, Uro.n .n! Rur.| Suosisicncc Rcprc!uciicn, p. 14.
22
I.ccm.|crs c| N.rs.pur, p. 3. Tlis doscriplion is porfoclIy compalibIo vill MoiI-
Iassouxs non-fominisl ono: roproduclion of Iifo as a procondilion lo produclion.
MoiIIassoux, Irom Roproduclion lo Iroduclion, p. 101.
23
Mios, CapilaIisl DovoIopmonl and Subsislonco Roproduclion, pp. 278.
24
BonnloIdl-Tlomson, Subsislonco Iroduclion and Ixlondod Roproduclion, p. 20.
25
Tlo fominisl concopluaIizalions of BonnloIdl-Tlomson, Mios and von WorIlof
lavo boon a driving forco bolind dobalo. Soo Braig and Ionlz, Widor dio Inllislo-
risiorung dor Marxsclon Worllloorio, Boor, Marx auf dio Iuo gosloIIl`, von WorI-
lof, Ioln isl oin 'Worl, Iobon nicll`, Obormaior, Slralogion zur Irdorung von
Irauon in InlvickIungsIndorn, Ivors, Subsislonzproduklion und Hausarboil.
-.< 0 !"#$%&' )*+'%&&,
(duo lo sloppagos, iII-loaIll, olc.), rcp|.ccmcni by llo brooding of offspring.
26

Wlalovor do!nilion is proforrod, lovovor, lvo subsoquonl quoslions consisl-
onlIy ariso.
IirslIy, oacl of llo do!nilions rovoIvos around goods and sorvicos, bul
vlal aro lloso goods and sorvicos` Tloro aro good roasons for llo viov llal
goods and sorvicos producod and consumod incIudo boll circuIaling con-
sumor iloms, as voII as !xod objocls sucl as lousing.
27
In many sociolios,
parlicuIarIy in ruraI aroas, lousos aro oflon buiIl by viIIagors llomsoIvos. Tlal
moans llo provision of lousing is again parl of dirocl subsislonco produc-
lion. Moroovor: Tlo louso las lo bo cIoanod, ropairod and mainlainod in
ordor lo provido conlinuous Iiving faciIilios.
28
SocondIy, if vo dolormino llal llo rosuIls of subsislonco Iabor aro for por-
sonaI uso, u|c porforms llis subsislonco Iabor, and u|c consumos llo rosuIls`
In lis sludy of a viIIago in Soull Bonin (197678), Goorg IIvorl obsorvos llal
individuaIs oflon porform subsislonco Iabor for ollor individuaIs, incIud-
ing individuaIs oulsido llo lousoloId: TradilionaIIy a Iargo, bul novadays
diminisling slaro of llo Iabor porformanco and llo goods is lransforrod oul-
sido llo produclion unil. In llo pasl, young mon knovn as !cn|pc !i!. vorkod
llo !oIds of llo oIdorIy (mcxc) vlo voro unabIo lo porform sucl vork llom-
soIvos anymoro. SovoraI co|ig.iicns lo loIp llrougl porforming Iabor or giv-
ing food lo paronls, paronls-in-Iav and frionds conlinuo lo llis day.
29
Irom
a difforonl porspoclivo, WoIfgang CIauss roaclod a simiIar concIusion basod
on rosoarcl lo conduclod in Norll Sumalra: HousoloId mombors may nol
slaro aII lloir incomo, and consumplion al kinslip, noiglborlood or viIIago
foasls may provido a subslanliaI slaro of lolaI consumplion.
30
In ollor vords,
vo slouId rocognizo llal nol aII subsislonco Iabor occurs villin lousoloIds
onIy for llo bono!l of lloso lousoloIds.
31

26
MoiIIassoux, M.i!cns, Mc.| .n! Mcnc, p. 100. I disagroo, lovovor, vill llo idoa
of IaboIIing llo salisfaclion of omolionaI and soxuaI noods as subsislonco Iabor, as
Maria Mios doos. UrsuIa Boor las rigllIy crilicizod llis oxcossivoIy broad inlorprola-
lion as Iabor molaplysics. Soo Boor, Zur poIilisclon konomio dor Irauonarboil,
p. 256.
27
Soo aIso Claplor 10.
28
Ivors, Uro.n .n! Rur.| Suosisicncc Rcprc!uciicn, pp. 35.
29
IIvorl, UborIobon in Krison, p. 365.
30
CIauss, |ccncmic .n! Scci.| C|.ngc .mcng i|c Sim.|ungun B.i.|, pp. 245.
31
AIso soo Wong, Iimils of Using llo HousoloId, p. 62.
1,%#,23&4 5+6575%&,8& 3#6*' 0 -.=
8/03* /9 '"#$"%&'3'"#
In lloir sludios, llo BioIofoIdors focusod on lousoloIds llal combinod sub-
sislonco Iabor vill cii|cr commodily produclion (o.g. farmors llal grov casl
crops) cr vago Iabor.
32
Tvo difforonl kinds of onlangIomonls can lloroforo
bo dislinguislod:
|ni.ng|cmcni c| pcii ccmmc!ii prc!uciicn .n! suosisicncc |.ocr
Tlo difforonl combinalions of subsislonco Iabor and commodily produclion
aro in!nilo. Al ono ond of llo spoclrum, lousoloIds roquiro IillIo subsis-
lonco Iabor lo survivo, bocauso llo procoods from llo saIo of soIf-producod
commodilios aro suf!cionl. HousoloIds novorlloIoss conlinuing subsislonco
produclion in sucl silualions probabIy do so, bocauso llo mombors vaIuo
lloir uso vaIuo (o.g. soIf-producod or lomo-grovn food laslos bollor) or lra-
dilionaIism. Al llo ollor ond, somo lousoloIds aro unabIo lo survivo villoul
roguIar subsislonco Iabor. Bolvoon llo lvo oxlromos, lousoloIds migll bo
abIo lo survivo villoul subsislonco Iabor undor ordinary circumslancos, bul
rosorl lo subsislonco Iabor during limos of crisis.
33
BonnloIdl-Tlomson anaIyzos llo roIalionslip bolvoon subsislonco Iabor
and markol produclion in Rio Grando (Cliapas, Moxico), vloro producls
for porsonaI consumplion aro sol asido from lloso inlondod for saIo. Iarm-
ors pIanl ono soclion of lloir Iand vill maizo and boans (knovn as mi|p.)
and anollor soclion vill coffoo. Tlis combinalion is llo cIassicaI form in
vlicl smaII farmors produco mono-cuIluraI producls for llo vorId markol in
dovoIoping counlrios aII ovor llo vorId: parl of llo Iand is sol asido for grov-
ing basic slapIos.
34
Tloy divido lloir farmIand as foIIovs: Aboul laIf llo
Iand is usod for cuIlivaling coffoo pIanls, and llo ollor laIf is rosorvod for llo
basic slapIos maizo and boans. In addilion, lloy conlroI a spoci!c soclion of an
32
SpaliaI considoralions aro roIovanl as voII. Subsislonco produclion and capilaI-
isl produclion may bocomo onlangIod llrougl migralion, as las lapponod in Soull
Africa, or llrougl on-silo combinalion. Tlo BioIofoIdors lavo conduclod IillIo rosoarcl
on llo migralion sconario. Bul soo Slaull, Dic Ic||.c|cn im Ni|!c|i., pp. 18596, aboul
llo TaraliI syslom of Igyplian soasonaI migranls llal buiIl llo Suoz CanaI.
33
IIvorl and Wong, Tloson zum VorlIlnis von Subsislonzproduklion und
Waronproduklion, p. 262.
34
BonnloIdl-Tlomson, B.ucrn in Mcxi|c, p. 79.
-.> 0 !"#$%&' )*+'%&&,
unusabIo sIopo or faIIov Iand lo gallor !rovood. In mosl casos, aboul laIf llo
Iand for cuIlivaling maizo and boans Iios faIIov as voII.
35
(Diagram 14.1)
Scloma 14.1
Uso of farmIand in Rio Grando (Moxico)
cafolaI (coffoo) miIpa (maizo and boans) monlo (bruslvood)
acaluaI (faIIov)
Tlo Cliapas farmors soom lo lavo onlorod llo vorId coffoo markol around
1930. Tloir accossion moanl llal subsislonco produclion diminislod.
IroviousIy, for oxampIo, lloy grov collon lo mako cIollos and sugar cano
for lloir ovn sugar consumplion. AII llis aclivily las disappoarod.
36
Tlo riso
of commodily produclion las llus aIlorod subsislonco produclion. CIoarIy,
anaIysos of subsislonco produclion slouId consislonlIy considor casl crop
produclion as voII.
37
|ni.ng|cmcni c| u.gc |.ocr .n! suosisicncc |.ocr
In 1979, Ivors oxaminod combinalions of vago Iabor and subsislonco Iabor
in }akarla basod on a quoslionnairo sonl lo 1,083 lousoloIds comprising
5,789 porsons.
38
Ivors cIaimod llal llo sampIo ro"oclod |.mpung dvoIIors of
llo Indonosian capilaI, vlo accounlod for somo oiglly por conl of llo lolaI
}akarla popuIalion.
39
His originaI lypollosis lad boon llal llo imporlanco of
subsislonco produclion vas invorsoIy proporlionaI lo lousoloId incomo, bul
llis suspicion vas onIy parliaIIy con!rmod. Indood, for vory poor louso-
loIds subsislonco Iabor, aIllougl absoIuloIy nocossary for lloir survivaI,
conslilulod a smaIIor consumplion comparod lo somovlal 'riclor louso-
loIds. Tlo accoss lo Iand and rosourcos, or llo avaiIabiIily of 'basic looIs for
domoslic produclion Iiko llo soving maclino, llo cooking slovo or a bicycIo,
is as imporlanl as llo conlribulion of incomo oarnors of llo lousoloId vill
35
Ibid., p. 80.
36
Ibid., p. 81.
37
Ibid., p. 83.
38
Soo ospociaIIy Ivors, Subsislonco Iroduclion and llo }akarla 'IIoaling Mass,
Ivors, Conlribulion of Urban Subsislonco Iroduclion, Ivors, Bolko, and Iilomo,
Kcmp|cxii.i !cr Grun!oc!r|nissc.
39
Ivors, Conlribulion of Urban Subsislonco Iroduclion, p. 92.
1,%#,23&4 5+6575%&,8& 3#6*' 0 -.?
vago-Iabor in llo formaI or informaI soclor.
40
TabIo 14.2 summarizos llo
mosl imporlanl quanlilalivo !ndings in Ivors survoy.
TabIo 14.2
Subsislonco produclion in }akarla kampungs, }uIyAugusl 1979, as a porconlago
of llo lolaI vaIuo of consumplion por lousoloId al IocaI markol pricos
Subsislonco Iroduclion Numbor of HousoloIds ()
0 54 ( 5.0)
0.110 231 (21.3)
10.120 435 (40.2)
20.130 220 (20.3)
30.1 and moro 143 (13.2)
TolaI 1,083 (100.0)
Scurcc: Ivors, Suosisicncc Prc!uciicn .n! W.gc I.ocur in j.|.ri., p. 21.
On avorago, subsislonco produclion covorod 18 of llo monllIy lousoloId
oxpondiluro.
41
Tloso aclivilios covorod a broad rango: VogolabIos grovn on
liny pIols bolvoon llo kampong lousos, clickons raisod in makoslifl luls,
!sling al llo boacl or in urban rivors conlribulo nol an unsigni!canl parl of
food produclion. |. . .j Conslruclion of lousos and lloir mainlonanco accounls
for anollor big slaro of subsislonco produclion. Waslo maloriaIs Iiko oId casos
from noarby induslrios, naiIs, brokon liIos olc. aro coIIoclod and usod for llo
conslruclion of lousing. YoarIy "oods and occasionaI loavy rainfaIIs mako
llo roconslruclion and ropair of lousing a pormanonl aclivily inlo vlicl
kampong dvoIIors lavo lo invosl a good doaI of lloir Iabour.
42
Transfors
from llo ruraI subsislonco soclor aIso occurrod, as: Gifls from roIalivos, parl
of llo larvosl of a pIol of Iand, in vlicl ono sliII migll lavo a slaro in onos
lomo viIIago, conlribulo lo urban lousoloId incomo and oxpIain llo sloavos
of paddy, dry !sl, or bundIos of vogolabIos ono migll soo ovon in llo mosl
donsoIy sollIod urban kampung.
43
As parl of a paraIIoI sludy in Bangkok sIums, Rudigor Korff oxaminod llo
limo invoslod in subsislonco Iabor. Ho concIudod llal vago Iabor covorod
40
Ivors and Korff, Scui|c.si Asi.n Uro.nism, p. 140.
41
Ivors, Suosisicncc Prc!uciicn .n! W.gc I.ocur in j.|.ri., p. 19.
42
Ibid., p. 23.
43
Ibid., p. 19.
--/ 0 !"#$%&' )*+'%&&,
aboul 24 porconl of llo consumplion among Iovor incomo groups.
44
Boll
sludios llus liglIigllod llo imporlanco of subsislonco produclion as a sur-
vivaI slralogy among urban vago oarnors in Soulloasl Asia.
:'*/+0.'* /9 *+,*-*#'".' &$,/0
Subsislonco produclion is a Iabor procoss Iiko any ollor. Iroducing food and
labilals roquiros rosourcos, ospociaIIy Iand, bul aIso soods, Iivoslock and llo
Iiko. Somo of lloso rosourcos nood lo bo purclasod in many casos, vliIo
ollors do nol. Accoss lo sucl rosourcos IargoIy dolorminos llo moasuro of
soIf-suf!cioncy among llo Iaboring poor. A sludy of BraziIian |.tc|.s, for
oxampIo, suggosls llal llo imporlanco of subsislonco produclion is invorsoIy
proporlionaI lo llo popuIalion donsily: llo liglor llo popuIalion donsily,
llo scarcor llo rosourcos.
45
Ivors ci .|. doscribos four lypicaI silualions lo indicalo llo variabiIily of
llo roIalionslip bolvoon subsislonco Iabor and monolary incomo (oblainod
llrougl polly commodily produclion and/or vago Iabor):
46
- In llo !rsl silualion, lousoloIds lavo oxlonsivo subsislonco rosourcos, for
oxampIo arabIo Iand. Ivon if a fov circuIaling moans of produclion (o.g.
saIl or paraf!n) nood lo bo purclasod, llo slaro of subsislonco aclivilios in
domoslic consumplion may bo considorabIo llougl llo roIalivo impor-
lanco of subsislonco incomo conlinuousIy diminislos as monolary incomo
incroasos.
47
- Tlo socond silualion corrosponds rouglIy vill llo roIalionslips found in
llo }akarla sIums: llo vory poorosl lavo minimaI monolary incomo and fov
subsislonco rosourcos. Many bocomo boggars. Tloso vlo aro somovlal
bollor off lavo a liglor monolary incomo, as voII as a liglor subsislonco
44
Ivors and Korff, Scui|c.si Asi.n Uro.nism, p. 141. Korff, B.ng|c|, Idom, InformoI-
Ior Soklor odor Marklvirlsclafl`, Ivors and Korff, Uro.n Suosisicncc Prc!uciicn in
B.ng|c|.
45
IIvorl, Ivors, and WiIkons, Suclo nacl Siclorloil, p. 287.
46
Ibid.
47
ScloIars obsorving llis silualion incIudo Goorg IIvorl, vlo sludiod in Bonin
in llo 1970s. IIvorl and Wong, Tloson zum VorlIlnis von Subsislonzproduklion
und Waronproduklion.
1,%#,23&4 5+6575%&,8& 3#6*' 0 --9
incomo. Among individuaIs vlo aro sliII bollor off in maloriaI rospocls, llo
imporlanco of subsislonco Iabor docroasos roIalivo lo llo riso in monolary
incomo. Rosoarclors aro apl lo confuso llis silualion vill llo !rsl ono,
bocauso llo Iovosl sociaI slralum is oflon ovorIookod: Tlo cardboard lul
inlabilod by an oId vidov vill no roIalivos is oasy lo disrogard, and bog-
gars sIooping on llo pavomonls aro nol counlod as rosidonls.
48
As rogards
Bangkok, Korff obsorvos: TaIks aboul sociaI and oconomic difforonlialion
in llo sIum vill sovoraI porsons indicalod llal llo lousoloIds rogardod
as vory poor aro smaII lousoloIds vlicl Iack suf!cionl Iabor. In lloso
lousoloIds noarIy aII Iabor povor las lo bo usod for oarning an incomo
so llal lloro is simpIy no moro limo Iofl for subsislonco produclion. Tloso
lousoloIds !nd llomsoIvos in llo diIomma lo lavo a Iov incomo and ligl
oxpondiluros bocauso somo sorvicos and goods providod llrougl subsisl-
onco produclion in Iargor lousoloIds lavo lo bo purclasod by lousoloIds
vill IillIo avaiIabIo Iabor povor.
49
- In llo llird silualion, lousoloIds nood lo purclaso many rosourcos, boforo
lloy can porform subsislonco Iabor. In somo casos, llo vory poorosl farmors
lavo lo soII lloir onliro larvosl lo purclaso aII consumor iloms, incIuding
food. Tlo voaIllior farmors can incroaso lloir larvosl llrougl doubIo-
cropping and uso of lraclors, and can afford lo purclaso llo rosourcos for
subsislonco produclion. Tlis caso usuaIIy Ioads lo a spoci!caIIy gondorod
division of Iabor, in vlicl vomon bocomo rosponsibIo for subsislonco Iabor
and mon for monolary incomo. Tlis praclico occurs in Africa, vloro maIo
ompIoyoos of slalo-ovnod companios or Iargo foroign !rms oarn roIalivoIy
ligl vagos, and aro abIo lo purclaso lracls of Iand for lloir vivos lo farm.
- IinaIIy, in llo fourll silualion, subsislonco rosourcos, sucl as Iand, aro
scarco, and onIy llo moro af"uonl can afford subsislonco produclion. Tlis
lappons on pIanlalions, vloro llo vory poorosl aro forcod lo pay ronl and
purclaso lloir food, and do nol ovon lavo lloir ovn gardon. Tlo (maIo)
ovorsoors on llo pIanlalions, lovovor, lavo pIols of Iand vlicl lloir
vivos farm.
48
IIvorl, Ivors, and WiIkons, Suclo nacl Siclorloil, p. 288.
49
Ivors and Korff, Uro.n Suosisicncc Prc!uciicn in B.ng|c|, p. 22.
--. 0 !"#$%&' )*+'%&&,
In combinalion, llo difforonl casos suggosl a curviIinoar associalion bolvoon
monolary incomo and llo roIalivo imporlanco of subsislonco Iabor for llo
lousoloId.
50
12' 9'3-"-*# 5'0*5'.#-;'
Tlo fominisl ving of llo BioIofoId SclooI liglIigllod llo gondorod naluro
of llo roIalionslip bolvoon subsislonco soclor and markol soclor. GonoraIIy
spoaking, llo fominisl subsislonco lloorolicians (BonnloIdl-Tlomson, Mios,
and von WorIlof) prosonlod a llroo-slop argumonl:
- IirslIy, lloy IaboIIod subsislonco Iabor (vlicl, as slalod, lloy porcoivo from
a vory broad porspoclivo) as llo domain of vomon. According lo von WorI-
lof: Il is fundamonlaI and lypicaI for vomon lo bo non-vago Iaborors and
lypicaI for mon lo bo vago Iabourors. (A fomaIo vago Iabouror is aIvays
simuIlanoousIy a non-vago Iabouror.)
51

- SocondIy, lloy nolod llal fomaIo subsislonco vorkors aro lloroforo in a
difforonl cIass posilion llan maIo vago vorkors or polly commodily pro-
ducors. Tlis is a combinod cIass posilion in vlicl vork as a vloIo |isj
subsumod undor capilaI, comparabIo lo llo posilion of a lonanl or smaII
poasanl, and simuIlanoousIy oncompassing sIavory and sorfdom.
52
- TlirdIy, lloy rogardod llo quosl lo Iiboralo subsislonco Iabor from ils capi-
laIisl incursion as llo main objoclivo in llo !gll againsl capilaIism. Iroo
subsislonco Iabor broaks llo spiriluaI and cuIluraI slackIos of llo grovll
idooIogy and Iiboralos vomon and naluro.
53
Tlis quaIilalivoIy difforonl do!nilion of subsislonco Iabor makos a sliII moro
compoIIing caso for llo concIusion llal capilaIism c.nnci cxisi villoul sub-
sislonco Iabor.
54
If llal is llo caso, vo slouId anaIyso capilaIism nol as a
50
AIso soo llo conlomporary Russian caso sludy in CIarko ci .|., Myll of llo
Urban Ioasanl.
51
von WorIlof, Womons Work, pp. 189.
52
Ibid., p. 20.
53
BonnloIdl-Tlomson, IinIoilung, p. 14.
54
CIaudo MoiIIassoux suggosls llal, in llo Iong lorm, ovon produclion of luman
Iifo migll undorgo a capilaIisl roorganizalion. Ho rogards llo Nazis as pionoors in llis
1,%#,23&4 5+6575%&,8& 3#6*' 0 ---
vago-Iabor roIalion, bul as a !cuo|c roIalion of vago-Iabor vorsus subsislonco
Iabor. Wlon cliIdron aro producod and raisod llrougl subsislonco Iabor, llo
praclico is a form of conlinuing originaI accumuIalion.
55
<35/0#$".' 9/0 %&/,$& &$,/0 2-*#/0=
Tlo insiglls of llo BioIofoId SclooI aro loIpfuI in conslrucling an ana-
IylicaI conloxl for a gIobaI lisloriograply of Iabor roIalionslips. Truo, llo
BioIofoIdors sludiod onIy Iabor roIalionslips in vlicl plysicaI coorcion vas
nol an imporlanl faclor, and lloroforo lloy lad no sonso of unfroo Iabor
(sIavory, indonlurod Iabor). Bul oxlrapoIaling lloir anaIysis in ordor lo appIy
il lo lloso ollor Iabor roIalionslips slouId bo possibIo as voII.
In llis rospocl, vo slouId dislinguisl cIoarIy bolvoon llo lransilion from
subsislonco Iabor lo commodi!od Iabor on llo ono land, and llo commodi!-
calion of subsislonco Iabor as sucl on llo ollor land. In i|c ir.nsiiicn |rcm suo-
sisicncc |.ocr ic ccmmc!i"c! |.ocr, survivaI of a famiIy or lousoloId bocomos
progrossivoIy dopondonl on soIIing or Ioasing Iabor, or Iabor producls, lo oll-
ors. Tlis lransilion may ariso from a Iack of nocossary rosourcos for subsisl-
onco Iabor (as llo BioIofoIdors lavo domonslralod), or from llo prosonco of
good sociaI insuranco. And llis lransilion is rovorsibIo. Timo and again, for
oxampIo, vorking-cIass famiIios rospond lo a major Ioss of incomo by incroas-
ing subsislonco Iabor. Tloy cIoarIy appIiod llis slralogy during llo do-indus-
lriaIizalion procoss in Norllorn IlaIy in llo sovonloonll conlury, and lavo
dono so ropoalodIy sinco llon, for oxampIo in poriods of mass rodundancios
or undorpaymonl, sucl as in Iaslorn Iuropo and Russia loday.
56
Tlo anllro-
poIogisl }uno Nasl omplasizos llal llis slop backvard is possibIo onIy
!oId. Tlo Icocnsocrn syslom, undor covor of ils racisl idooIogy, vas aIso a rullIoss
oxporimonl in llo capilaIisl produclion of Iabour-povor llrougl llo graduaI oIimina-
lion of llo famiIy. MoiIIassoux, M.i!cns, Mc.| .n! Mcnc, p. 144. IorlunaloIy, llis
dyslopia sliII appoars vory romolo.
55
von WorIlof, Womons Work, p. 18.
56
Horsclo, DoinduslriaIisiorung und Roagrarisiorung, Momon and Ioo-Smill,
Urban AgricuIluro in Konya, Hofbauor, Subsislonz in Oslouropa. AIso soo Toodor
Slanins inspiring nolo IxpoIiary Iconomios. A simiIar moclanism oxislod on sIavo
pIanlalions as voII. As llo procoods of llo casl crop diminislod, sIavos migll bo
oncouragod lo dovolo moro limo lo subsislonco aclivilios. Soo o.g. MandIo, IIanla-
lion Iconomy.
--: 0 !"#$%&' )*+'%&&,
vlon suf!cionl subsislonco rosourcos aro avaiIabIo. Slo doscribos lov unom-
pIoyod famiIios in Iills!oId, Massaclusolls lavo lriod sinco llo 1970s lo mako
onds mool llrougl aclivilios sucl as gardoning and !sling, aIllougl lloro
vas a slrinking rosourco baso, sinco llo slroams and Iakos llal lad providod
abundanl !sl voro poIIulod by loxic vaslos from llo faclorios, and lousing
dovoIopmonls and maIIs lad lakon ovor llo !oIds and voods on llo voslorn
and soullorn bordors.
57
Ccmmc!i"c.iicn c| suosisicncc |.ocr .s suc| rofors lo llo facl llal dospilo llo
produclion of uso vaIuos llrougl subsislonco Iabor, compononls of llo Iabor
procoss may nonolloIoss bo commodilios. Iiko ovory Iabor procoss, subsisl-
onco Iabor may bo brokon dovn inlo llroo compononls: (i) llo Iabor objocl
(llo rav maloriaI), (ii) llo moans of Iabor (looIs), and (iii) Iabor povor.
Iacl of lloso llroo compononls may or may nol lavo llo commodily form
(Iiguro 14.1).
Iiguro 14.1
Compononls of subsislonco Iabor
Nol Commodi!od Commodi!od
Iabor objocl A1 A2
Moans of Iabor B1 B2
Iabor povor C1 C2
AII lloso combinalions soom lo oxisl in praclico. In ono lousoloId, a vago-
dopondonl cook migll proparo lomo-grovn vogolabIos on a sloro-bougll
slovo (A1B2C2). In anollor lousoloId, llo unpaid lousovifo manuaIIy
vaslos and sorvos vogolabIos purclasod on llo markol (A2B1C1). Ovor
limo, llo lrond las sliflod from llo Iofl coIumn (A1B1C1) lo llo rigll coI-
umn (A2B2C2), aIllougl llis slifl is raroIy compIolo. Somo of llo compo-
nonls of subsislonco Iabor romain non-commodi!od in mosl casos. Subsislonco
Iabor using commodi!od compononls roquiros monoy, vloroas subsislonco
Iabor using non-commodi!od compononls caIIs for ollor rosourcos, sucl as
Iand, soods, and Iabor limo.
58
57
Nasl, GIobaI Inlogralion and Subsislonco Insocurily, p. 21.
58
Tlis idoa immodialoIy raisos llo quoslion as lo vlal llo vaIuo-lloorolicaI roIa-
lionslip is bolvoon llo subsislonco and llo markol soclor. Goorg IIvorl and Diana
Wong lavo arguod llal nc vaIuo lransfor lakos pIaco from llo subsislonco soclor lo
llo commorciaI soclor, and llal llo Iabor povor of vago vorkors is lloroforo nol soId
boIov ils vaIuo. Tlo Iabor lloory of vaIuo roquiros onIy llal a producl bo soId
1,%#,23&4 5+6575%&,8& 3#6*' 0 --;
Tlo BioIofoIdors crilicizod llo voII-knovn Indian modo of produclion
dobalo (196878), bocauso llo parlicipanls in llis dobalo ovorIookod lloso
compIox gradalions of subsislonco Iabor.
59
In ossonco, llis dobalo conlraslod
lvo viovs. Al ono sido of llo dobalo, aullors associalod slaro-cropping and
ollor forms of dopondonl Iabor vill foudaI roIalionslips, on llo ollor sido,
aullors inforrod llal capilaIisl roIalionslips lad omorgod basod on llo pros-
onco of vago paymonls. Tloy did nol lako inlo considoralion llal a subslan-
liaI slaro of Indian farmors subsisls from soIf-producod maloriaI purc uso
vaIuos (i.o. onos llal do nol lomporariIy acquiro an oxclango vaIuo), vloroas
in dovoIopod capilaIism roproduclion of Iabor povor is far moro markol
dopondonl: WliIo in llo Indian caso dirocl roproduclivo Iabor gonoralos llo
maloriaI inpuls for llis roproduclion as voII, undor capilaIism sucl Iabor is
Iimilod lo rocycIing and ro!nomonl, vliIo llo maloriaI inpuls llomsoIvos aro
oblainod on llo markol.
60
Commodi!calion of subsislonco Iabor in Soull
Asia vas llus far Ioss advancod llan in dovoIopod capilaIism.
>/".&+*-/"
Tlo BioIofoId SclooIs main innovalivo acliovomonl vas ils roviov of llo ss-
icm.iic Iink bolvoon subsislonco produclion and capilaIism, aflor MoiIIassoux
and ollor scloIars lad nolod an inci!cni.| Iink. Tlo prior absonco of sucl an
for al Ioasl llo sum of ils faclor cosls. A conlribulion from subsislonco produclion,
lovovor, is nol a 'cosl, as il dorivos by do!nilion from puroIy uso-vaIuo orionlod
produclion and lloroforo Iacks any oxclango vaIuo. ConsoquonlIy, a vago llal is 'Ioss
llan llo minimum subsislonco IovoI for a migranl may bo porfoclIy suf!cionl lo covor
llo monolary ccsi of Iiving, villoul llo moans nocossary lo slay aIivo (incIuding soIf-
producod uso vaIuos) boing ovon approximaloIy covorod by llis vago. IIvorl and
Wong, Tloson zum VorlIlnis von Subsislonzproduklion und Waronproduklion,
p. 266. Iikoviso, goods produclion doos nol invoIvo a vaIuo lransfor from subsislonco,
aIllougl lloro may of courso bo a non-monolary subvonlion. A puroIy immanonl
inlorprolalion of llo vaIuo lloory is lloroforo insuf!cionl for comprolonding roIalion-
slips in vlicl subsislonco Iabor is an imporlanl survivaI slralogy.
59
Tlo mosl imporlanl conlribulions aro pubIislod in Ialnaik, Agr.ri.n Rc|.iicns
.n! Accumu|.iicn.
60
Ivors and SclioI, Ixproprialion dor unmilloIbaron Iroduzonlon, pp. 2878. Tlo
modos-of-produclion discussion is moro concornod vill a difforonlialion bolvoon
a groving numbor of modos of produclion vlicl aro lomogonoous in llomsoIvos,
and ils mosaic-Iiko compiIalion doos nol loIp in do!ning llo claraclor of a sociaI and
oconomic formalion. von WorIlof, Womons Work, p. 17.
--< 0 !"#$%&' )*+'%&&,
inilialivo is in rolrospocl rallor romarkabIo. AIoxandor Clayanov, for oxam-
pIo, obsorvod llal llo porconlago of llo commodi!od oulpul vas liglor in
somo farmors lousoloIds in Russian viIIagos llan in ollors. Ho concIudod
from llis pallorn moroIy llal lvo difforonl lypos of lousoloIds oxislod,
namoIy lloso claraclorizod by naluraI oconomy (subsislonco produclion)
and lloso drivon by commodily produclion. Tlo idoa llal boll lypos migll
bo combinod syslomalicaIIy, bul in clanging composilions, doos nol appoar
lo lavo occurrod lo Clayanov.
61
Tlo inlroduclion of subsislonco Iabor in llo anaIysis of produclion roIalion-
slips oxpIains a fov paradoxos:
62
- Commodily producors or vago vorkors vlo aro abIo lo survivo IargoIy
by moans of subsislonco Iabor can lako a far moro "oxibIo approacl lo llo
markol llan lloy couId villoul major subsislonco supporl. If monoy is
roquirod, smaII farmors vill a subsislonco baso can soII lloir producls al
pricos far Iovor llan normaI onos, and vago vorkors aro by anaIogy abIo
lo accopl far Iovor vagos llan normaI as voII.
- Iroducors vlo gonoralo boll commodilios and moans of subsislonco aro
proIolarianizing al a far sIovor paco llan normaI, givon llo groalor of!-
cioncy of capilaIisl Iargo-scaIo induslry. Tlis sIovnoss is allribulabIo lo lloir
minimaI monolary cosl of Iiving, vlicl onabIos llom lo romain in businoss
dospilo Iov casl rovonuos.
- In many casos, subsislonco produclion conlinuos, ovon vloro il las bocomo
Ioss pro!labIo llan commodily produclion. As a form of insuranco, aflor
aII, il onabIos lousoloIds lo survivo in poriods vlon commodily pricos or
monoy-vagos aro in docIino.
- Tlo roIalionslip bolvoon llo subsislonco soclor and rosislanco is an impor-
lanl issuo llal morils addilionaI rosoarcl. }anico IorIman las arguod llal
vorkors and smaII farmors vill a soIid subsislonco baso can bo mobiIizod
for rovoIulionary aclivilios moro oasiIy llan poopIo vlo lavo nolling lo
Ioso bul lloir slackIos.
63
Tlo BioIofoIdors lavo aIso dofondod llo viov llal
roIalivoIy slrong subsislonco produclion is a bollor rosorvo for surviving
61
Clayanov, 1|ccr c| Pc.s.ni |ccncm, pp. 1235 and 25.
62
AIso soo IIvorl and Wong, Tloson zum VorlIlnis von Subsislonzproduklion
und Waronproduklion, pp. 2678.
63
IorIman, Mi| c| M.rgin.|ii.
1,%#,23&4 5+6575%&,8& 3#6*' 0 --=
poriods of slruggIo (incIuding Ioss of incomo by going on slriko). In lloir
viov, llo offorl lo prolocl llis spoci!c subsislonco baso las boon pivolaI in
many poIilicaI con"icls.
64
In llo Iigll of llo !ndings of llo BioIofoId sclooI, Iolor Bauors romark llal
advanco from subsislonco produclion lo vidor oxclango is indisponsabIo for
a sociolys oscapo from oxlromo povorly appoars somovlal cynicaI. Aflor
aII, if moans of subsislonco disappoar villoul ropIacomonl by robusl sociaI
insuranco provisions, llo IikoIilood of oxlromo povorly incrc.scs, rallor llan
docroasos. Tlo groal roIuclanco vlicl smaII farmors and vago vorkors lavo
slovn in llo pasl lo abandon lloir ovn subsislonco produclion is lloroforo
onliroIy undorslandabIo.
65
64
IIvorl, Ivors, WiIkons, Suclo nacl Siclorloil, p. 289. AIso soo Harlmann,
Suosisicnz|risc un! Rcoc||icn, and of courso Scoll, Mcr.| |ccncm c| i|c Pc.s.ni.
65
Roconl scloIarslip con!rms llal il vas suosisicncc .!tcrsii (ligl laxos, clronic
indoblodnoss, inadoqualo acroago, Ioss of subsidiary ompIoymonl opporlunilios,
oncIosuro of common rosourcos, dissoIulion of palrimoniaI obIigalions, and so on) nol
onlropronouriaI opporlunily llal lypicaIIy promolod llo lurn lo casl-crop cuIlivalion.
Davis, I.ic Vicicri.n Hc|cc.usis, p. 289.
!"#$%&' )*+%&&,
!"# %&'()* #+,#-.#/0#
In doconloring lloir lradilionaI approacl, I llink
Iabor lislorians can bono!l from ollnoIogicaI slud-
ios. Il is nol uncommon for difforonl ollnoIogisls
lo visil and sludy a corlain ollnic group or rogion
ovor llo courso of sovoraI docados. And vliIo llo
rosuIling pubIicalions vary in quaIily and covor a
rango of difforonl aspocls of llo samo IocaI socioly,
llo !"#$%&'(%"& of difforonl vorks may slod Iigll
on Iongor-lorm dovoIopmonls ospociaIIy vlon llo
ollnoIogicaI maloriaI is compIomonlod by oraI lis-
lory, llo momoirs of concornod of!ciaIs and rosoarcl
in llo arclivos of coIoniaI slalos, missionary organi-
zalions and llo Iiko.
I viII iIIuslralo llo idoa in llis claplor vill oll-
noIogicaI !ndings aboul llo IalmuI, a poopIo in llo
MiddIo Sopik rogion (Iasl Sopik Irovinco) of Iapua
Nov Guinoa llal oxporioncod progrossivoIy groalor
oncounlors vill vago Iabor. Tlo IalmuI Iivod noar
llo Sopik Rivor, and voro llus fairIy oasy lo roacl
by boal. In addilion, lloy producod arlislic vood-
carvings. Ior boll lloso roasons, llo IalmuI bocamo
fairIy voII knovn by llo !rsl laIf of llo lvonlioll
conlury, ovor llo yoars, lloy voro visilod boll by
arl doaIors and musoum profossionaIs and by mis-
sionarios, govornmonl of!ciaIs and ospociaIIy oll-
noIogisls from Gormany, Brilain, llo Unilod Slalos
and SvilzorIand. Tlo roporls draflod by lloso
-./ 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
Maps 15.1 and 15.2
Papua New Guinea showing the East Sepik region and the area inhabited by the Iatmul people.
1"& 2#%345 &6$&'*&,7& 0 -.8
visilors ovor llo courso of noarIy a conlury dolaiI nol onIy llo Iivos of llo
IalmuI in llo Sopik rogion, bul aIso al a Ialor slago llo Iivos of IalmuI
migranls in RabauI and ollor cilios. Illnograplors lavo aIso sludiod poo-
pIos Iiving noarby llo IalmuI, ospociaIIy llo Savos and llo Clambri, and
lavo providod addilionaI conloxl-roIalod informalion.
1
Mosl of llo Iiloraluro
rosuIling from llis rosoarcl is pubIislod in IngIisl and Gorman.
!"# %&'()* 1#23-# ./03-,3-&'.3/
!
Al llo slarl of llo lvonlioll conlury, slorlIy aflor lloy voro discovorod
by Gorman sollIors, llo IalmuI Iivod in 20 lo 30 viIIagos vill 100 lo 300
inlabilanls oacl, aIong llo banks of llo Sopik, llo Iargosl rivor of Iapua
Nov Guinoa. Iacl viIIago comprisod !floon lo lvonly cIans. Tlo rigll lo
corlain oconomic rosourcos (o.g. !sling valor) porlainod lo cIans, rallor llan
lo individuaIs. Tlo socioly vas oxogamous: mon and vomon from llo samo
cIan voro nol aIIovod lo marry oacl ollor. Tlus oacl marriago af!rmod a
roIalionaI, oconomic, poIilicaI and coromoniaI bond bolvoon lvo cIans. Tlis
lradilion connoclod ovory cIan in a viIIago vill aII ollor cIans in llal viIIago.
In addilion, oacl viIIago lad gonoralion colorls vill lloir ovn namo, as voII
as ono or sovoraI Iargo mons lousos.
3
Tlo IalmuI oporalod a subsislonco oconomy, dominalod by vomon vlo
suppIiod approximaloIy oiglly porconl of llo food producls. In addilion lo
calcling !sl daiIy, lloy producod !sl lraps, nols, bags and baskols, carod for
llo youngor cliIdron and proparod moaIs. Tlo mon voro primariIy arlisans.
1
Tlo Gorman ollnoIogisl Markus SclindIbock sludiod llo Savo. His magnum
opus is: )'*" $,% -,& )'."/. Doboral Govorlz and Irodorick Irringlon, lvo ollnoIo-
gisls from llo Unilod Slalos, sludiod llo Clambri and pubIislod sovoraI arlicIos and
various books on llo subjocl: Govorlz, ),0%1 2%3,4 )"!%,(%,/, Irringlon and Govorlz,
567(64'7 87(,4&'(%3,/, Govorlz and Irringlon, 9.%/(,- :%/("4%,/, Govorlz and Irringlon,
;#,4*%&* 57'// %& <'06' =,. >6%&,'.
2
I am using llo incorporalion concopl in llo mannor of HaII, Incorporalion in
llo WorId-Syslom. HaII las dovisod a lypoIogy of llo slagos llal non-slalo sociolios
oxporionco aIong lloir pall lovard capilaIisl inlogralion.
3
Slanok, Nouguinoa, Woiss, KuIlurspozi!k dor GosclIocllordifforonz, Wass-
mann, >,/'&* '& -,& ?7%,*,&-,& :6&-, pp. 1551. Bocauso llo IalmuI and noiglboring
poopIos did nol uso scripl, lloir lislory from llo ninoloonll conlury and boforo las lo
bo roconslruclod from oraI accounls, vill aII llo rosuIling mollodoIogicaI probIoms.
Soo Roscoo, Wlo aro llo Ndu`, and Roscoo and Novlon, MaloriaIs for a IalmuI
ClronicIo.
-.9 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
Tloy buiIl lousos, carvod canoos and paddIos, and mado voapons and somo
of llo vork looIs. Tloir voodcarvings voro vory arlislic. Mon and vomon
gardonod logollor. Margarol Moad Ialor summarizod llo dislribulion of Iabor
bolvoon vomon and mon as foIIovs:
Horo llo vomon vork fairIy sloadiIy bul cloorfuIIy, in groups, villoul any
sonso of boing inordinaloIy drivon. Tloy aro rosponsibIo for llo daiIy calcl
of !sl, for llo !sl llal is lakon lo llo markol, for galloring !rovood and
carrying valor, for cooking, and for pIailing llo groal cyIindricaI mosquilo-
basquols llal aro minialuro rooms lo prolocl luman boings againsl llo
ravonous mosquiloos. Ior mosl of lloir vaking lours lloy aro occupiod,
and lloy dispIay vory IillIo faliguo, or irrilalion againsl llo conlinuous
oxaclions of lousokooping and !sling. Mons vork lovovor, is aImosl
onliroIy opisodic louso-buiIding, canoo-buiIding, communaI lunls for
crocodiIo in llo dry soason or for smaII rodonls by burning dovn llo grass-
Iand, or dovising llo oIaboralo lloalricaI sollings for coromoniaI. |. . .j Wlon
lasks aro porformod, lloy aro porformod vill a groal dispIay of onorgy and
offorl, llo vloIo body is invoIvod, and IalmuI maIos compIain vigorousIy
of boing lirod aflor sucl offorls.
4
Tlo IalmuI vorkod aulonomousIy:
Wlollor a lask is lo bo dono or nol, vloro il is lo bo dono, lov Iong il may
lako, lov Iargo llo group is lo bo, and vlollor parlicuIar porsons aro lo lako
parl aro mallors lo bo docidod by llo individuaIs concornod in accordanco
vill llo silualion al llo momonl. No ono is onlilIod lo diclalo llo lompo
al vlicl a job is dono, or vlon llo vork musl bo !nislod, ovory vorking
individuaI dolorminos llis limsoIf. CommunaI docisions of slorl-lorm
vaIidily aro roaclod in Iooso cooporalion vill ollor mombors of llo group
and in dirocl roIalion lo loclnicaI nocossilios or porsonaI noods. Work may
bo inlorruplod by inlorvaIs of roIaxalion, joking, or riluaI, as dosirod.
5
In a sonso, llo IalmuI formod a colosivo syslom vill llo noiglboring Savos
and Clambri poopIos. Tlo Clambri suppIiod mosquilo bags and slono
4
Moad, @'7, '&- ?,#'7,, pp. 1701.
5
Slanok, SociaI Slrucluro of llo IalmuI, p. 266.
1"& 2#%345 &6$&'*&,7& 0 -.-
looIs, vliIo llo Savos providod sago in oxclango for !sl.
6
Tlo IalmuI aIso
oxclangod slono looIs acquirod from llo Clambri for vaIuabIo sloIIs (riluaI
monoy), vlicl llo Savos lad oblainod indiroclIy from coaslaI rosidonls, and
usod llom for llo bridaI dovry.
7
Tlo IalmuI voro conlraI cogs villin llis
mini-syslom: lloy voro supromoIy povorfuI in vioIonl con"icls, as lloy voro
moro numorous llan llo Clambri and Savos and lad Iargor viIIagos. Tloy
domonslralod lloir supromacy llrougl occasionaI loadlunling campaigns,
ospociaIIy againsl llo Savos.
8
As Grogory Baloson nolos, llo IalmuI viovod
loadlunling as llo main sourco of prido of llo viIIago, vliIo associalod vill
llo prido is prosporily, forliIily and llo maIo soxuaI acl. Mon vlo brougll
lomo llo load of an oppononl rocoivod a loros voIcomo amid major foslivi-
lios. Ivory viclory vas coIobralod by groal dancos and coromoniaI vlicl
invoIvod llo vloIo viIIago. Tlo kiIIor vas llo loro of lloso and lo vas al
llo samo limo llo losl al llo foasls vlicl accompany llom.
9
Tlo oarIiosl roporls aboul llo IalmuI aro from llo Gorman coIoniaI ora.
10

Tvo oxpodilions voro imporlanl: ono in 190810, and anollor in 19123. Tlo
!rsl oxpodilion primariIy providod insigll inlo llo maloriaI cuIluro. Tlo soc-
ond, vlicl incIudod Riclard TlurnvaId (vlo Ialor bocamo a ronovnod oll-
noIogisl), yioIdod considorabIo sociaI, goograplic, and bioIogicaI knovIodgo,
llo roporls compriso informalion aboul lrading praclicos, var cusloms, lrans-
porl aIong valorvays and ovor Iand, and produclion of sago and canoos. Tlo
informalion conlainod in llo roporls aboul llo ovoryday cuIluros of llo Sopik
6
Wlollor llo oxclangos bolvoon llo Savos and llo IalmuI voro oquaI, is a lopic
of dobalo. Moasurod in Iabor limo, llo oxclango appoars oquaI (SclindIbock, )'*"
$,% -,& )'."/, p. 552), aIllougl llo Iabor inlonsily indicalos an unoquaI oxclango,
as producing sago is lardor vork llan calcling !sl (Govorlz, ),0%1 2%3,4 )"!%,(%,/,
pp. 212).
7
Tlo sloIIs lravoIIod from llo coasl, llrougl lrading arrangomonls bolvoon
Araposl, AboIam, and Savos mon, unliI lloy !naIIy arrivod in IalmuI lorrilory.
Govorlz, ),0%1 2%3,4 )"!%,(%,/, p. 104.
8
Govorlz offors a dolaiIod and aslulo anaIysis of llis syslom in ),0%1 2%3,4 )"!%,(%,/,
claplors 1 and 2. In rolurn for suppIying llo slono looIs and mosquilo bags vlicl
llo IalmuI lradod for lloso vaIuabIos |of llo Savosj, llo Clambri voro aIIovod lo
romain unmoIoslod. Govorlz, ),0%1 2%3,4 )"!%,(%,/, p. 80. Tlo quoslion as lo vlollor
llis syslom of oxclango aroso primariIy from poIilicaI or oconomic molivos is a
subjocl of dobalo. Soo Bovdon, HisloricaI Illnograply or ConjocluraI Hislory`.
9
Baloson, ='3,&, p. 141.
10
Iisclor, :'#$64*,4 )A-/,,B;C0,-%(%"&, SclindIbock, Arl of llo Hoadlunlors, idom,
Doulsclo vissonsclaflIiclo Ixpodilionon, Busclmann, CoIonizing AnllropoIogy.
-.. 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
rosidonls is subslanliaIIy Ioss usofuI, as llo doscriplions aro vory oxlornaI
and supor!ciaI.
11

Tlo roporls rovoaI llal lloso scloIars sorvod llo coIoniaIisl causo. Ixpodi-
lion parlicipanl WaIlor Bolrmann roIalod: To proparo llo rocruilmonl for
Iuropoan coaslaI pIanlalions, vo docidod lo bring a fov poopIo from MaIu
aIong on llo boal lrip lo llo coasl |llo main camp of llo oxpodilion vas al
MaIu lo llo Wosl of llo IalmuIj lo loIp llom gol usod lo boing undor Iuro-
poan suporvision for briof or oxlondod poriods. Wo convincod lon poopIo from
MaIu lo join us. Wo lravoIIod vill our fuIIy Ioadod sloamboal and sovoraI
bargos aImosl lo llo moull |of llo Sopikj, vloro llo nalivo viIIago of Kara-
jundo is Iocalod.
12
Tlo IalmuI and llo noiglboring poopIos romainod onliroIy
oulsido llo scopo of llo Gorman adminislralion, and in llis rospocl voro an
oxlornaI arona (Tlomas HaII).
13
!"# 1#4.//./45 32 ./03-,3-&'.3/
Tlis silualion slarlod lo clango in llo 1920s, vlon al Ioasl llroo major lran-
silions occurrod.
IirslIy, a <'C 86/(4'7%'&' vas oslabIislod. As is knovn, Gorman Nov Guinoa
of!ciaIIy bocamo an AuslraIian mandalo (Nov Guinoa Torrilory) in 1921. In
llo yoars llal foIIovod, llo inIand aroas graduaIIy camo lo bo managod by
palroIs, vill svooping consoquoncos. Hoadlunling vas prolibilod. Iacl viI-
Iago vas assignod a board, comprising a cliof and a sub-cliof lo sorvo as
Iiaisons vill llo coIoniaI povors.
14
TlirdIy, ollnic roIalions llal lad provi-
ousIy boon "uid bocamo !xod. |Tloj MiddIo Sopik IalmuI, Clambri, Savos,
and HiIIs poopIos voro do!nod as boIonging lo parlicuIar cuIluraI groups, Iiv-
11
Ollo Roclo roporlod aboul llo !rsl oxpodilion in D'%/,4%&B86*6/('B?76//. Ho
oxpIains: Wo lad lo roslricl llo ossonco of our sludy lo supor!ciaI aspocls of llo
maloriaI cuIluro |. . .j. AII oporalions voro affoclod by ono ossonliaI probIom: vo
lad no inlorprolor famiIiar vill llo indigonous Ianguagos aIong llo conlraI parl of
llo rivor, llis compIicalod communicaling vill llo nalivos onormousIy |. . .j. (p. 1)
WaIlor Bolrmann, E# )(4"#*,$%,( -,/ ),0%1, offors a roporl of llo socond oxpodilion.
Iarlicipanls in llo oxpodilion producod a voaIll of pubIicalions. Soo o.g.: Bolrmann,
Vorkolrs- und HandoIsgoograplio.
12
Bolrmann, E# )(4"#*,$%,( -,/ ),0%1, p. 274.
13
Tlo |Gormanj govornmonls vril ran oul !floon kiIomolros inIand in mosl parls
of llo coIony. Grif!n, NoIson and Iirll, <'06' =,. >6%&,', p. 43.
14
Aflor WorId War II, lloy voro ropIacod by a IocaI Govornmonl CounciI.
1"& 2#%345 &6$&'*&,7& 0 -.:
ing villin parlicuIar and Iimilod lorrilorios, and in spoci!c and pormanonlIy
boundod viIIagos. No Iongor couId Nyaurongai bocomo Korogo, or Korogo
coaso lo oxisl, bocauso lloso poopIos and pIacos lad boon !xod on maps and
rocordod in consus books.
15
SocondIy, lomporary Iabor migralion bogan, vlon llo Iabor rosorvoir from
llo coaslaI aroas vas graduaIIy dopIolod.
16
Rocruilors lriod lo Iuro mon vill
Woslorn slooI looIs, sinco llo Ioaguo of Nalions lad docrood llal lloy voro
nol aIIovod lo forco anybody lo vork for llom. Inlroduclion of llo load lax
(offoclivo in llo 1930s) aIso sorvod llo purposos of llo rocruilors. IalroI Of!-
cors voro ompovorod lo coIIocl a Hoad Tax of 10 sliIIings a yoar from ovory
abIo bodiod man Iiving in ovory paci!od viIIago. Corlain calogorios of mon
voro, lovovor, oxompl from llo lax, and among lloso calogorios voro mon
sorving undor indonluro. Tlo Hoad Tax, lloroforo, inducod many mon lo soII
lloir Iabor vlo may nol lavo ollorviso dono so.
17
Mosl of llo migranl Iabor-
ors voro llo youngor mon from llo viIIagos. Tlo numbor of migranl Iaborors
absonl from llo Sopik cIimbod from 152 in 192425 lo 2,763 in 193738.
18

Al !rsl, fovor IalmuI aro boIiovod lo lavo joinod llis Iabor migralion llan,
for oxampIo, llo Clambri. Govorlz providos an inlorosling oxpIanalion for
llis difforonco. Slo arguos llal llo lradilionaI socio-oconomic syslom of llo
IalmuI vas oxlornaIIy orionlod. Tlo IalmuI Iivod aIong llo banks of llo rivor,
and voro aload of lloir noiglbors in miIilary and oconomic rospocls. Tloir
posilion on llo Sopik Rivor aIIovod llom lo conlinuo in llis onlropronouriaI
roIo aflor llo Iuropoan inlrusion, as missionarios, palroI of!cors, and oxpIor-
ors viIIingIy providod llom vill goods in rolurn for safo passago. Tlo
Clambri, on llo ollor land, lad aIvays boon ono of llo moro vuInorabIo oll-
nic groups, and Ioarnl lo adapl lo lloso moro povorfuI llan lloy voro. Tloy
lad, lovovor, bocomo skiIIod al surviving llrougl adapling lo llo noods of
15
Govorlz, ),0%1 2%3,4 )"!%,(%,/, pp. 1234.
16
ScagIion boIiovos llal rocruilmonl poIicy procoodod llrougl various slagos: In
llo Sopik aroa, rocruilmonl vas rallor sporadic and Iimilod in oxlonl unliI around llo
lurn of llo conlury. Aflor llo Gorman imporiaI govornmonl assumod adminislralivo
conlroI from llo Nou Guinoa Kompagnio, allonlion lurnod lovard copra pIanlalions,
lrado, and llo uso of IocaI Iabor. Aflor coaslaI rogions lad boon soriousIy dopIolod of
Iabor polonliaI, inIand aroas, vlicl proviousIy lad boon virluaIIy ignorod, voro pon-
olralod and organizod for Iabor. ScagIion, Roconslrucling Iirsl Conlacl, p. 51.
17
Rood, @'1%&* "F @"-,4& =,. >6%&,', p. 179.
18
Govorlz, ),0%1 2%3,4 )"!%,(%,/, p. 112, basod on 192438 Roporls lo llo Ioaguo of
Nalions on llo adminislralion of llo Torrilory of Nov Guinoa.
-.; 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
lloir suporiors, an abiIily lloy roadiIy lransforrod lo Iuropoan adminislra-
lors and onlropronours. In ollor vords, llo Clambri accommodalod lo llo
doslruclion of lloir monopoIy on llo produclion of spociaIizod commodi-
lios by adopling a pallorn of circuIar migralion. Tloy lloroby acquirod from
Iuropoans vlal lloy lad loroloforo acquirod from llo IalmuI llo vaIuabIos
nocossary lo pay for prosligo and, nov, aIso nocossary lo pay laxos.
19
WliIo
Govorlzs lypollosis suggosls llal accidonls of goograply and ocoIogy pIay
a koy roIo in dolormining llo falo of groups, ono couId porlaps aIso concIudo
llal llo abiIily of mombors of cIassIoss sociolios lo adapl lo loloronomous
Iabor discipIino varios, doponding on vlollor lloso concornod aro from a
logomonic or a subaIlorn ollnic group!
TlirdIy, missionarios of llo )"!%,('/ G,4$% H%3%&% (SVD) sollIod in llo aroa.
Tlis liglIy onlorprising Gorman-Dulcl CalloIic ordor inlondod llal mission-
ary posls slouId bocomo !nanciaIIy soIf-suf!cionl by running pIanlalions,
savmiIIs and llo Iiko. Will llis objoclivo in mind, llo SVD fallors ompla-
sizod abslracl Iabor discipIino in lloir inloraclions vill llo IocaI popuIalion.
Tlo combinalion of lloso clangos llorouglIy lransformod llo rogion. Tlo
offoclivo prolibilion of loadlunling from 1927 onvard, for oxampIo, aIlorod
llo baIanco of povor bolvoon llo IalmuI, llo Clambri, and llo Savo. Aflor
aII, llo Clambri and llo Savo no Iongor lad roason lo foar vioIonco on llo
parl of llo IalmuI. Moroovor, llo avaiIabiIily of slooI axos and llo Iiko moanl
llal llo IalmuI no Iongor dopondod on slono looIs producod by llo Clam-
bri, lloroby dopriving llo Clambri of an imporlanl sourco of incomo. ViIIago
aclivilios bocamo commodi!od. Arlifacls incroasingIy slarlod lo bo soId lo
oulsidors, and corlain riluaIs (sucl as llo inilialion of mon) bocamo accossibIo
lo lourisls for a foo.
During llo oarIy yoars of llis lransilionaI poriod, llo anllropoIogisl and
sociaI-psycloIogisl Grogory Baloson (190480) slayod vill llo IalmuI sovoraI
limos. Aflor a fov visils lo llo rogion slarling in llo Ialo 1920s, lo pubIislod
lis !rsl major arlicIo aboul llo group and invonlod lloir namo in llo pro-
coss (lloy lad no dosignalion of lloir ovn for lloir combinod ollnic group).
20

Aflor a subsoquonl !floon-monll slay in llo oarIy 1930s, lo vrolo lis major
vork ='3,& aboul a riluaI among llo IalmuI in vlicl vomon drossod as mon
19
Govorlz, ),0%1 2%3,4 )"!%,(%,/, p. 115.
20
Baloson, SociaI Slrucluro of llo IalmuI IoopIo.
1"& 2#%345 &6$&'*&,7& 0 -.<
and mon as vomon.
21
In 1938, Baloson visilod llo IalmuI for llo Iasl limo,
llis limo accompaniod by lis vifo Margarol Moad, vlom lo lad mol on lis
!rsl lrip, vlon slo vas slaying vill llo noiglboring poopIo llo Clambri.
Tlo rosuIls of llis sludy, lovovor, romainod IargoIy unpubIislod, duo lo llo
oulbroak of WorId War II.
22
Baloson basod lis approacl on Durkloimian and ospociaIIy cuIluraI prin-
cipIos. Ho vas parlicuIarIy inloroslod in llo ='3,& riluaI and ils inlorprola-
lion, in llo conloxl of gondor roIos and !clilious or roaI kinslip. Ho aimod lo
abslracl from IalmuI cuIluro an ,(I"/, llal is a cuIluraIIy slandardizod syslom
of organisalion of llo inslincls and omolions of llo individuaIs.
23
Balosons
doscriplions provido virluaIIy no informalion aboul poIilics, oconomics
or Iabor. Ho monlions vory brio"y llal loadlunling lad disappoarod so
roconlIy llal il vas sliII parl of llo naluraI solling of llo coromonios,
24
and
llal llo IalmuI rocognizo no difforonlialion of rank or cIass, aIllougl lloy
considor gondor difforoncos lo bo immonsoIy imporlanl.
25
Buriod in a clap-
lor aboul porsonaIily lypos, vo Ioarn somolling aboul llo consoquoncos of
indonlurod Iabor. On llis subjocl, Baloson oxpIains: Al llo prosonl limo, llo
viIIagos of llo IalmuI conlain considorabIo numbors of young mon vlo lavo
roconlIy rolurnod lo lloir lomos aflor sponding from llroo lo !vo yoars as
indonlurod Iaborors on Iuropoan pIanlalions and goId minos. Tloy grov up
as boys in llo IalmuI ollos probabIy admiring il and probabIy boIioving llal
llo ollos vas 'naluraI for mon. Tlon lloy vonl avay and Iivod for somo
yoars in llo moro discipIinod and co-oporalivo ollos of a Iabor Iino. Nov lloy
aro rolurning lo llo ollos in vlicl lloy grov up.
26
WliIo somo roadjuslod quickIy, ollors oncounlorod sorious dif!cuIlios: As
boys, lloy probabIy adoplod llo provaiIing ollos bocauso il vas faslionabIo
and vas llo onIy pallorn offorod lo llom. Bul nov, vlon lloy lavo soon
and Iivod in a difforonl ollos, lloso mon Iook askanco al lloir nalivo cuIluro.
21
Baloson, ='3,&. Tlo book oIicilod sovoraI roaclions. Soo osp. KossoI, J"*%! '&-
)"!%'7 )(46!(64,, Housoman and Sovori, Navon "4 (I, K(I,4 ),7F.
22
IalmuI is aIso spoIIod IalmuI or YalmuI. Rogarding llo !oId rosoarcl from
1938, soo Moad, L7'!1$,44M N%&(,4, ospociaIIy pp. 2767, and Moad, J,((,4/ F4"# (I,
?%,7-, pp. 21238. Soo aIso Iipsol, If!cionl SampIo of Ono, and Boon, 8F!&%(%,/ '&-
;C(4,#,/, pp. 17297.
23
Baloson, ='3,&, p. 118.
24
Ibid., p. 3.
25
Ibid., p. 123.
26
Ibid., p. 167.
-.= 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
Tloy aro impalionl of llo buffooning of llo oIdor mon and lloy lroal llo mosl
imporlanl riluaIs vill conlompl. Tloy aro oponIy caroIoss aboul llo socrols
of inilialion.
27
Tlo incipionl disinlogralion of llo oslabIislod cuIluro obsorvod by Baloson
conlinuod during llo yoars llal foIIovod. In Ialo 1955 and oarIy 1956, vlon
llo Sviss musoum profossionaI AIfrod BulIor visilod llo IalmuI vill llo plo-
lograplor Ron Gardi, lo nolicod, for oxampIo, llal mosl of llo masks llal
lad adornod llo gabIos of lousos, painlings and ollor cuIlic ornamonlalions
of lomos lad disappoarod. Ho associalod llis clango vill a clanging roIi-
gious avaronoss.
28
Iarning monoy lad al !rsl sorvod primariIy lo pay llo
load lax (vlicl las sinco boon aboIislod), bul from llal poinl aIso onabIod
poopIo lo acquiro modorn imporl producls. Tlo massivo lomporary migralion
of young mon lo llo pIanlalions aIong llo coasl vas llo main roason: Tlo
Iabor rocruilmonl syslom llal provaiIs lo llis day may lavo boon llo mosl
signi!canl faclor in llo lybridizalion, as voII as llo doslruclion of cuIluros.
Al lloir pIacos of vork, for oxampIo, llo rocruilod nalivos mingIo vill aII
possibIo oIomonls of llo onliro lorrilory and al llo samo limo inloracl moro
cIosoIy vill vlilo civiIizalion llan lloy possibIy couId anyvloro oIso.
29

Upon rolurning lo lloir nalivo viIIagos, vory fov of llo young mon voro viII-
ing lo roinlogralo in lloir oId surroundings.
Tlo incroasod roboIIiousnoss insligalod by llo cuIluraI clango is ovon moro
signi!canl in llo conloxl of my anaIysis. BulIor dolorminod llal llo Sopik
poopIo, vlo in llo pasl lad boon in groal domand llrougloul llo lorrilory
bocauso of lloir plysicaI slrongll and ospociaIIy lloir roIiabiIily lad bocomo
&"& *4'(' among many pIanlors for foar of lloir passion for inciling unrosl.
30

In lis viov, mosl of llo Sopik poopIo boIiovod llal inloraclions vill vlilo
poopIo lad boon IargoIy lo lloir disadvanlago. Tlo alliludo of prolosl aris-
ing from llis disconlonl vas manifoslod primariIy llrougl ovoryday cargo
cuIls: in sovoraI privalo lomos and coromoniaI lousos vo found labIos
docoralod vill "ovors, in conslanl roadinoss lo voIcomo llo ancoslors vill
27
Ibid., p. 168.
28
BulIor, KuIlurkonlakl und KuIlurzorfaII, p. 7. Rogarding BulIor and Garnis
journoy, soo aIso: Gardi, ),0%1.
29
BulIor, KuIlurkonlakl und KuIlurzorfaII, p. 20.
30
Ibid., p. 13.
1"& 2#%345 &6$&'*&,7& 0 -.>
lloir goods.
31
In 1959, BulIors socond oxpodilion con!rmod llo progrossivo
lransformalion of llo oId cuIluro.
32
62'#- ./03-,3-&'.3/
Ollor Sviss ollnograplors lravoIIod lo llo rogion boforo BulIor did.
33

And BulIors visils pavod llo vay for Iong-Iasling Sviss fascinalion vill
llo IalmuI. Tlo driving forco bolind llis inlorosl vas Moinlard Scluslor
(b. 1930), vlo, aflor lvo oxpodilions for musoum rosoarcl in llo MiddIo
Sopik rogion during llo 1960s,
34
conduclod an ambilious rosoarcl projocl
lloro in llo oarIy 1970s. Scluslors inlonlion vas lo ro-oxamino Balosons
rosoarcl. Sinco llo 1930s, llo MiddIo Sopik aroa lad nol boon sludiod in
dopll in lis viov. Ho boIiovod llal Balosons vork noodod lo bo conlinuod,
and llal llo aroas lo lad doaIl vill insuf!cionlIy ougll lo bo covorod in
groalor dopll.
35
Bolvoon Augusl 1972 and ApriI 1974, six of Scluslors docloraI sludonls
sollIod in viIIagos aIong llo Sopik for poriods of six lo oiglloon monlls. Tlo
rosuIl comprisod boll dissorlalions and foIIov-up sludios. Tlo vorks by Bri-
gilla Hausor-SclubIin (b. 1945), MiIan Slanok (b. 1943) and IIoronco Woiss
(b. 1945) aro ospociaIIy nolovorlly. Slanok and Woiss visilod llo IalmuI nol
onIy in 197274, bul aIso in 197980, 198485 and 198889. Tloy vrolo lloir
Ild llosos aboul llo IalmuI viIIago of IaIimboi, and Ialor invosligalod llo
falos of rosidonls of llal viIIago vlo migralod lo llo cily of RabauI.
36
Tlo dif-
foronl sludios rovoaI lo Iabor lislorians llal aflor llo iniliaI slago of conlacl (in
31
Ibid., p. 12.
32
BulIor, Sopik-Ixpodilion. On BulIor, soo MouIi, AIfrod BulIor.
33
Scluslor, IllnoIogisclo IoIdforsclung, p. 173. Spoisor, Inilialionszoromonio.
34
Tloso oxpodilions look pIaco in 1961 vill Iiko HaborIand and in 19657 vill
Clrislian Kaufmann and GisoIa Scluslor. Soo HaborIand and Scluslor, ),0%1, Scluslor,
VorIu!gor Boricll.
35
Scluslor, IllnoIogisclo IoIdforsclung, p. 174. Tlo rosponsos lo ='3,&, Balosons
cliof sludy aboul llo IalmuI aro roviovod in: Housoman and Sovori, Navon "4 (I,
K(I,4 ),7F, pp. 346.
36
Tlo mosl imporlanl pubIicalions in our conloxl aro: Hausor-SclubIin, ?4'6,&
%& D'4'4'6, Woiss, D%&-,4 /!I%7-,4& %I4,& 877('*, Slanok, )"O%'7"4-&6&* 6&- @M(I%1,
Woiss, H%, -4,%/(,& ?4'6,&, Woiss, G"4 -,# G671'&'6/$46!I. In IngIisl, soo aIso Slanok,
SociaI Slrucluro of llo IalmuI, and Woiss, CliIds RoIo in llo Iconomy of IaIim-
boi. Ollor parlicipaling docloraI sludonls voro: Markus SclindIbock, }urg Sclmid,
and }urg Wassmann. Tloir llosos lavo boon pubIislod as: SclindIbock, )'*" $,% -,&
-:/ 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
vlicl llo load lax vas inlroducod, and load lunling prolibilod), capilaIism
sproad in llo viIIagos mainIy llrougl llo circuIalion of commodilios, and llal
llo IalmuI proIolarianizod primariIy llrougl Iabor migralion lo llo cilios and
pIanlalions.
As rogards llo grovll of a casl oconomy, aII llo avaiIabIo ovidonco indicalos
llal llo viIIago oconomios graduaIIy bocamo monolizod aflor WorId War II.
Tlis subslanliaI grovll in llo in"uonco of monoy vas obviousIy allribulabIo
in parl lo llo opporlunily lo purclaso dosirod consumor goods. Bul llis oxpIa-
nalion is unsalisfaclory. Hausor-SclubIin las caIcuIalod llal llo froquonl
!sl-soIIing oxpodilions by IalmuI mon in llo oarIy 1970s lo llo noarby lovn of
Wovak voro unpro!labIo. Bul vlal llo nol pro!l vas pIayod no major roIo.
Businoss moanl any opporlunily lo soII somolling for monoy, no mallor lov
groal llo !nanciaI oxpondiluro (nol lo monlion llo limo invoslmonl).
37
Tlis
rising monoy-folisl among llo IalmuI lransformod gondor roIalionslips. On
llo ono land, llo mon bocamo moro povorfuI, bocauso lloy soId boll lloir
ovn Iabor producls (voodcarvings) '&- lloso of llo vomon (!sl, nockIacos,
landbags) in llo cily. On llo ollor land, poIygamy vas Ioss provaIonl llan
in Balosons day, bocauso llo brido prico vas duo in casl, and many mon nol
Iiving in llo cily lloroforo couId nol afford moro llan ono vifo.
38
Iabor migralion aIso provod lo bo a moro compIox procoss llan iniliaIIy
boIiovod. Tlo lrok lo llo cilios, vlicl graduaIIy gol undor vay aflor 1918 and
surgod aflor 1945,
39
did &"( rosuIl from immisoralion in llo viIIagos.
40
Novor-
lloIoss, vory Iargo numbors of IalmuI movod lo llo cilios. Tlo vorks of Slanok
and Woiss rovoaI llo oxlonl of llo clangos sinco llo 1960s. WliIo in llo 1950s
migralion vas onIy lomporary, moro or Ioss pormanonl migralion incroasod
dramalicaIIy aflor llal poriod. In Novombor 1972, a consus by Slanok in
IaIimboi rovoaIod llal 323 of llo 765 viIIagors Iivod in llo viIIago ilsoIf or in
)'."/, Wassmann, >,/'&* '& -,& ?7%,*,&-,& :6&-, Sclmid and Koclor Sclmid, )PI&,
-,/ D4"1"-%7/.
37
Hausor-SclubIin, ?4'6,& %& D'4'4'6, pp. 378.
38
Ibid., pp. 28, 378, 131. Soo aIso Baloson, SociaI Slrucluro of llo IalmuI IoopIo,
p. 286.
39
VirluaIIy aII aduIl mon nov Iiving in IaIimboi lavo sponl briof or oxlondod
poriods al urban sollIomonls or missionary posls. Somo lavo vorkod lloro, vliIo
ollors moroIy visilod or lopod lo !nd a job lloro. Woiss, D%&-,4 /!I%7-,4& %I4,&
877('*, p. 44.
40
Woiss, D%&-,4 /!I%7-,4& %I4,& 877('*, p. 45, Woiss, Abvandorung in dio Sldlo,
p. 165.
1"& 2#%345 &6$&'*&,7& 0 -:8
a noiglboring IalmuI viIIago, and 423 in llo cilios, ospociaIIy in RabauI (223),
Madang (88) and Wovak (44). Slanok vas unabIo lo dolormino llo pIaco of
rosidonco for 19 porsons. Ovor laIf llo poopIo lad llus movod lo llo cily,
prosumabIy somovlal moro mon llan vomon.
41
Tlis ralo is oxlromoIy ligl,
considoring llal onIy aboul !vo porconl of llo lolaI popuIalion of Iapua Nov
Guinoa Iivod in cilios al llo limo.
Wlal, llon, voro llo roaI roasons for llis massivo migralion` Woiss allri-
bulos llo !rsl slago from llo 1920s lo llo 1940s or 50s lo llo prolibilion of
loadlunling, vlicl soriousIy compromisod llo aullorily of llo oIdor mon.
Irom boing voII-knovn varriors and load lunlors, llo IalmuI bocamo llo
conquorod. Slrippod of lloir prido and lloir idonlily, llo oIdorIy bocamo irri-
lalod and unprodiclabIo lovard llo youll, vlom lloy couId no Iongor sorvo
as roIo modoIs.
42
Tlo lonsions llal onsuod bolvoon young and oId com-
poundod llo ongoing, cuslomary friclion bolvoon oIdorIy and adoIosconls.
AdoIosconls voro lloroforo llo !rsl onos inloroslod in vorking on llo pIanla-
lions. AdoIosconls voIcomod llo invilalion from llo vlilo poopIo lo go lo
a pIanlalion far avay from lloir dissalis!od and insocuro oIdors. Many aIso
oxpoclod lo !nd a nov idonlily by onlrusling lloir falo lo vlilo poopIo, vlo
aflor aII lad provon lo bo llo slrongosl.
43

Ovor limo, lovovor, llis sonso of dosporalion subsidod, as llo oIdors diod.
AII llo samo, migralion conlinuod lo incroaso. SovoraI faclors aro boIiovod
lo lavo boon invoIvod. Tlo !rsl vas llo grovll and IiboraIizalion of llo
Iabor markol. UnliI llo 1960s, onIy lloso vill an ompIoymonl conlracl (usu-
aIIy Iasling llroo lo !vo yoars) voro aIIovod lo sollIo in llo cilios. Will llo
oxpanding oconomy and llo oslabIislmonl of llo slalo faciIilios, lovovor,
vlicl incroasod llo domand for Iabor, llo roguIalions clangod. Irom llon
on, ovorybody vas pormillod lo movo lo llo cilios, vill or villoul a porma-
nonl ompIoymonl conlracl. WliIo llo Iabor migranls lad al !rsl consislod
mainIy of young mon, vomon and cliIdron slarlod lo arrivo as voII. SocondIy,
llo aulonomous sourcos of incomo in llo viIIagos voro minimaI, as roguIar
"oods mado groving coffoo or cacao impossibIo. TlirdIy, llo IalmuI lad
aIvays boon a mobiIo poopIo, vill a lradilionaI cuslom of rosoIving con"icls
41
Slanok, )"O%'7"4-&6&* 6&- @M(I%1, p. 24.
42
Woiss, Abvandorung in dio Sldlo, p. 160.
43
Ibid., p. 161.
-:9 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
by lomporariIy moving lo somovloro oIso: Ivon smaII cliIdron vlo arguo
vill lloir paronls or sibIings gallor lloir llings and movo in vill roIalivos.
Aflor llo lonsions subsido lloy rolurn lomo, somolimos sovoraI vooks Ialor.
Womon in lroubIo vill lloir lusbands rolurn lo lloir CIan. Mon disappoar lo
a noarby viIIago, ospociaIIy if ono suspocls llal a voman is lrying lo forco lim
lo marry lor. |. . .j IslabIisling nov viIIagos vas llo mosl oxlromo soIulion of
llo IalmuI socioly lo arising lonsions.
44
7#''*#(#/'5 ./ '"# 0.'.#5
Moro roconl ollnograplic rosoarcl oxlonds boyond doscriplions of llo viI-
Iagos vloro llo oulvard migralion originalod. In 19889 IIoronco Woiss
and MiIan Slanok conduclod oxlonsivo !oId rosoarcl al a sollIomonl of Iabor
migranls from llo IaIimboi viIIago in RabauI (Nov Brilain), a cily aboul a
llousand kiIomolros from llo Sopik aroa. Woiss doscribos lov llo IalmuI
from IaIimboi lad oslabIislod llo Kori sollIomonl in RabauI sinco 1960.
In 1988, 305 porsons Iivod in Kori: 167 aduIls and 138 cliIdron and young
aduIls, incIuding 149 fomaIos and 156 maIos. Oulsido Kori (bul in RabauI)
Iivod anollor 45 porsons. Ovor ninoly porconl of llo aduIls lad como from
IaIimboi, aIllougl mosl of llo cliIdron and young aduIls voro born in
RabauI.
45
Tlo spaliaI slrucluro of Kori IargoIy ropIicalos llal of IaIimboi.
Tlo originaI viIIago cIan organizalion of llo viIIago ovon ruIos llo arrango-
monl of llo lousos.
46
During llo rosoarcl poriod Kori foalurod !floon cIans,
vlicl jusl as in IaIimboi dolorminod llo sociaI slrucluro.
AII aduIl mon vorkod for a Iiving. Mosl voro vago oarnors, aIllougl somo
voro soIf-ompIoyod as voodcarvors. Tlo vago oarnors raroIy slayod vill llo
samo boss for Iong. Aflor aII, vago Iabor moanl adloring lo a scloduIo sol by
ollors, oboying llo suporvisor, vorking among slrangors and doing vork
unroIalod lo lloir ovn noods. Tloso vorking condilions voro diamolricaIIy
opposod lo llo onos in llo viIIagos. Ono voodcarvor rocounlod:
44
45
Woiss, G"4 -,# G671'&'6/$46!I, p. 87.
46
1"& 2#%345 &6$&'*&,7& 0 -:-
I vas a porlor al llo larbor |. . .j. Wo Ioadod llo bags of copra, vlicl voro
brougll lo RabauI from llo coconul pIanlalions, onlo Iargo slips. Tlo
vork vas vory lard. Wo unIoadod llo bags from llo lrucks and carriod
llom onlo llo slip aIong a narrov gangpIank. Iacl bag voiglod 80 kiIos
|aboul 180 Ibsj. Wo loiIod undor llo lol sun, in llo rain, in aII voallor
condilions. Tlo vlilo suporvisor vas a sluck-up prig. Ho yoIIod aII llo
limo and pIayod lricks on us. Ho did nol Iol us rosl for a momonl. Ono day
I gol fod up and loId lim lo lis faco llal lo couId nol lroal us llal vay.
I vas !rod. I lavo boon a voodcarvor ovor sinco. Nov I dolormino lov
mucl and vlon I vork.
47

In addilion lo roguIarIy rosisling llo prossuro lo adapl, aflor a fov vooks
or monlls, vlon llo silualion lad bocomo unboarabIo, llo mon vouId gol
inlo a lugo argumonl vill lloir ompIoyor, spoak iII of lim, ovon como lo
bIovs vill lim and run off. Aflor a vliIo lloy vouId !nd a nov job.
48
In
llo 1960s and 70s, llo mon lriod lo soollo lloir fruslralions brougll on by
llo aIionalod Iabor by golling drunk aflor payday. During lloso drinking
bouls, lloy vouId laIk aboul Iifo in lloir viIIago. Tlo mon vouId sil in llo
samo ordor as in llo coromoniaI louso in lloir viIIago. Tloy vouId addross
oacl ollor by llo namos of lloir ago groups, as lloy rominiscod aboul lloir
myllicaI ancoslors and rocilod lloir namos. CommunaI drinking sproos com-
ponsalod for llo missing communily in llo vorId of Iabor and llo Iack of
soIf-con!donco.
49

Rodislribulivo prossuro vas slrong: if somobody lad mado an oxcoplionaI
amounl of monoy llrougl somo kind of aclivily, lo vas oxpoclod lo slaro
vill llo ollors.
50
Tlis vas llo main roason vly somo poopIo closo nol lo Iivo
in Kori. Ono succossfuI IalmuI nolod: |Iivingj in a group Iiko Kori moans
slaring ovorylling you lavo, you can novor sol anylling asido, llo poor pros-
suro is ovorvloIming.
51
47
Woiss, G"4 -,# G671'&'6/$46!I, p. 66.
48
Woiss, Irauon in dor urbanollnoIogisclon Iorsclung, p. 269.
49
Ibid.
50
Doboral Govorlz and Irodorick Irringlon mako llo samo obsorvalion aboul
llo Clambri in Wovak: As ono Clambri loId us: 'Il is cuslom loro in lovn llal
vlonovor anyono is up, ovoryono comos around and asks lim for crodil, llal is lov
ovoryono is mado oquaI. 9.%/(,- :%/("4%,/, p. 105.
51
Woiss, G"4 -,# G671'&'6/$46!I, pp. 1001.
-:. 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
Among llo !rsl gonoralion of migranl famiIios in Kori, vlo arrivod in llo
1960s, llo gondorod division of Iabor difforod markodIy from llo vay il lad
boon in IaIimboi. Tlo roIos svilclod: llo mon in llo viIIago, arlisans and
dopondonl on lloir vomon for food, bocamo llo providors, llo vomon in llo
lovn Iosl lloir aulonomous posilion lo llo mon. Tlo mon bocamo dopondonl
upon lloir ompIoyors, llo vomon upon lloir mon.
52
Woiss offors sovoraI
roIalod oxpIanalions for llis roIo rovorsaI.
IirslIy, llo mon lad a lisloric Ioad ovor llo vomon in proIolarianizalion.
Aflor aII, llo mon lad vorkod on llo pIanlalions sinco llo 1920s, vloro lloy
maslorod llo 7%&*6' F4'&!' (Iidgin) and in many casos lad Ioarnod a lrado as
voII, sucl as carponlry or poIico vork. Tlo vomon lad boon unabIo lo Ioavo
lloir viIIagos unliI llo 1960s, spoko nolling bul IalmuI, and voro unproparod
for Iifo in llo cilios. SocondIy, llo vomon lad lroubIo arranging cliIdcaro in
llo cilios. Wloro couId lloy Ioavo lloir smaII cliIdron vlon lloy voro al
vork` Tloy novor oncounlorod llis probIom in llo viIIago. Wlon lloy vonl
!sling or lo llo markol, lloy novor look lloir smaII cliIdron vill llom. In llo
viIIago llo oIdor cliIdron valclod llo youngor onos vliIo llo vomon voro
avay. In llo cilios, llougl, llo oIdor cliIdron allondod sclooI.
53
TlirdIy, llo
informaI soclor vas virluaIIy non-oxislonl in Iapua Nov Guinoa boforo llo
indopondonco, duo lo llo roguIalions imposod by llo AuslraIian aullorilios.
IslabIisling a saIos oulIol llal compIiod vill aII llo ruIos roquirod subslan-
liaI slarl-up capilaI, and soIIing food and bovoragos vas ligllIy roguIalod.
OnIy vlilo poopIo and Clinoso voro abIo lo mool |aII llo roguIalionsj. Iar-
licuIarIy in llis soclor of llo oconomy, lovovor, IalmuI vomon migll lavo
boon abIo lo koop lloir smaII cliIdron vill llom.
54

As a rosuIl of lloir lousovi!zalion, somo vomon bocamo agoraplobic,
a probIom lloy lad novor oxporioncod in llo viIIago.
55
IaradoxicaIIy, llo mon
52
Slanok and Woiss, 'Big Man and 'Big Woman, p. 321.
53
Woiss, Irauon in dor urbanollnoIogisclon Iorsclung, p. 265. SclooI allondanco
appoars lo lavo boon an ongoing probIom. Mosl IalmuI cliIdron offor rosislanco and
rofuso roguIar sclooI allondanco. Tlo domands of sclooI sland in dirocl conlrasl lo
llo aulonomy and individuaI inilialivo llal is so imporlanl lo llo IalmuI. In lradi-
lionaI IalmuI socioly cliIdron gol fuIIy roprimandod bul aro lardIy ovor forcod lo do
somolling. Ono vails unliI lloy bogin somolling oul of lloir ovn inilialivo. Slanok
and Woiss, 'Big Man and 'Big Woman, p. 322.
54
55
Woiss, G"4 -,# G671'&'6/$46!I, p. 364. I borrov llo lorm lousovi!zalion from
Mios, <'(4%'4!IM '&- 8!!6#67'(%"& "& ' N"47- )!'7,. Soo aIso llo provious claplor.
1"& 2#%345 &6$&'*&,7& 0 -::
oflon lad far groalor probIoms adapling. |Monj lad lo mool aII nov roquiro-
monls al llo vorkpIaco, incIuding obodionco, submission, limo budgoling,
adaplalion. Tloy lavo lroubIo accopling llal a job is a pormanonl arrango-
monl and aro incIinod lo clango jobs conlinuousIy oul of sloor fruslralion.
Tlo vomon oxporioncod llo nov roIalions moro indiroclIy, llrougl lloir
lusbands vorking lours and lloir cliIdrons sclooI lours.
56
Tloso nov gondor roIalions clangod again in somo rospocls vill llo soc-
ond and subsoquonl gonoralions. Many young vomon lad allondod sclooI
and oblainod paid ompIoymonl. By llo 1980s llo !rsl gonoralion of vomon
raisod in RabauI vas aboul lvonly yoars oId. |. . .j AII lloso young vomon
lavo bocomo vago oarnors. Tlo onos vlo allondod occupalionaI lraining aflor
Ioaving sclooI vork as nursos, socrolarios, saIosvomon, and soamslrossos.
Mollorlood is no Iongor an obslacIo lo paid ompIoymonl. Tlo vomon lavo
oslabIislod a nolvork of roIalivos villin llo communily llal onabIos llom
lo onlrusl lloir cliIdron lo ollor vomon vliIo lloy aro al vork. In llo oarIy
1960s, llis vouId lavo boon virluaIIy impossibIo, bocauso lloro voro loo
fov vomon migranls. AII young vomon villoul occupalionaI lraining aro
unskiIIod vorkors or soII lomomado nol bags and jovoIIory lo lourisls.
57
AIllougl llo migranls in RabauI and oIsovloro oflon foIl lloy lad accom-
pIislod moro llan llo IalmuI vlo slayod bolind in llo Sopik aroa,
58
lloy
rolainod slrong lios vill lloir viIIagos of origin. IIoronco Woiss roIalos a cIoar
oxampIo from llo 1960s, vlon llo mon from llo Iayambl mons louso com-
munily docidod lo buiId a nov mons louso, ovon llougl llis parl of llo
viIIago lad boon llo mosl doopIy affoclod by oul-migralion: 236 of llo 340
porsons lad Iofl, incIuding 65 aduIl maIos. Tloy oacl conlribulod a "al ralo
56
Woiss, G"4 -,# G671'&'6/$46!I, pp. 3212. Tlo missionarios !guro in llo adapla-
lion procoss, lloy loacl llo mon, for oxampIo, lo assumo lloir rosponsibiIily as maIo
broadvinnors and lo manago monoy in llo cilios. Monoy musl bo rolainod and
sponl approprialoIy, so llal il is nol squandorod rigll avay. (Ibid., p. 296) Iaronling
praclicos clangod as a rosuIl. In llo viIIago, cliIdron voro novor boalon. Tlo IalmuI
boIiovo llal cliIdron slouId nol bo boalon, as sucl lroalmonl viII mako llom passivo
and submissivo. (Ibid., p. 305) In llo cilios, lovovor, llo cliIdron voro boalon.
57
58
MiIan Slanok: Ivory IalmuI knovs llal Iiving in llo cily is a slop up. Tlo onos
vlo slay bolind in llo viIIago aro poor. Tloy may lavo food and a Iargo louso bul
lavo nol joinod llo nov lrond. Tlo IalmuI vlo lavo migralod lo llo cilios lavo, ovon
if lloy Iivo loro in Kori, acliovod upvard sociaI mobiIily. Nobody soriousIy vanls
lo rolurn lo llo viIIago. Tlo onos vlo do so anyvay lavo faiIod loro. Quolod in
Woiss, G"4 -,# G671'&'6/$46!I, p. 117.
-:; 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
of aboul A$ 10 lovard conslrucling llo nov mons louso, lloroby prosorving
lloir riglls of uso in caso lloy rolurnod lo llo viIIago.
59
IoopIo in llo viIIagos
of origin romainod in cIoso conlacl vill llo cilios vloro oul-migranls sollIod,
in parl llrougl visils. Visils from ono cily lo llo ollor roinforco colosion
among aII lloso vlo camo from llo samo viIIago. Tlo nolvork appoars lo
oxlond llrougloul llo counlry. Tloro is a viIIago, and in sovoraI cilios lloro
is an IalmuI sollIomonl, and aII communilios slay in loucl vill oacl ollor.
60

Mosl marriagos aro bolvoon mombors of llo samo ollnic group. OnIy 15
marriagos invoIvod parlnors from difforonl ollnic groups.
61
Tios bolvoon urban sollIomonls and viIIagos voro nol onIy omolionaI: oco-
nomic and !nanciaI considoralions camo inlo pIay as voII. As Iong as onIy
civiI sorvanls rocoivo a roliromonl ponsion, mosl oIdorIy poopIo viII lavo no
cloico bul lo rolurn lo llo viIIago. |. . .j Iong-lorm ompIoymonl and sociaI
bono!ls aro virluaIIy non-oxislonl. Concorn on llo parl of roIalivos from llo
viIIago, rociprocaI visils, gifls and monoy clannoIIod from llo cily lo llo viI-
Iago aII lransaclions aro pro-paymonls in caso poopIo aro forcod lo rolurn lo
llo viIIago: ospociaIIy caro for oIdorIy paronls and sibIings. Somobody vlo
las novor givon any llougll lo lis roIalivos in llo viIIago viII bo lroalod
accordingIy.
62
Novs lravoIs vory quickIy bolvoon IalmuI sollIomonls. Wlon
somobody foII iII in IaIimboi, llo poopIo in Kori knov aboul il villin a day,
ovon llougl llo dislanco vas !vo days by boal. Ono inlabilanl lravoIIod
by canoo from llo viIIago lo Iagvi, vloro a drivor vas vailing lo lako lim
lo Wovak. Ho vonl lo llo bank vloro lis noplov vorkod and loIoplonod
somobody al vork in RabauI.
63
83/0*)5.3/
Tlis slory inlonds lo slov llal llo ollnograplic sludios can offor a dolaiIod
improssion of llo graduaI capilaIisl incorporalion, in llis caso of llo IalmuI
poopIo, and llo concurronl sproad of vago Iabor in llo poriod 190888. Tvo
59
Woiss, D%&-,4 /!I%7-,4& %I4,& 877('*, pp. 456.
60
Woiss, G"4 -,# G671'&'6/$46!I, p. 86, aIso p. 234.
61
Ibid., p. 87.
62
63
Woiss, G"4 -,# G671'&'6/$46!I, p. 139.
1"& 2#%345 &6$&'*&,7& 0 -:<
cavoals aro slouId bo monlionod lovovor. Tlo IalmuI voro sludiod mucl
moro oxlonsivoIy by ollnograplors llan somo ollor groups in Iapua Nov
Guinoa. Aflor aII, as I monlionod boforo, lloy voro roIalivoIy oasy lo roacl
and of arlislic inlorosl. And aIso, rosoarcl on proIolarianizalion in Iapua
Nov Guinoa or oIsovloro slouId obviousIy nol bo 7%#%(,- lo rovioving oll-
nograplic maloriaI. IorlunaloIy, lovovor, vo lavo al Ioasl four ollor sourcos
of informalion. IirslIy, vo lavo documonls from civiI sorvanls (roporls and
momoirs from palroI of!cors), sucl as llo momoirs of 'Kassa Tovnsond, vlo
did mucl lo subjugalo and dovoIop llo Sopik rogion during llo 1920s and
30s.
64
Tloso sourcos lond lo bo rallor inslrumonlaI and supor!ciaI, aIllougl
lloy may ro"ocl concrolo oxporioncos and poIicy praclicos. SocondIy, lloro
aro llo roporls from missionarios, vlicl appoar in llo arclivos and pubIi-
calions of various missionary sociolios, sucl as llo aforomonlionod Sociolas
Vorbi Divini (SloyIor Mission) of Iallor Iranz Kirsclbaum, vlo arrivod
in llo Sopik rogion in 1913.
65
Ialor, during llo socond missionary vavo
aflor 1945,
66
and in llo sollIomonls in RabauI and ollor lovns, addilionaI,
smaIIor donominalions voro oslabIislod, sucl as llo IvangoIicaI, AposloIic,
and IonlocoslaI clurclos. ObviousIy, accounls from lloso sourcos omplasizo
ollor aspocls llan llo onos on vlicl Iabor lislorians vouId focus. TlirdIy, vo
couId inlorviov Sopik rosidonls,
67
palroI of!cors, missionarios and . . . ollno-
graplors. IourllIy, conlomporary sludios aro avaiIabIo aboul Iabor migra-
lion and circuIalion.
68
Comparing ollnograplic maloriaI vill ollor sourcos
vlorovor possibIo is lloroforo dosirabIo, as vo aIvays aim lo do vill any
ono kind of sourco.
Tlo ollnograplic maloriaI morils discussion as voII. I lavo prosonlod onIy
a fov smaII oxcorpls from llo vasl body of ollnograplic rosoarcl maloriaI on
64
Tovnsond, H%/(4%!( KF!!,4.
65
On llo oarIy mission, soo Sloffon, @%//%"&/$,*%&& %& =,6*6%&,', pp. 173265. AIso:
H%3%&, N"4- @%//%"&'4%,/ %& <'06' =,. >6%&,'. Iranz Kirsclbaum (18821939) Iofl a
voaIll of ollnograplic maloriaI, mosl of vlicl vas Iosl during WorId War II (Sloffon,
@%//%"&/$,*%&&, pp. 2923). His diarios aro al llo SloyIor MissionsvissonsclaflIiclos
Inslilul, Sl. Auguslin, Gormany.
66
I dorivo llis lorm from }obons, CalloIics.
67
Curlain, Iabour Migralion from llo Sopik.
68
Soo o.g. Curlain, DuaI Dopondonco, Curry and Koczborski, Risks and Uncor-
lainlios of Migralion.
-:= 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
llo IalmuI.
69
A far moro oIaboralo roviov of llis samo rosoarcl is corlainIy
foasibIo. Nor is llo ollnograplic maloriaI avaiIabIo Iimilod lo pubIislod loxls.
Il may corlainIy bo compIomonlod by !oId nolos somolimos slorod in arclivos
and a voaIll of visuaI maloriaIs (o.g. plolograpls, molion picluros).
70

In llo courso of llo lvonlioll conlury, a cIoar lrond omorgod villin oll-
nograply. IarIy sludios in llis discipIino aimod lo comprolond llo originaI
cuIluro oxisling prior lo llo coIoniaI invasion. Tlis approacl moanl llal as
mucl as possibIo of vlal disruplod llis cuIluro vas abslraclod from. Tlus,
llo oIdor pubIicalions rofor IillIo lo Woslorn in"uoncos, vlicl aro impIicilIy
lroalod as poIIulions of a puro pasl. Tlis slorlcoming is Ioss provaIonl in
moro roconl ollnograplic sludios, ospociaIIy onos from llo Ialo 1960s and
aflorvards, lloso vorks lond lo ro"ocl groalor considoralion for oconomic
and poIilicaI clangos in gonoraI, and for llo svooping in"uonco of coIoniza-
lion and docoIonizalion in parlicuIar,
71
lloy aro moro compalibIo vill our
ovn rosoarcl quoslions and approaclos.
Al any ralo, ollnograplors lavo mucl lo offor Iabor lislorians, incIuding
ovor 21,000 briof and oxlondod sludios on Iapua Nov Guinoa aIono.
72
GIobaI
Iabor Hislory can accoss mucl moro roIovanl informalion llan ono migll
llink.
69
IIoronco Woiss pubIislod llo ollno-psycloanaIylic sludy >,/04Q!I, '# /(,4$,&-,&
?76// logollor vill Irilz and Marco MorgonllaIor, aIso issuod in Ironcl as 5"&3,4/'B
(%"&/ '6 $"4- -6 ",63, #"64'&(. I do nol considor mysoIf compolonl lo discuss llis book.
Ior a criliquo, soo: Goscl, Tloro Can Bo Noillor BIack nor Wlilo. Tloro aro ollor
ollnograplors vloso vorks I lavo nol discussod loro, as lloy aro nol suf!cionlIy
roIalod lo my argumonl. Ono is Margarol Moads coIIaboralor Rloda Mlraux, vlo
sponl lvonly-ono monlls in llo IalmuI viIIago of Tambunam bolvoon 1967 and 1973,
and anollor is Iric KIino SiIvorman, vlo visilod llis viIIago in 198890 and in 1994.
Soo llo spociaI issuo of llo 8&(I4"0"7"*%!'7 R6'4(,47M, 51, 1 (1978), odilod by Mlraux,
and SiIvormans @'/!67%&%(MS @"(I,4I""-S '&- @"!1,4M.
70
Tlo !oId nolos of Margarol Moad aro al silos sucl as llo Iibrary of Congross,
as aro aboul 10,000 sliII plolograpls and 11,300 fool of molion picluro !Im rocordod
by Grogory Baloson in 1938.
71
|Woj sludy llo coIoniaI silualion and ils lorilago, urbanizalion, llo inlornalionaI
poIilicaI and oconomic Iinks, and arrivo inovilabIy al llo vorId syslom as an objocl
of sludy in ils ovn rigll. Slanok and Woiss, 'Big Man and 'Big Woman, p. 313.
AIso soo DonaId Donoons inspiring Agonda, pp. 5164, for an allompl lo inlorprol
Iapua Nov Guinoas gonoraI dovoIopmonl.
72
Soo <vvv.papuavob.org/bib>.
!"#$%&' )*+%&&,
!"#$%%&
Tloro is no vay al aII of bringing back lo Iifo
llo cIuslors of possibiIilios from vlicl a cloico
lad lo bo mado, ovory limo il vas a quoslion of
dociding vlal vas llo corrocl vay lo procood.
Iooking backvards, vlal vo produco as por-
coplibIo and inloIIigibIo is inovilabIy a simpIi-
!calion llal givos a faIso appoaranco of moro
or Ioss slraigllforvard progross. And il is llis
faIso appoaranco llal incilos lo llo boIiof in an
oncompassing singIo nocossily dolormining a
procoss from slarl lo ond and so producing il as
a dovoIopmonl.
Iiorro Wallor
Tlo robuiIding of llo slip of Iabor lislory (adapl-
ing Ollo Nouralls molaplor vlicl I monlionod
in llo inlroduclion) is in progross. In llo provious
claplors, I mado llroo conlribulions of my ovn lo
llis vonluro. I providod a proposaI for llo Iocalion
of llo navigalion room, from vlicl llo slips
roulo can bo diroclod, by dovoIoping a broador con-
copl of llo vorking cIass, I coIIoclod and ordorod
somo driflvood aboul forms of coIIoclivo aclion,
and I lavo oblainod usofuI advico from llo crovs
of ollor slips in llo vicinily. Wlollor in doing so I
lavo inadvorlonlIy ovorIookod imporlanl aspocls, is
somolling lo bo sollIod by fuluro discussions. In any
caso, il is cIoar llal by far llo Iargosl parl of llo vork
-./ 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
las yol lo bo dono. Wo sliII Iack a Iol of limbor, and as yol vo lavo onIy a
somovlal vaguo picluro of vlal llo nov slip slouId Iook Iiko in lolaI. Ivon
so, an allompl las boon mado lo mako llo oulIinos visibIo, in a vay vlicl I
lopo viII bo usofuI as orionlalion.
'()*#($*+,
If vo vanl lo vrilo llo lislory of Iabor on a vorId scaIo, lvo approaclos aro
concoivabIo. Ono approacl aspiros lo a univorsaI lislory of vork, docu-
monling llo Iabor roIalions in difforonl parls of llo vorId as comprolonsivoIy
as possibIo. Anollor approacl aims for a lislory of gIobaIizod vork, Iook-
ing al Iabor roIalions and Iabor movomonls from llo lopicaI porspoclivo of
llo gIobaIizod oconomy.
1
Boll approaclos nood nol bo muluaIIy oxcIu-
sivo, lovovor. WiIIom van SclondoI proposos llal llo !rsl approacl couId
bocomo a dynamic and cruciaI !oId of inquiry, in vlicl llo lislorios
and idonlilios of vorking poopIo aro comparod and anaIyzod from difforonl
lloorolicaI vanlago poinls llal allompl lo soo boyond llo Iooking-gIass of llo
Norll. Tlo socond approacl (lislorios of Iabor soon as sludios of capilaIism
llrougl ils Iabour aspocl) couId bo inlorprolod as a spociaI inlorosl villin
llis Iargor !oId and il, loo, couId bo approaclod from various lloorolicaI
angIos.
2
I vouId ondorso sucl a viov, oxcopl llal I favor priorilizing llo
socond (moro narrovIy focusod) approacl in llo moanlimo. My roasons aro
praclicaI and poIilicaI.
Tlo praclicaI roason is llal boll OId and Nov Iabor lislorians lavo aIvays
conlraIIy focusod on Iabor in capilaIisl sociolios, il is obvious llal GIobaI Iabor
Hislory dovolaiIs vill llal inlorosl. Tlo poIilicaI roason is llal llo socond
approacl diroclIy conlribulos lo undorslanding llo vorId in vlicl vo Iivo
nov lo bollor insigll inlo llo londoncios vlicl lavo brougll us lo vloro
vo aro loday.
3
Tlo !rsl-monlionod approacl obviousIy doos nol Ioso any of
1
van dor Iindon, 'GIobaIizalion of Iabor and Working-CIass Hislory, pp.
1414.
2
van SclondoI, Slrolcling Iabour Hisloriograply, pp. 2601.
3
Bruco MazIisl corroclIy arguos llal aII lislory is conlomporary lislory in llo
sonso llal llo porspoclivo brougll lo boar on pasl ovonls is nocossariIy roolod in llo
prosonl. In llis Iigll, gIobaI lislory may simpIy bo moro conscious of ils porspoclivo
and inloroslod in focusing il moro diroclIy on conlomporary lapponings, as voII as
12%3445 0 -.6
ils imporlanco bocauso of llis priorily. If GIobaI Iabor Hislory vouId in limo
oxlond ils lorizons boyond capilaIisl civiIizalion, il vouId doopon our undor-
slanding of llo spoci!cily (or non-spoci!cily) of capilaIisl dovoIopmonls.
If I assign conlraI pIaco lo capilaIisl Iabor, llo !rsl quoslion llal arisos is
vlal vo ougll lo undorsland by capilaIism. Tlo propor uso of llo lorm
romains conlrovorsiaI, and again and again bocomos a lopic of lorminoIogicaI
dobalos. I novorlloIoss conlinuo lo uso llo lorm bocauso, as Iornand Brau-
doI rigllIy concIudod, lloro is nolling lo bo gainod by llroving oul aIong
vill llo vord llo conlrovorsios il arousos, vlicl lavo somo porlinonco lo llo
prosonl-day vorId.
4
Bul in Iino vill llo argumonl of provious claplors, I do
proposo a doscriplion vlicl dovialos somovlal from commonIy accoplod
do!nilions.
Will Marx, I llink llal llo coro, llo oIomonlary form of capilaIism,
inloros in llo commodily, llo conlradiclory unily of uso-vaIuo and oxclango-
vaIuo, vlicl simuIlanoousIy roprosonls a do!nilo commorciaI vaIuo for llo
ovnor and salis!os luman noods of vlalovor kind for somoono oIso.
5
And
vill IoInyi, I llink llal vo can dislinguisl bolvoon lvo kinds of com-
modilios: rc.| commodilios, i.o. objocls and sorvicos consciousIy producod by
luman Iabor for saIo, and !ciiiicus commodilios (or psoudo-commodilios)
vlicl aro nol producod spoci!caIIy for saIo, bul novorlloIoss aro offorod for
saIo. Among !clilious commodilios I incIudo ospociaIIy Iabor, vlicl is onIy
anollor namo for a luman aclivily vlicl goos vill Iifo ilsoIf and llo naluraI
vorId insofar as il is nol producod by man al aII.
6

Commodi!calion, llo lransformalion of Iabour producls, Iabor or naluraI
rosourcos inlo a commodily, is a procoss vlicl bogan a vory Iong limo ago.
Iabor commodi!calion in parlicuIar is a vory ancionl praclico. As I indicalod,
vago-Iabor occurrod for llousands of yoars prior lo capilaIisl civiIizalion, llo
samo appIios lo clalloI sIavory. In Ancionl Mosopolamia, Tlo sIavo vas llo
proporly of lis maslor Iiko any ollor clalloI. Ho couId bo brandod and "oggod
and vas sovoroIy punislod if lo allomplod lo oscapo. |. . .j Tlo saIo prico of a
on llo pasl. Sorious probIoms of soIoclivily or documonlalion llon romain, as lloy
do vill any lislory. MazIisl, Inlroduclion lo GIobaI Hislory, p. 3.
4
BraudoI, Citi|iz.iicn .n! C.pii.|ism, II, p. 231.
5
Marx, C.pii.|, I, pp. 1258.
6
IoInyi, Grc.i 1r.ns|crm.iicn, p. 72. IoInyi dislinguislos a llird calogory of
!clilious commodilios (i.o. monoy), bul llis varianl is Ioss roIovanl for my ovn
argumonl.
-.7 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
sIavo variod vill llo markol and llo individuaI invoIvod, an avorago prico for
a grovn man vas lvonly slokoIs, vlicl vas al limos Ioss llan llo prico for an
ass.
7
SoomingIy modorn plonomona sucl as a compIox division of Iabor in
llo produclion of commodilios Iikoviso lavo an ancionl origin, as slovn for
oxampIo by llo Clinoso oxporionco.
8
And llo inlogralion of sIavos and vago
Iaborors in sysloms of Iong-dislanco lrado aro nol of roconl vinlago oillor.
Tlo difforonl lypos of commodi!calion, and llo rociprocalions across groal
dislancos vlicl may accompany il, for a Iong limo romainod disconlinuous,
parliaI, and ospociaIIy marginaI.
9
In llo courso of limo, llo procoss accoIor-
alod and oxlondod, inlorruplod or brakod limo aflor limo by forms of docom-
modi!calion, villoul any slarpIy-do!nod lurning-poinl boing visibIo. Tlo
riso of llo Arab lrado ompiro from llo ninll conlury, llo P.x Mcngc|ic. in llo
llirloonll and fourloonll conlury, llo Iuropoan oxpansion inlo llo Woslorn
Homisploro from 1492 lloso voro aII bul slops in a Ionglly, prolraclod pro-
coss vlicl, from llo ninoloonll conlury, rocoivod a nov, giganlic slimuIus by
incroasod agricuIluraI produclivily and induslriaIizalion.
10

Al a corlain poinl, circuils of commodily lrado omorgod in vlicl boll inpuis
in Iabor procossos (Iabor, rav maloriaIs, naluraI rosourcos) .n! cuipuis (goods
and sorvicos) acquirod llo commodily-form. A lrading circuil llus omorgod,
in vlicl londonliaIIy produclion of commodilios by moans of commodilios
look pIaco (borroving Iioro Sraffas famous oxprossion). 1|is prcgrcssing cir-
cu|.iicn c| ccmmc!ii prc!uciicn .n! !isiriouiicn, suc| i|.i nci jusi |.ocr prc!ucis
oui .|sc mc.ns c| prc!uciicn .n! |.ocr iisc|| .cuirc i|c si.ius c| ccmmc!iiics, is
u|.i | ucu|! c.|| c.pii.|ism.
Tlis do!nilion is consislonl vill llal of Marx, vlo simiIarIy doscribos llo
capilaIisl modo of produclion as gonoraIizod commodily produclion. Bul il
diffors cruciaIIy from do!nilions vlicl rogard capilaIism simpIy as produc-
lion for llo markol, in abslraclion from llo spoci!c Iabor roIalions invoIvod
in produclion, i.o. il diffors from llo doscriplion vo aIroady oncounlor in llo
7
Kramor, Sumcri.ns, p. 78.
8
Ioddoroso, 1cn 1|cus.n! 1|ings.
9
Closnoaux, Du p.ssc |.iscns i.o|c r.sc, p. 101.
10
Abu-Iuglod, Bc|crc |urcpc.n Hcgcmcn, Banaji, IsIam, KomIosy, WoIlzoil
Orlszoil, Nodorvoon Iiolorso, |mpirc .n! |m.ncip.iicn, NoroI, Criscs ci iicrs mcn!c,
OslorlammoI, In Soarcl of a Ninoloonll Conlury.
12%3445 0 -.-
vrilings of MiclaoI Roslovlzoff, and vlicl rosurfacos in ImmanuoI WaIIor-
sloins anaIysos (among ollors).
11
NovorlloIoss my do!nilion aIso dovialos from Marxs, bocauso I inlorprol
Iabor commodi!calion moro broadIy llan llo aullor of C.pii.|. Aflor aII, Marx
impIiod llal froo vago Iabor is a priviIogod form of Iabor commodi!calion
in capilaIism, i.o. llo dominanl or ossonliaI form vlicl capilaIisl dovoIop-
monl viII inoxorabIy roproduco on a Iargor and Iargor scaIo. Bul if llo anaIysis
prosonlod in llis book is corrocl, llon m.n ci|cr ipcs c| ccmmc!i!c! |.ocr rc|.-
iicns u|ic| .rc jusi .s impcri.ni .s |rcc u.gc |.ocr cc-cxisi uii| ii .i .n iimc,
.n! |.tc .n cu.| impcri.ncc. Wc i|crc|crc ncc! ic orc.!cn cur ccnccpi c| c.pii.|ism
.cccr!ing|.
12
CapilaIism is a soIf-roinforcing procoss vlicl las lransformod llo vloIo
vorId, and viII, in aII IikoIilood, conlinuo lo clango il during llo noxl
docados, llo circuil of commodily lrado is ossonliaIIy cxp.nsitc. Aflor aII, com-
modilios aro nol isoIalod plonomona, bul aro aIvays omboddod in a juridicaI
and oconomic infraslrucluro claraclorizod by proporly riglls and compoli-
lion, vlicl in llo Iong lorm subordinalos moro and moro rogions of llo gIobo
and a Iargor parl of llo lolaIily of Iifo lo ils commorciaI roquiromonls. Tlo
nood of a conslanlIy oxpanding markol loraIdod in llo M.ni|csic c| i|c Ccm-
munisi P.ri is an csscnii.| foaluro of capilaIisl dovoIopmonl. Again and again,
nov induslrios omorgo vlicl no Iongor vork up indigonous rav maloriaI,
bul rav maloriaI dravn from llo romolosl zonos, induslrios vloso producls
aro consumod, nol onIy al lomo, bul in ovory quarlor of llo gIobo. IaraIIoI lo
llis dovoIopmonl, produclion loclniquos aro conslanlIy rovoIulionizod, vill
llo consoquonco of uninlorruplod dislurbanco of aII sociaI condilions, ovor-
Iasling uncorlainly and agilalion.
13
A pormanonl "uidily of Iabor roIalions in
aII conlinonls rosuIls from il.
11
|Tlo Iargo agricuIluraI unils in ancionl Groocoj voro run moslIy on capilaIislic
Iinos, lloir producls, llal is lo say, voro clio"y soId in llo markol, nol consumod by
llo producors. Roslovlzoff, Scci.| .n! |ccncmic Hisicr, I, pp. 1001.
12
By an oquaI imporlanco, I moan llal llo difforonl forms of Iabor commodi!ca-
lion aII conlribulo lo llo accumuIalion of capilaI. Of courso somo varianls (ospociaIIy
clalloI sIavory) impIy llal llo subaIlorn vorkors donl lavo mucl buying povor,
and llus brako llo circuIalion of commodilios al a liglor IovoI (Soo Claplors 24).
InvorsoIy, somo forms of commodi!calion aro moro suilabIo lo oarIy commodi!ca-
lion llan ollors. Soo, in llis rogard, do Souza Marlins, Roappoaranco of SIavory
on conlomporary Amazonia.
13
Marx and IngoIs, Manifoslo of llo Communisl Iarly, pp. 701.
-.8 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
In claraclorizing capilaIism in llis vay, I slouId novorlloIoss monlion
llroo imporlanl quaIi!calions. IirslIy, il ougll lo bo said llal commodi!ca-
lion is a procoss villoul ond, and llal llo lrading circuil las novor ici.||
consislod of roproducibIo commodilios. CapilaIisl oxpansion slouId nol jusl
bo do!nod goograplicaIIy, as Marx did vlon lo vrolo lo IngoIs in 1858 llal:
Tlo propor lask of bourgoois socioly is llo croalion of llo ucr|! m.r|ci, al
Ioasl in oulIinos, and of llo produclion basod on llal markol. Sinco llo vorId
is round, llo coIonizalion of CaIifornia and AuslraIia and llo oponing up
of Clina and }apan vouId soom lo lavo compIolod llis procoss.
14
Islvn
Mszros corroclIy nolos llal Marx did nol dislinguisl bolvoon lvo difforonl
procossos loro. AdmillodIy, vill llo annoxalion of AuslraIia, CaIifornia, olc.
vorId capilaIism bocamo an cxicnsitc gIobaI lolaIily, bul llal did nol moan
llal an inicnsitc gIobaI lolaIily lad omorgod. Tlo difforonco is anaIogous lo
Marxs conlrasl bolvoon absoIulo and roIalivo surpIus vaIuo: jusl as absoIulo
surpIus vaIuo roaclos a Iimil bocauso a day onIy las lvonly-four lours, llo
possibiIilios for oxpansion of llo oxlonsivo lolaIily aro oxlauslod vlon llo
vloIo gIobo is oncompassod. Bul furllor accumuIalion conlinuos llrougl
llo oxlraclion of roIalivo surpIus vaIuo, i.o. llrougl llo conquosl of sploros
of Iifo proviousIy nol yol subordinalod lo llo Iogic of commodily lrado.
15
In
llis rogard, an indicalion cruciaI for our concorns is llal llo produclion and
rogonoralion of Iabor povor sliII roquiros, ovon in llo mosl advancod capilaI-
isl rogions, an imporlanl inpul of privalo subsislonco Iabor.
SocondIy, aIllougl capilaIisl oxpansion las ils ovn soIf-roproducing Iogic,
il novor oporalos in isoIalion from condilions oxlornaI lo il, or rogardIoss of
circumslancos. Commodi!calion gonoraIIy, and commodi!calion of Iabor
povor in parlicuIar, is aIvays omboddod in a lisloricaIIy-formod cuIluro and
a naluraI onvironmonl lo vlicl il rosponds. Tlal is vly pallorns of com-
modi!calion diffor according lo Iocalion and poriod.
16
Many oIomonls aro
rosponsibIo for llis roaIily. Il is for oxampIo bocoming incroasingIy cIoar,
llal cIimalo clango can slrongIy in"uonco oconomic dovoIopmonls.
17
}usl as
imporlanl porlaps is llo facl llal commodi!calion progrossos in a combinod
14
Marx, Iollor lo IngoIs, 8 Oclobor 1858.
15
Mszros, Bccn! C.pii.|, p. 35.
16
On commodilios vlicl aro llo boarors of variogalod moanings in difforonl onvi-
ronmonls, soo Appadurai, Scci.| Ii|c c| 1|ings.
17
Soo llo briIIianl anaIysis in Davis, I.ic Vicicri.n Hc|cc.usis.
12%3445 0 -.9
and unovon vay, i.o. occurring simuIlanoousIy and inlordopondonlIy in llo
mosl variogalod lisloricaI and cuIluraI onvironmonls, vlicl co-dolormino
llo pallorn of dovoIopmonl.
If vo vanl lo undorsland llo incorporalion of poopIo in capilaIisl roIalions,
vo nood lo knov nol onIy vlal nov ordor is inslaIIod bul lov llo inslaIIa-
lion of llal nov ordor disIocalos and roarrangos llo prooxisling roIalionslips
govorning llo dopIoymonl of sociaI Iabor.
18
Tlo oxacl scopo of pro-oxisling
in"uoncos can onIy bo oslabIislod by ompiricaI rosoarcl. Diposl Clakra-
barly rigllIy quoslions in llis rogard llo idoa llal vorkors aII ovor llo vorId,
irrospoclivo of lloir spoci!c cuIluraI pasls, cxpcricncc capilaIisl produclion in
llo samo vay.
19
Bul vill oquaI jusli!calion, }anaki Nair las objoclod llal
vliIo objoclivo Iabor condilions cannol bo assumod lo bo oxaclIy llo samo
in aII sociolios or cuIluros, lloy novorlloIoss form llo slarling poinl of a
lislory of llo vorking cIass.
20
Tloso viovpoinls aro nol incompalibIo. Tlo
commodily oconomy las ils ovn inlrinsic dynamic, bul il doos nol unfoId
llis dynamic undor soIf-soIoclod circumslancos il musl adapl lo a compIox
of circumslancos inlorilod from llo pasl.
TlirdIy llis is possibIy onIy a varialion on llo lvo quaIi!calions mon-
lionod proviousIy llo modos of Iifo of poopIo aro nol idonlicaI vill llo
modos of produclion lloy porpolualo.
21
Tlo ricl divorsily of Iifo among sub-
aIlorn vorkors is nol fuIIy oncIosod by commorco or doscribod by commodi-
!calion. Tloro aro aIvays many aspocls vlicl cannol bo fuIIy subordinalod
by llo Iogic of commodilios. Al issuo aro llo bIockagos in roaI Iifo rosisling
llo vaIorizalion of capilaI, as doscribod by Oskar Nogl and AIoxandor KIugo.
22

Many aullors lavo poinlod oul aspocls of subvorsion and llo lransformalion
of moanings in ovoryday Iifo. Ior oxampIo, AIf Iudlko omplasizos |igcnsinn
(llo idiosyncralic pursuil of onos ovn inlorosls) as joyfuI oxpondiluro of limo
villoul any caIcuIalion of offocls or oulcomos.
23
Goorgos BalaiIIo rofors
18
WoIf, Incorporalion and Idonlily, p. 354.
19
Clakrabarly, CIass Consciousnoss and llo Indian Working CIass, p. 29.
20
Nair, Iroduclion Rogimos, CuIluraI Irocossos, p. 262.
21
Tlis lorminoIogy is duo lo Marx and IngoIs , vlo vrolo (Gcrm.n |!cc|cg, p. 31)
llal llo modo of produclion |. . .j is a do!nilo form of aclivily of lloso individuaIs, a
do!nilo form of oxprossing lloir Iifo, a do!nilo mc!c c| |i|c on lloir parl. As individuaIs
oxpross lloir Iifo, so lloy aro.
22
Nogl and KIugo, O||cni|ic||cii un! |r|.|rung, p. 107.
23
Iudlko, |igcnsinn, p. 140.
-.. 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
lo !cpcnscs, modos of bolavior oflon nol inlogralod in llo Iogic of accumu-
Ialion, sucl as Iaugllor, loroism, ocslasy, sacri!co, poolry, orolicism, and
ollors.
24

Will Rosvilla ScloIz, vo couId indood say llal commodi!calion ilsoIf prc-
suppcscs .n! cncrc.c|cs cn aroas vlicl aro nol yol subjocl lo markol lrado lo
any groal oxlonl. Ono can onIy lurn somolling nov inlo a commodily, if il
vas nol aIroady a commodily in llo !rsl pIaco. IndividuaI privalo consump-
lion is ono sucl pivolaI condilion: il oxlonds boyond llo roaIm of llo com-
modily oconomy, and doos nol nocossariIy oboy ils Iavs, yol il is novorlloIoss
indisponsabIo for il. Iroduclion and dislribulion of commodilios vouId Ioso
lloir ralionaIily villoul llo possibiIily of frooIy closon consumplion. Con-
sumplion nol jusl privalo consumplion bul aIso coIIoclivo consumplion is
llo nocossary counlorparl (an ossonliaI Ollor) lo llo commodily offorod for
saIo. Non-commodi!od sploros (vlicl incIudo aII sorls of communicalivo
cooporalion, luman caro, considoralion, and orolicism) aro oflon porcoivod
as fominino, vloroas llo caIcuIaling, ralionaI vorId of commodilios is
viovod as mascuIino.
25

'$(++-+
Againsl llis lloorolicaI background, vo can spocify llo concorns of GIobaI
Iabor Hislory moro cIosoIy. Tlo proposod onIargomonl of llo concopl vork-
ing cIass nocossariIy impIios an oxlonsion of llo rosoarcl lorrain of Iabor
lislorians. By making nol jusl froo vago oarnors, bul aIso clalloI sIavos,
indonlurod Iaborors, slarocroppors and ollor vorkors a vaIid subjocl of
inquiry, a vloIIy nov discipIino omorgos, mucl broador in scopo llan llo
oId Iabor lislory. Bul if vo impIomonl sucl an onIargomonl, vlal llon is
llo unifying llomo of an ollorviso pIuraIisl discipIino`
GIobaI Iabor Hislory in llo sonso of a gIobaIizod lislory of vork
rosoarclos nol llo lislory of aII forms of luman Iabor llrougl llo conlurios,
24
BalaiIIo, Ioxprionco inlriour, p. 11.
25
ScloIz, Dor Worl isl dor Mann. I lavo discussod llo conloxl of ScloIzs llosis
in 1r.nsn.iicn.| I.ocur Hisicr, pp. 20515.
12%3445 0 -.:
bul i|c |isicr c| |.ocr insc|.r i|.i |.ocr is p.ri c| i|c g|co.| prcccss c| ccmmc!i!c.-
iicn. Tlis Iabor lakos lvo forms: Iabor vlicl assumos llo commodily form,
boing soId or lirod lo ompIoyors (vago Iabor, olc.), and Iabor vlicl crc.ics
sucl commodi!od Iabor or rogonoralos il (paronlaI and lousoloId Iabor).
26
Iabor commodi!calion lloroforo nol onIy prosupposos llo oxislonco of sub-
aIlorn vorkors, bul aIso of ompIoyors, llal is lo say llo porsons, corporalions,
or inslilulions commanding llo moans (!nanciaI assols, naluraI rosourcos,
moans of produclion, inloIIocluaI proporly) vill vlicl lloy can appropri-
alo by oconomic or oxlra-oconomic moans llo Iiving Iabor-limo of ollors.
Bolvoon llis cIass and llo cIass of carriors of Iabor povor lloro is a somo-
vlal vaguo boundary
27
vlicl aIllougl pormoabIo (subaIlorn vorkors can
somolimos bocomo ompIoyors or soIf-ompIoyod and vico vorsa) al llo samo
limo impIios a slrucluraI conlradiclion conlinuaIIy roproducod by capilaIism
in llo courso of ils oxpansion. Tlo basic sourco of cIass con"icl is voakonod
or slrongllonod by ollor conlradiclions, arising from difforoncos roIalod lo
gondor, ollnicily, raco, nalionaIily, ago, olc. Among llo porsons, corporalions,
or inslilulions acling as ompIoyors, an incossanl compolilivo ballIo moroovor
ragos, croaling vinnors and Iosors.
In llo procoss, llo subaIlorn vorkors aro conslanlIy uproolod, rogroupod,
and roorganizod, lloir numbor, socloraI and goograplic dislribulion or com-
posilion conlinuaIIy clangos. Nol onIy llo difforonl gradalions of aulonomy
can vary, bul poopIo aro aIso conlinuaIIy boing absorbod inlo or oxpoIIod
from llis cIass. Tlo paramolors and modaIilios of cIass con"icls villin gIobaI
capilaIism c|.ngc ccniinu.|| for llis roason. Somolimos llo con"icl bolvoon
capilaI and Iabor is cIoarIy visibIo, al ollor momonls il romains liddon bolind
ollor, moro paIpabIy visibIo conlrasls and con"icls. Bul vlalovor form il
lakos, oponIy or obscurod, a conslanl ballIo conlinuos bolvoon carriors of
Iabor povor and lloir buyors or lirors.
26
Iol us nolo llal commodi!od Iabor doos nol onIy occur in llo markol soclor
(capilaIisl commodily circuIalion as sucl), bul aIso among soIdiors, poIicomon and
domoslic sorvanls. In addilion, subaIlorn vorkors vloso Iabor is nol commodi!od
lomporariIy or pormanonlIy duo lo invaIidily, ago, sicknoss or unompIoymonl obvi-
ousIy dosorvo allonlion in GIobaI Iabor Hislory. Soo, for oxampIo, Bayal, WorkIoss
RovoIulionarios, or ImsIoy, IoIicoman as Workor.
27
Tlo vaguonoss of llis boundary doos nol rofor lo probIoms of noalIy pigoon-
loIing poopIo villin an abslracl lypoIogy, rallor il rofors lo objoclivo conlradiclions
among llo roaI procossos of cIass roIalions. (Wrigll, CIass Boundarios, p. 27) Con-
lradiclory cIass Iocalions oxisl o.g. among managors, suporvisors, and smaII ompIoyors.
-.; 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
Tlis ballIo las lvo IogicaI slagos. Tlo !rsl slago concorns llo quoslion of
lov an ompIoymonl roIalionslip is oslabIislod, and undor vlal condilions. If
llo ompIoyor or lis suppIior appIios p|sic.| |crcc, subaIlorn vorkors may lry
lo oscapo from llis coorcion, Iiko llo African sIavos vlo commillod suicido
or rovoIlod aboard llo slips carrying llom lo llo Amoricas.
28
And if cccncmic
ccmpu|sicn is invoIvod, many forms of ovasion or bargaining aro possibIo.
In llo socond slago, llo ompIoyor sooks lo lransform llo Iabor povor of
subaIlorn vorkors inlo Iiving, produclivo Iabor offorl. Horo con"icls of inlor-
osl occur conlinuousIy vill rogard lo llo roIovanl vorking lours, vork-
ing condilions, inlonsily of vork, olc. rogardIoss of llo prociso naluro of llo
ompIoymonl roIalionslip.
29
Ivon in llo caso of llo 'froo vago Iaborors vlo
can nogolialo individuaIIy or coIIoclivoIy aboul lloir vorking condilions,
lloso kinds of friclions roguIarIy occur. Harvoy Ioibonsloin rigllIy nolos llal
il is oxcoodingIy raro for aII oIomonls of porformanco in a Iabor conlracl lo
bo spoIIod oul. A good doaI is Iofl lo cuslom, aullorily, and vlalovor moliva-
lionaI loclniquos aro avaiIabIo lo managomonl as voII as lo individuaI discro-
lion and judgmonl.
30

AcluaIIy, lolaI conlroI and dominalion of Iabor is in praclico novor possibIo,
bocauso luman Iabor nocossariIy roquiros al Ioasl a minimaI indopondonl
voIilion on llo parl of llo vorkors. In aII casos, ompIoyors roquiro a dogroo of
voIunlary cooporalion and caro from lloir vorkors, villoul vlicl llo vork
viII nol bo dono as il slouId bo.
31
Tlo facl llal vork lo ruIo can bo a vory
offoclivo form of ompIoyoo aclion iIIuslralos llo poinl: if vorkors simpIy carry
oul vork roulinos lo llo Iollor, villoul appIying lloir porsonaI judgmonl al
aII, il is soon rovoaIod llal lloso inslruclions aro aIvays insuf!cionl and parlIy
inconsislonl, and llal llo Iabor procoss broaks dovn, or al Ioasl procoods vory
inof!cionlIy as a rosuIl.
32
If sucl plonomona lappon lo occur rallor infro-
28
Aboul llis, soo llo improssivo book by Rodikor, S|.tc S|ip.
29
Iionooring sludios vlicl doscribo lloso friclions aro Goodricl, Ircniicr c| Ccn-
irc| (for vago Iabor), and Bauor and Bauor, Day lo Day Rosislanco (vill rogard
lo sIavory).
30
Ioibonsloin, AIIocalion If!cioncy and 'X-If!cioncy, p. 407.
31
BaIdamus, ||!cicnc .n! |||cri, Brocklaus, Ic|n.rocii. Ivon in Nazi conconlralion
camps llo SS noodod somo minimaI cooporalion from llo prisonors in ordor lo carry
oul llo days roulino of golling llom lo llo dormilorios, fooding llom, and making
llom vork. Mooro, }r., |njusiicc, p. 65.
32
Bourdol, Ios conlradiclions do Illrogoslion, pp. 1589, Bock and Bralor,
Gronzon abslraklor Arboil, p. 182.
12%3445 0 -.<
quonlIy, llis aIso indicalos llal lloro aro simuIlanoousIy aImosl aIvays lon-
doncios al vork lovard acquiosconco, accoplanco or subordinalion.
33
In viov of lloso insiglls, lvo quoslions vouId appoar lo bo of conlraI
imporlanco in GIobaI Iabor Hislory: llo Iogic of llo procoss of Iabor com-
modi!calion as sucl in aII ils forms, and llo vorIdvido dovoIopmonl of cIass
con"icls bolvoon ompIoyors and subaIlorn vorkors vlicl il givos riso lo.
34
Al
llo risk of simpIi!calion, four oIomonls can bo markod oul as far as llo socond
quoslion is concornod: (i) llo clanging slrucluraI composilion of llo subaIlorn
vorId vorking cIass during llo Iasl !vo lundrod yoars or so, (ii) llo pos-
sibiIilios for coIIoclivo aclion arising (or faiIing lo ariso) from il in difforonl
circumslancos, (iii) llo vays in vlicl subaIlorn vorkors lavo uliIizod lloso
possibiIilios, or faiIod lo uliIizo llom in lloir slruggIo for a doconl Iifo, and (iv)
llo sociaI-cuIluraI aspocls and forms of consciousnoss accompanying lloir
slruggIos.
35
Il is soIf-ovidonl llal vo can anaIyzo lloso oIomonls proporIy onIy
if vo do nol considor subaIlorn vorkors in isoIalion, bul villin llo lolaI soci-
olaI conloxl, and if in addilion vo abandon loIooIogicaI porspoclivos (vlollor
oplimislic or possimislic) and sludy llo dovoIopmonl of llo Iabor-socioly roIa-
lionslip as an opon diaIoclic villoul fuIIy prodolorminod oulcomos.
In llo procoding claplors, I mado a fov cursory commonls aboul llo !rsl
oIomonl, I said somovlal moro aboul llo socond and llird, and onIy a fov
llings aboul llo fourll. Ono couId lloroforo objocl llal my anaIysos of llo
33
Willin llo vorking-cIass as a vloIo, lloro is a conslanl and unoasy lonsion
bolvoon acquiosconco and dissonl. Al difforonl limos and villin difforonl IovoIs of
oxporionco, ono may prodominalo ovor anollor, bul boll aro conlinuaIIy prosonl
nol as a prodolorminod, slalic roIalionslip, bul as a conslanlIy clanging and slifl-
ing dynamic. |. . .j Tlus, llo immodialo cloico for Iabour in llo Iabour procoss is nci
bolvoon aulonomy or subordinalion, rosislanco or incorporalion, bul llo baIanco
(vlicl varios bolvoon and villin lisloricaI poriods) bolvoon lloso lvo llal aIIov
for llo 'form of bargain llal Iabour makos vill capilaI. Irico, Rollinking Iabour
Hislory, pp. 1989.
34
ObviousIy lloro aro aIso many roIalod quoslions vlicl did nol rocoivo allonlion
in llis book, for oxampIo llo survivaI roporloiros of subaIlorn vorkors lousoloIds
(soo Kok, Rcoc||icus I.mi|ics), or llo lislory of commodi!od Iabor procossos as sucl,
a subjocl vlicl Iabor lislorians lavo oflon lroalod as an anciIIary concorn, bul vlicl
aIso las ils dangors if approaclod onIy doscriplivoIy. Soo in llis rogard llo conlribu-
lion by Womack, Doing Iabor Hislory, and a rosponso lo il: Ironcl and DanioIs,
TravaiIs of Doing Iabor Hislory.
35
A usofuI oIaboralion of llis approacl is Kocka, IrobIoms of Working-CIass
Iormalion. Kockas anaIysis concorns ConlraI Iuropo, bul can bo adaplod oasiIy for
llo purposo of gIobaI Iabor lislory. Soo van dor Iindon, TransnalionaIo Arboilor-
gosclicllo.
-:/ 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
roprosonlalion of inlorosls and rosislanco conlain al Ioasl lvo do!cioncios.
IirslIy, subaIlorn vorkors vill vory IillIo aulonomy rocoivod loo IillIo allon-
lion. SocondIy, I doaI onIy vill llo cpiicns avaiIabIo lo groups of subaIlorn
vorkors in corlain silualions, villoul anaIyzing lloir inirinsic docisions. An
addilionaI commonl is lloroforo porlaps approprialo.
Tlo cloicos llal groups mako aro dolorminod by aII kinds of in"uoncos
solling Iimils, oxorling prossuros.
36
Tlo rango of in"uoncos comprisos lvo
subsols. On llo ono land, lloro aro llo conloxluaI in"uoncos, vlicl aro sociaI
faclors llal croalo or in facl oIiminalo opporlunilios, sucl as oconomic, poIili-
caI, IogaI roIalionslips, cuIluraI and roIigious lradilions olc. Tloy dolormino
vlicl lypos of aclivilios and organizalions aro pcssio|c and ccnccit.o|c for sub-
aIlorn vorkors in a givon silualion, and doIimil llo aIlornalivos lo somo foa-
sibIo sol. On llo ollor land, llis sol of foasibIo aIlornalivos is doIimilod by llo
pasl of coIIoclivo aclion ilsoIf. Irom llo oulsol, sociaI groups doviso a corlain
cuIluraI and organizalionaI slyIo llal acquiros a voigll of ils ovn. Arllur
Slinclcombo caIIs il imprinling, il Ioads lo slrucluraI sIovnoss.
37

Moroovor, llo cloicos a group makos givo riso lo labils and roulinos vlicl
Ialor co-dolormino nov docisions, by rondoring somo oplions un!csir.o|c or
inccnccit.o|c and ollors sc||-cti!cni. Tlis conslraining and onabIing procoss
is somolimos aIso caIIod pall dopondonco.
38
A group of vorkors musl aIvays
clooso from a moro or Ioss circumscribod sol of foasibIo aIlornalivos. Tlo
!naI cloico may bo llo oulcomo of opon discussion and domocralic docision-
making, bul manipuIalion or misinformalion may aIso oxorl in"uonco. If a
corlain cloico provos liglIy conlrovorsiaI, llon parl of llo group may docido
againsl il, lloso dissidonls viII llon prosumabIy organizo anollor form of coI-
Ioclivo aclion, join anollor group, or conconlralo on ollor causos.
Al any ralo, llo lisloricaI sludy of coIIoclivo aclion by subaIlorn vorkors
aIvays invoIvos lvo slops. Tlo !rsl invoIvos oxpIoring llo sol of foasibIo .|icr-
n.iitcs avaiIabIo al a corlain momonl, vill rogard lo llo docisivo in"uoncos of
conloxl, imprinl, and pall dopondonco, llo socond consisls of oxamining llo
36
WiIIiams, Baso and Suporslrucluro, p. 32. Soo aIso WiIIiams' discussion aboul
dolormino in lis Kcucr!s, pp. 8791.
37
Slinclcombo, SociaI Slrucluro and Organizalions, p. 154. Soo aIso llo nolion of
llo iniliaI soIulion as dovoIopod in ScoviIIo, Somo Dolorminanls of llo Slrucluro
of Iabor Movomonls, p. 74.
38
David, Wly Aro Inslilulions llo 'Carriors of Hislory`, Malonoy, Iall Dopon-
donco in HisloricaI SocioIogy.
12%3445 0 -:6
mciitcs llal lavo Iod lo llo soIoclion of ono or moro of lloso aIlornalivos.
39
In
llis book, I doaIl aImosl oxcIusivoIy vill llo !rsl slop, IargoIy disrogarding
llo spoci!c molivos bolind llo docisions. CIoarIy, sucl an approacl Iimils
our undorslanding of subaIlorn vorkors aclivilios. Iurllor rosoarcl couId
iIIuminalo llo inlrinsic docision-making procossos and possibIy provido uso-
fuI gonoraIizalions aboul llom.
Tlo subjoclivilios of llo subaIlorn vorking cIassos aro an onormous, scarcoIy
oxpIorod lorrain. Wlal vo nood in llo !rsl inslanco aro comparalivo g|co.|
sludios of sociaIizalion procossos in famiIios, in sclooIs, in Iabor procossos,
and of llo omolions and inluilions lloy slapo up. Wlicl porcoplions do
llo aclors on llo slago of lislory lavo of llo roaIily llal surrounds llom,
of llomsoIvos and oacl ollor` To vlal oxlonl doos llo imago vlicl poopIo
lavo of lloir ovn aclions corrospond vill llo aclions llomsoIvos`
40
If vo
knov mucl moro aboul llal in a comparalivo sonso, vo can lopofuIIy aIso
oblain moro undorslanding of coIIoclivo Ioarning procossos and obslruclions
lo Ioarning. Bul lloro is as yol a Iong road lo lravoI lo roacl llis goaI.
41
Ivon
if sucl knovIodgo vouId slod moro Iigll on llo soquonco of docisions, lov-
ovor, a slroamIinod lloory ro"ocling a consislonl roconslruclion of parl (or
aII) of llo pasl is unIikoIy lo omorgo. Somo subjoclivo plonomona viII prob-
abIy aIvays dofy scionli!c comprolonsion.
39
Slinclcombo, Ccnsiruciing Scci.| 1|ccrics, pp. 1967. Soo aIso Wrigll, Iovino, and
Sobor, CausaI Asymmolrios, p. 147.
40
Noordograaf, Otcrmcc! uii cnoc|.gcn, pp. 401.
41
AdmillodIy lloro is a considorabIo amounl of Iiloraluro on sociaIizalion procossos
in llo miIiou of vago Iaborors villin advancod capilaIisl sociolios, bul il is soIdomIy
inlorcuIluraI. HisloricaI sociaIizalion rosoarcl aboul unfroo vorkors is as yol in ils
iniliaI slagos, aIllougl llo llosis of W.I.B. Du Bois aboul llo doubIo consciousnoss
of ox-sIavos couId probabIy provido a slarling poinl. Soo Dubois, SouIs of BIack
IoIk, and Dickson, }r., W.I.B. Du Bois and llo Idoa of DoubIo Consciousnoss. Du
Bois approacl couId bo appIiod lo ollor aroas as voII, sucl as vomons lislory. Soo,
for oxampIo, Horrmann, Ics tc|cuscs !c |.nguc. Wo can aIso drav inspiralion from
Iranlz Ianons anaIysis of llo coIoniaI gazo. Soo Ianon, B|.c| S|in, W|iic M.s|s,
and commonlarios on lis vork in Sioborl, Ir.niz I.ncn, McCuIIocl, B|.c| Scu|, W|iic
Aric|.ci, BuIlan, Ir.niz I.ncn .n! i|c Psc|c|cg c| Opprcssicn, and WoIlor, D.s cos|urc
Oojc|i !cr Bcgicr!c. An isoIalod pionooring sludy of proIolarian Ioarning procossos is
Voslors Dic |nisic|ung !cs Prc|ci.ri.is .|s Icrnprczc, an allompl lo roinlorprol llo
procoss of cIass formalion doscribod by I.I. Tlompson in 1|c M.|ing c| i|c |ng|is|
Wcr|ing C|.ss as a combinalion of succossivo cycIos of Ioarning and slruggIos. IIabo-
raling on llis approacl, lloro is a sludy by MiIIbourn, Svodisl SociaI Domocrals
Ixporioncos and Consciousnoss. A vory difforonl angIo is lakon by Morgnor, Scci.|
Iimiis ic Ic.rning.
-:7 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
Tlo lislorios I ro"ocl upon in llis voIumo oxlibil many moro ompiricaI
varialions aII ovor llo vorId oflon far moro llan a lislorian prosumos yol
lloy ro"ocl cIoar gonoraI pallorns as voII. SubaIlorn vorkors nood lo prolocl
lloir inlorosls undor aII kinds of difforonl circumslancos, bul lloy novorlloIoss
faco vory simiIar slralogic cloicos: if vo sol up a muluaI aid socioly, lov do
vo avorl abuso, and onsuro llal ovoryono pays lis or lor duos on limo` If vo
organizo a slriko, lov do vo arrango llo docision-making procoss` And lov
do vo componsalo our Iosl vagos` Sucl quoslions inovilabIy ariso, vlalovor
llo spoci!c conloxl may bo. And dospilo llo onormous divorsily of vorking-
cIass oxporioncos, I llink llo ansvors subaIlorn vorkors lavo found lo lloso
quoslions can bo groupod in a fov dislinclivo basic lypos. AImosl ovory basic
lypo viII Ioad, oillor immodialoIy or ovor llo Iong lorm, lo boll inlondod and
uninlondod consoquoncos vlicl in lurn prosonl nov cloicos. In somo casos,
llo rosuIl is an oxlondod sorios of inlorlvinod docisions llal form a lisloric
lraiI of coIIoclivo aclion, by virluo of lloir muluaI colosion. In ollor vords,
llo forms of coIIoclivo aclion vlicl subaIlorn vorkors aII ovor llo vorId lavo
dovisod ro"ocl a do!nilo Iogic of ils ovn, vlicl vo can discovor and vorify.
Tlis insigll slouId nol, lovovor, lompl us lo rc!ucc lloir aclions simpIis-
licaIIy lo a procoss of ralionaI cloico onIy. Tlo cloicos mado aro oflon far
from oplimaI or fuIIy ralionaI, duo lo poor informalion, Iack of oxporionco,
omolionaI lonsions, or unforosoon solbacks. On aII conlinonls, llo lislory of
subaIlorn vorkors aclion foaluros boll docisions llal cuIminalod in major
succossos, as voII as falaI orrors and slralogic bIundors.
.-$-/%00-/#*%0+
WliIo vo can roconslrucl in llis vay llo groal divorsily and Iogics of vork-
ors oxporioncos and aclions, llo g|co.| inicrccnncciicns bolvoon lloso oxpo-
rioncos and aclions aIso domand our allonlion. Sucl inlorconnoclions voro
aIroady rocognizod in llo pasl quilo oflon, bul lloy lavo boon nogIoclod
oquaIIy oflon by Iabor lislorians lo llis vory day.
Rosa Iuxomburg gavo allonlion lo llom vlon, in llo yoars immodialoIy
procoding WorId War I, slo vorkod on an (un!nislod) manuscripl pubIislod
posllumousIy undor llo lilIo |nirc!uciicn ic Pc|iiic.| |ccncm. IarIy on in llis
sludy, slo ongagos in a poIomic againsl KarI Buclor, a prominonl roprosonla-
livo of llo HisloricaI SclooI vlo doniod llo roaIily of an inlorconnoclod vorId
12%3445 0 -:-
oconomy.
42
In ordor lo provo llo conlrary, Iuxomburg poinlod lo llo roaIily
of gIobaI sociaI, poIilicaI and oconomic onlangIomonls. In jusl a fov pagos,
slo iIIuminalos lov llo moclanizalion of llo Brilisl loxliIo induslry al llo
ond of llo oiglloonll conlury for llo mosl parl doslroyod manuaI voaving in
Brilain, vliIo al llo samo limo il incroasod llo domand for collon producod
by Norll Amorican sIavos. Wlon llo lrans-AlIanlic lrado slagnalod during
llo Amorican CiviI War of 186165, llo rosuIling Iancasliro collon famino
moanl nol onIy llo pauporizalion of Brilisl vorkors, bul aIso Iod lo llo omi-
gralion of vorkors lo AuslraIia, and incroasod collon produclion in o.g. Igypl
and India. Tloro, llo farmors voro robbod of lloir moans of subsislonco by
commorciaIizalion, causing among ollor llings moro faminos.
43
Iuxomburg oIaboralod lor oxampIo vill ovon moro dolaiI, bul of inlorosl
loro is jusl llo facl llal slo prosonlod a narralivo sloving llo roaI impacl
of connoclions bolvoon dovoIopmonls in difforonl conlinonls. Slo domon-
slralod lov llo doslinios of Norll Amorican sIavos, Brilisl loxliIo vorkors,
smaII farmors in Igypl and India, and AuslraIian immigranls voro bound
up vill oacl ollor. Hor slory is basod on clangos villin jusl ono commodily
clain (collon), bul slo is allonlivo lo llo vidor sociaI causos and impIicalions
of lloso clangos. In so doing, slo providos a vondorfuI oxampIo of vlal a
gIobaI lislory of llo subaIlorn vorking cIass ccu|! Iook Iiko. Of courso, ollor
angIos aro aIso concoivabIo, bul llo focus in GIobaI Iabor Hislory slouId bo, I
llink, on comparing commodi!od Iabor roIalions and on roconslrucling lloir
gIobaI inlorconnoclions and lloir consoquoncos.
Wo couId aIso caII sucl connoclions ic|cccnncciicns, aflor llo oxampIo of
gooIogisls and cIimaloIogisls vlo, sinco llo boginning of llo lvonlioll con-
lury, lavo domonslralod many Iinkagos bolvoon rogions Iocalod al a romolo
dislanco from oacl ollor.
44
In roaIily, llo immodialo inlorosls of vorkors in
42
Buclor, Dic |nisic|ung !cr Vc||suirisc|.|i, p. 142.
43
Iuxomburg, Iinfulrung in dio NalionaIkonomio, pp. 55760. Quilo possibIy
Iuxomburgs oxampIo vas inspirod by Marxs doscriplions of llo collon induslry in
C.pii.|.
44
Tlo concopl loIoconnoclions sooms lo lavo boon inlroducod by llo Svodisl
gooIogisl Gorard Do Goor as counlorpoIo lo vlal lo caIIs cIoso-connoclion. Soo lis
rolrospoclivo in GooIogy and GooclronoIogy. An oarIy syslomalic lroalmonl of
llo concopl in a cIimaloIogicaI conloxl is offorod by Angslrm, ToIoconnoclions of
CIimalic Clangos, vlo dislinguislod llroo main causos of loIoconnoclions, namoIy
i) llo IocaI oxlonsion of a givon plonomonon, for oxampIo an oxpanding aroa of rains,
ii) llo propagalion of plonomona aIong llo oarlls surfaco, for oxampIo a moving
-:8 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
ono parl of llo vorId can lavo dirocl roporcussions for llo immodialo inlor-
osls of vorkors in anollor parl. Sucl loIoconnoclions omorgo in aII kinds of
vays. A vaIid gonoraI lloory aboul llom roquiros mucl moro rosoarcl, bul a
fov oxampIos viII suf!co loro lo iIIuslralo vlal is al issuo:
- I.ocr prcccsscs in !i||crcni |cc.iicns c.n oc |in|c! ti. g|co.| ccmmc!ii c|.ins.
Iuis VaIonzuoIa for oxampIo slovs lov from llo 1830s llrougl lo llo
1860s a vory cIoso noxus oxislod bolvoon CliIoan coppor minors and Bril-
isl coppor smoIlors in Svansoa (Soull WaIos): Iargo quanlilios of CliIoan
coppor and roguIus arrivod in llo Svansoa docks lo bo smoIlod and ro!nod
in llo Soull WaIos furnacos. On llo ollor land, WoIsl coaI and !robricks
as voII as ollor Brilisl produco voro slippod from Soull WaIos lo CliIoan
porls cIoso lo llo minos lo pay for llal coppor and, incidonlaIIy, slimuIaling
mining and smoIling produclion.
45
- I.ocr prcccsscs .rc i|cmsc|tcs scmciimcs inirinsic.|| inicrn.iicn.|. Transporl
vorkors Iiko soamon and Iongsloromon aro naluraI Iiaisons bolvoon
rogions soparalod by Iong dislancos. AIroady in llo sixloonll and sovon-
loonll conlurios, and porlaps ovon oarIior, lloy mado IogislicaI connoclions
bolvoon subaIlorn vorkors in difforonl conlinonls. Soamon in"uoncod
boll llo form and llo conlonl of pIoboian prolosl by lloir miIilanl pros-
onco in soaporl crovds and usod lloir mobiIily |. . .j lo croalo Iinks vill
ollor vorking poopIo.
46
Transporl vorkors lavo !gurod prominonlIy in
llo lransconlinonlaI dissominalion of forms of coIIoclivo aclion, as slovn
by llo diffusion of llo modoI of llo InduslriaI Workors of llo WorId from
llo Unilod Slalos lo pIacos Iiko CliIo, AuslraIia, Nov ZoaIand, and Soull
Africa. Moroovor, in 1911 lloy voro llo !rsl lo organizo lransconlinonlaI
coIIoclivo aclion, llrougl simuIlanoous slrikos in Brilain, llo NollorIands,
BoIgium and on llo Iasl Coasl of llo Unilod Slalos.
47
cycIono, or iii) clangos in onvironmonlaI faclors (for oxampIo soIar radialion) vlicl
in difforonl Iocalions can lavo a difforonl impacl. Angslrm arguod, llal llo difforonl
lypos of causos aro inlordopondonl (p. 243). Sucl considoralions couId possibIy lavo
a lourislic vaIuo for sociaI lislorians as voII.
45
VaIonzuoIa, Coppor, p. 177.
46
Rodikor, Bciuccn i|c Dcti| .n! i|c Dccp B|uc Sc., p. 294, Iinobaugl and Rodikor,
M.n-Hc.!c! H!r..
47
On llo IWW modoI soo Burgman, Rctc|uiicn.r |n!usiri.| Unicnism, OIsson,
1|c Rc! Ic!s, IliIips, Soull African WobbIios, Simon, Anarclism and Anarclo-
SyndicaIism in Soull Amorica, van dor WaIl, 'Tlo InduslriaI Union is llo Imbryo
12%3445 0 -:9
- Migr.nis c.n imp.ri i|cir cxpcricnccs ic ci|cr ucr|crs in i|c ccunir c| scii|c-
mcni as Indian vorkors did in llo Caribboan and Soull-Iasl Asia, Brilisl
vorkors did in AuslraIia, IlaIian vorkors did in llo Amoricas, and Cli-
noso vorkors did in llo Asian Diaspora. Tloir prosonco in llo nov counlry
may causo sogmonlalion of ils Iabor markols, vlicl migll in lurn Ioad lo
forms of ollnicaIIy sogrogalod aclion. And rolurning migranls may imporl
a roporloiro of forms of coIIoclivo aclion from lloir rospoclivo counlrios of
origin.
48
- 1|c cmp|ccrs c.pii.| |i|cuisc rc.|izcs ir.nsccniincni.| cni.ng|cmcnis. Tlo slaffs
of muIlinalionaI !rms aro muluaIIy connoclod via corporalo slrucluros a
plonomonon vlicl doos nol dalo from llo Iasl lundrod and !fly yoars, bul
is aIroady al Ioasl four lundrod yoars oId.
49

- Ccnsumpiicn o suo.|icrn ucr|crs c| prc!ucis prc!ucc! o suo.|icrn ucr|crs
c|scu|crc is anollor roIalionslip. Tlo incroasod uso of sugar by vorkors
in Iuropo in llo oiglloonll conlury in"uoncod llo aclivilios of sIavos in
llo sugar pIanlalions of llo Nov WorId. Tlo invorso aIso sooms lo appIy,
Sidnoy Minlz suggosls for oxampIo llal sugar mado llo diol of vorkors
in IngIand moro variod and riclor, and lloroforo promolod llo induslriaI
rovoIulion.
50

- 1|c |.ic c| suo.|icrn ucr|crs c.n oc mc!i.ic! o gctcrnmcni .gcncics. Tlo inlro-
duclion of immigralion roslriclions by nalion-slalos from llo Iasl docados
of llo 19ll conlury is probabIy aIso bound up vill llo aboIilion of sIavory,
llo omancipalion of llo sorfs in Russia and ollor dovoIopmonls vlicl pro-
molod llo mobiIily of subaIlorn vorkors.
- Iasl bul nol Ioasl lloro aro ir.nsn.iicn.| u.tcs c| cc||cciitc .ciicn. In addi-
lion lo insligaling llo !rsl Russian RovoIulion in 1905, llo }apanoso vic-
lory ovor Russia, for inslanco, promolod nalionaIisl and anli-coIoniaI forcos
of llo SociaIisl CommonvoaIll. On llo 1911 slriko soo van dor Iindon, Transporl
Workors Slriko.
48
Soo, for oxampIo, Hira, V.n Pri.r ici cn mci !c Kcm, }ayavardona, CuIluro and
Illnicily, Molapalra, Hosay Massacro of 1884, Iipsol, RadicaIism or Roformism,
p. 3, Gabaccia, 'YoIIov IoriI and llo 'Clinoso of Iuropo , Alabaki, DisgrunlIod
Guosls.
49
Iucasson, MuIlinalionaI and ils Iabor Iorco, Arrigli, Barr, and Hisaoda, Trans-
formalion of Businoss Inlorpriso, ClandIor and MazIisl, Icti.i|.ns.
50
Minlz, Succincss .n! Pcucr, p. 183.
-:. 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
llrougloul Asia, and oncouragod vorkors coIIoclivo aclion in many
pIacos.
51
Tlo socond Russian RovoIulion from Marcl 1917, and llo BoIslo-
vik soizuro of povor inspirod an oxpIosivo incroaso of vorkors coIIoclivo
aclion on aII conlinonls.
52
Tlo Hungarian uprising of 1956 vas a povorfuI
slimuIus for Iabor unrosl in Slanglai in llo foIIoving yoar.
53
AII sucl loIoconnoclions cannol bo viovod in soparalion from llo ongo-
ing cIass con"icls bolvoon ompIoyors and subaIlorn vorkors. IoIicios from
abovo foIIovod coIIoclivo aclions from boIov, and vico vorsa. BovorIy
SiIvor slovs in lor oIoganl anaIysis llal capilaI can rospond lo vorkors
unrosl vill a numbor of !xos, i.o. llo roorganizalion of Iabor procossos,
slifling aclivilios lo ollor goograplic Iocalions, nov producl Iinos, and bank-
ing or spocuIalion.
54
Our broador concopl of llo vorking cIass onabIos us lo
add anollor varianl, vlicl vo couId caII llo Iabor modos !x: ompIoyors
can, if lloy soo lloir posilion llroalonod in ono vay or anollor, subslilulo ono
form of Iabor commodi!calion for anollor, for oxampIo ropIacing froo vago
Iabour by dobl bondago, subconlracling (oulsourcing) or soIf-ompIoymonl.
Tlo connoclions and conlradiclions bolvoon difforonl forms of Iabor com-
modi!calion aro of ossonliaI imporlanco for GIobaI Iabor Hislory. Marx
aIroady vrolo in C.pii.|, llal Iabour in a vlilo skin cannol omancipalo ilsoIf
vloro il is brandod in a bIack skin.
55
Roborl von IlImann summarizos llo
Iogic of llis llougll succinclIy: Hov couId llo froo vorking cIass, ovon if ils
mombors voro voII-organizod, lopo lo in"uonco vago-IovoIs durabIy across
llo board, if a Iargo parl of llo vorkors prosonl voro imporvious lo lloir in"u-
onco bocauso of lloir unfroodom, vlon llo succoss of ovon llo slaunclosl
51
Soo o.g. Kroisor, Dor japanisclo Siog ubor RussIand, Solrabi, Hisloricizing
RovoIulions.
52
Soo o.g. McInnos, Iabour Movomonl. Tlo in"uonco migll bo propagalod oillor
indiroclIy via llo mass modia and llo Iiko, or diroclIy. Tlo Iranian migranl vorkors
vlo roguIarIy camo lo vork in Soullorn Russia aro a caso in poinl. In llo oarIy 1920s
lrado unions oxpandod faslor in llo Norll and Norllvosl of Iran llan in ollor parls
of llo counlry llanks lo llo cIoso proximily lo Russia. Iadjovardi, I.ocr Unicns
.n! Auiccr.c in |r.n, p. 8.
53
Iorry, Slanglais Slriko Wavo of 1957, p. 11.
54
SiIvor, Icrccs c| I.ocr. AIso soo Claplor 13.
55
Marx, C.pii.|, I, p. 414.
12%3445 0 -::
soIidarily ossonliaIIy dopondod on vlollor and lo vlal oxlonl llo slorlagos
causod by a slriko couId bo componsalod for vill unfroo vorkors`
56
And obviousIy aculo con"icls can aIso omorgo villin individuaI sogmonls
of llo subaIlorn vorkors. Oflon lloro aro con"icls bolvoon bollor-paid and
Ioss voII-paid groups of vago oarnors vlicl aro consoIidalod aIong ollnic,
raciaI or gondor dimonsions.
57
Yol ollor aIIocalivo moclanisms assorl llom-
soIvos, ovon villin ono sogmonl of llo Iabor markol in vlicl vorkors lavo
llo samo ollnic and roIigious background.
58

1 !0($ /%,,-0#
Bocauso llo inlornalionaI Iiloraluro aboul vorkors coIIoclivo aclion is pro-
sonlod in a pIollora of pubIicalions as voII as in numorous Ianguagos (mosl
of vlicl I rogrollabIy do nol road), I baso my obsorvalions on onIy a vory
modosl fraclion of llo lolaI slock of originaI sourcos and socondary Iiloraluro
avaiIabIo. Willin lloso Iimils, my soIoclion aIso ro"ocls llo inovilabIy unovon
dovoIopmonl of inlornalionaI lisloriograply. Somo counlrios, ospociaIIy in
llo Norll AlIanlic rogion, lavo aIroady boon rosoarclod comprolonsivoIy,
vliIo ollor counlrios and rogions rocoivod mucl Ioss allonlion. Iar moro las
boon vrillon aboul somo soclors, sucl as mining and manufacluring, llan
aboul ollors, sucl as agricuIluro and llo sorvico soclor. And Iabor lislorians
lavo slovn mucl groalor inlorosl in somo lypos of organizalions and aclivi-
lios (lrado unions, slrikos) llan in ollors. By omplasizing lloso do!cioncios,
I inlond lo invilo fuluro rosoarclors lo loIp ovorcomo llom, and promolo
a body of knovIodgo moro roprosonlalivo in composilion. AIllougl I lavo
lriod lo drav upon oxporioncos from divorso aroas and soclors around llo
56
IlImann, Gcsc|ic|ic !cr sczi.|cn Ir.gc, p. 177. A slriking oxampIo of sucl a con-
noclion is providod by Casanovas, vlo poinls oul llal unliI llo 1880s, froo Iabourors
in Cuba facod llo conslanl llroal of boing ropIacod by forcod Iabourors and llal
lloroforo froo Iabour co-oporalod incroasingIy vill unfroo Iabour in oIiminaling
llo combinalion of sIavory and coIoniaIism. (SIavory, llo Iabour Movomonl and
Spanisl CoIoniaIism, pp. 3689.)
57
Bonacicl, Iasl, Irosonl, and Iuluro of SpIil Iabor Markol Tloory. Bonacicls
lloory gains in oxpIanalory povor if il incIudos llo roIo of slalos. Soo IoIod and Sla!r,
SpIil Iabor Markol and llo Slalo.
58
In llo 1880s, for oxampIo, indonlurod musIim Iaborors from Brilisl India in
Trinidad voro dividod ovor llo quoslion of vlollor, during prayor, lloy slouId faco
lovards llo Iasl or lo llo Wosl. Molapalra, 'IoIIoving Cuslom`
-:; 0 !"#$%&' )*+%&&,
gIobo, llis book inovilabIy ro"ocls onIy somo snapslols aboul llo curronl
slalo of rosoarcl in llo !oId of Iabor lislory.
I llink I lavo roaclod my goaI, if I lavo mado a crodibIo caso for llo viov
llal anollor lisloriograply of llo vorIds Iaboring poor is possibIo and dosir-
abIo. I lopo lo lavo domonslralod llal il makos sonso lo rogard aII subaIlorn
vorkors as ono broad sociaI cIass. Tloro aro many imporlanl common clar-
aclorislics of clalloI sIavos, soIf-ompIoyod Iaborors and froo vago oarnors
(vago sIavos) vlicl unliI nov lavo oflon boon ovorIookod. Al llo samo
limo, llo sludios I rofor lo aIso provo llal llo cIass of subaIlorn vorkors is
inlornaIIy vory variod, and oflon dividod villin ilsoIf. CompIox organiza-
lionaI forms Iiko consumor and producor cooporalivos, or lrado unions vill
muIlipIo branclos, can onIy bo buiIl by subaIlorn vorkors vill a rallor Iargo
dogroo of aulonomy. ConvorsoIy, aII sorls of laclics vlicl aro rallor obvious
for groups of vorkors vlo lavo IillIo aulonomy, aro nol allraclivo for moro
aulonomous groups, vlo rogard llom as counlorproduclivo or loo risky.
Mosl of aII, vill llis book I inlond lo mark oul a !ircciicn, nol !naI or con-
cIusivo ansvors. My domarcalions of llo vorId vorking cIass, my rocon-
slruclions of llo Iogic of coIIoclivo Iabor aclion, and my approprialions from
adjaconl discipIinos aim primariIy lo slimuIalo furllor dobalo, inspirod by
Irancis Bacons mollo: Trull viII soonor como oul from orror llan from con-
fusion. Tlo progross of GIobaI Iabor Hislory viII nol onIy onabIo us lo viov
lransconlinonlaI dovoIopmonls in lloir muluaI connoclion, as lloy slouId bo.
Il viII aIso onabIo us lo undorsland rogionaI lislorios bollor. Tlo claIIongo is
lo lranscond OId and Nov Iabor Hislory vill a nov approacl, vlicl pIacos
llo insiglls proviousIy acquirod by lislorians in a nov and broador conloxl.
By llis moans, I llink our abiIily lo undorsland llo vorId and oxpIain il can
onIy improvo, onabIing bollor roIalivizalions and moro usofuI gonoraIizalions.
As Idvard I. Tlompson rocognizod: Iacl lisloricaI ovonl is uniquo. Bul
many ovonls, vidoIy soparalod in limo and pIaco, rovoaI, vlon brougll inlo
roIalion vill oacl ollor, roguIarilios of procoss.
59
59
Tlompson, Pctcri c| 1|ccr, p. 84.
!"#$"%&'()*+
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!"#$%
accumuIaling savings and crodil
associalions/(ASCRA) 90, 9394,
9697
acquisilion cosls 66
Adamic, Iouis 27, 217
af!Iialod ordors 121
AII-CIO 224, 264, 265, 279
Africa 3, 5, 10, 17, 24, 2930, 32,
55 n. 51, 74, 78, 83 n. 9, 94 n. 39, 95,
113, 174, 176, 185, 212, 222, 261, 264,
275276, 279, 301 n. 51, 309, 321,
327 n. 32, 331, 374
African Iabour Union 113
ago 33 n. 57, 43, 44 n. 17, 70, 72,
112113, 114 n. 12, 118, 122123,
125 n. 42, 148, 238, 246, 297, 353, 367,
367 n. 26
agoraplobia 354
agricuIluro 1, 24, 42, 53 n. 48, 67,
67 n. 8, 78 n. 39, 178, 293, 377
aIcoloI 111, 114 n. 12, 116, 116 n. 19,
192, 215 n. 17, 353
AIdorson, Arllur 296297
AIIon, V.I. 27
AII-India Trado Union Congross 243
AmaIgamalod Socioly of Inginoors
(Brilain) 227, 270
AmaIgamalod Union of Cooporalivo
ImpIoyoos (Brilain) 145
Amorican MouIdors Union 164
Amorican Unilod IIoclricaI
Workors 263
Amos, David 82
anarclism 81 n. 1, 253, 273
!""#$%& sclooI 288
Aparlloid 185
appronlicos 45, 45 n. 23, 227
arclilocls 160
Ardonor, SlirIoy 101
Argonlina 164, 185, 226, 235, 250, 296
Buonos Airos 23
Cordobazo 185
Arrigli, Giovanni 305, 306 n. 72, 314
arson 31, 31 n. 51, 174 n. 6
#'(%$ 31
arlisans 17, 29, 32, 4345, 46 n. 26,
4750, 220, 222, 233, 298, 324, 341,
354
Associalion of Soulloasl Asian Nalions/
(ASIAN) 278
Asia 3, 5, 10, 13, 24, 30, 43, 53 n. 48, 175,
196, 206, 275, 320, 330, 335, 375376
AuslraIia 116 n. 19, 152, 154 n. 9,
182, 250, 254, 261, 320, 344, 354, 364,
373375
NovcaslIo 152, 154 n. 9, 244
QuoonsIand 182
AuslraIian Groal Slriko/Groal Slriko of
(1890) 254
Auslria 73 n. 29, 211, 213, 215 n. 17,
276, 297
SaIzburg 212
Vionna 215 n. 17, 262
Aullonlic Workors Ironl (Moxico)
263
auxiIiarios 195
BabyIonia, soo aIso Mosopolamia
41 n. 6, 4243
Bacon, Irancis 378
BagnaII, Rogor 43
Blro, Irik 89
bakors 143, 215, 236 n. 62, 269
Bakko, I. Wigll 36 n. 62
bankruplcy 99, 118, 120, 125, 137, 148,
153, 183 n. 47
banks 90, 92, 104106, 106 nn. 75, 77,
107, 115, 149, 152, 156, 162,
183 n. 47, 341, 345, 356
Bascom, WiIIiam R. 86 n. 18, 95
BalaiIIo, Goorgos 365
Baloson, Grogory 343, 346350,
358 n. 70
Bauor, Ingrid 215 n. 17
Bauor, Iolor 319, 337
BoIgium 139 n. 18, 145, 268269, 272,
374
BrussoIs 262
BonnloIdl-Tlomson, Voronika 323,
325, 327, 332
Bonson, Hoinricl WiIloIm 267
Bonslon, Margarol 322323
Borgoson, AIborl 308309, 309 n. 81
Borgquisl, ClarIos 111
Bornsloin, Irving 216
Bovoridgo, Iord 130
BioIofoId SclooI 12, 28 n. 38, 319337
Biornacki, Riclard 188 n. 62
Biorsclonk, Tlomas 321 n. 6
Bijnaar, Aspla 105
VAN DER LNDEN_index_455-469.ind455 455 8/8/2008 9:59:01 PM
!"# % &'()*
BiIaIi roboIIion 176
BIackburn, Robin 51
bIackIisling 164
bIacksmills 197
BIaul, }im 9, 9 n. 13
BIazak, Randy 312 n. 94
BIocl, Marc 70
Bolomia 224, 312 n. 94
Iraguo 262
Bombay loxliIo slriko (198283)
223
Bonacicl, Idna 377 n. 57
Boni Wars 176
book koopors 160
bordors 4, 334
Boucicaul famiIy 154
Bouman, Irils 88, 92
boycoll 144, 147, 183, 185, 211216, 238,
282
Boycoll, ClarIos Cunninglam 211 n. 5
Brandini, Ciulo 221
Brass, Tom 58 n. 59
BraudoI, Iornand 287288, 290,
295, 299, 307, 312, 315, 318, 320 n. 2,
361
Braun, AdoIf 213214, 245
BraunllaI, }uIius 5
Brazda, }olann 149
BraziI 3, 65 n. 5, 70, 77, 77 n. 38, 78, 87,
174, 176, 178, 201, 279, 296, 330
IaImaros 176, 176 n. 21
Rio Grando do SuI 201
Sao IauIo 203
Bronnor, Roborl 51, 289, 313
Broy, Grard 262
bribos 144, 175
brickIayors 124, 181, 271 n. 33
Brilain 3, 77, 105, 112, 116 n. 19, 123
n. 35, 135136, 136 n. 12, 138 n. 16,
145146, 146 n. 41, 147, 147 n. 45, 153,
162163, 165, 165 n. 48, 166 n. 48,
222223, 226227, 239 n. 68, 243, 245,
250, 252, 254, 266 n. 19, 275, 288, 296,
305, 339, 352, 373374
IngIand 12 n. 19, 46, 46 n. 26, 47,
47 n. 31, 47 n. 33, 51, 59, 115 n. 14,
129, 153, 164 n. 41, 165, 165 n. 47,
174, 174 n. 7, 197 n. 108, 201,
220 n. 6, 224 n. 15, 268269,
296297, 375
Birminglam 255, 269
Huddors!oId 153
Ioods 146, 153
IivorpooI 270, 281 n. 61
NovcaslIo 152, 154 n. 9, 244
Slof!oId 136, 270
WoIvorlamplon 269
ScolIand 24, 155 n. 13, 186, 244, 246
nn. 95, 97
Idinburgl 270
GIasgov 144 n. 33, 216, 255, 270
WaIos 115 n. 16, 183 n. 48, 186, 374
Svansoa 374
Brilisl gonoraI slriko of 1842 195
Brilisl gonoraI slriko of 1926 185
Buclor, KarI 372
BulIor, AIfrod 348349
Buravoy, MiclaoI 52
buriaI sociolios 118
Burns, Tom R. 11 n. 17
bus drivors 182
bulclors 143
BuuIljons, AIfrod Idvard 223
Byzanlium 46 n. 27
cacanny, soo go-sIov
cacao pIanlalions 66
Cairnos, }oln I. 48
Camoroon 83, 84 n. 14, 88, 89 n. 27, 90,
93, 98
Camoroon DovoIopmonl Corporalion
Workors Union 236
Canada 164 n. 19, 271
capilaIism 10, 19, 19 n. 4, 20, 22,
30 n. 43, 39, 39 n. 1, 46, 47 n. 33, 49, 52,
56, 56 n. 54, 5758, 58 nn. 5960, 59, 59
n. 63, 60, 60 n. 64, 63, 65, 69 n. 17, 147,
207 n. 144, 243, 259, 268, 271, 279280,
287290, 292, 313, 315316, 316 n. 110,
317, 317 n. 111, 319, 321, 324325, 332,
335, 350, 360364, 367
Caplain Sving 174
Caribboan 2, 12 n. 18, 3132, 72 n. 29,
178, 275, 375
Cuba 77, 296, 310, 377 n. 56
Curaao 8283
Danisl Wosl Indios 177
Sl. Vinconl 178
Sl. Tlomas 178
Trinidad 377 n. 58
carponlors 46 n. 26, 160, 198, 248
Carr-Saundors, AIoxandor M. 136
carlors 194
carlmon 32
carlvriglls 124
Casanovas, }oan 377 n. 56
caslo 53 n. 48, 196, 206, 229
Casloriadis, CornoIius 1, 33
&'()* % !"+
casuaI Iaborors 4244, 46 nn. 2627, 67
n. 9, 113, 234
coromonios 93 n. 35, 97, 97 n. 46, 271,
341343, 347348, 353
corli!calos of Ioavo 24
CoyIon, soo Sri Ianka 194, 222
clain sloros 148
Clakrabarly, Diposl 226, 365
ClaIIinor, Raymond 226
Clambri 341, 341 n. 1, 342343, 343
n. 8, 344347, 353 n. 50
Clangsla Conslruclion Workors
Union 224
clarivari 175, 197
Claso-Dunn, Clrisloplor 307
Clayanov, AIoxandor 336
clock-off 235
clomicaI vorkors 71 n. 24
Closnoaux, }oan 2
cliId Iabor 20, 22, 279
cliIdron 2, 27, 83, 91, 97, 97 n. 46, 112,
115, 122, 149, 193, 198, 203, 246,
297298, 322, 324325, 333, 341,
351352, 354, 355, 355 n. 56
CliIo 111, 310, 374
Clina 78, 13, 25, 44, 85 n. 17, 99100,
174, 175 n. 15, 196, 224, 305, 364
Clangsla 25, 175 n. 15, 196, 224
Slanglai 30, 114 n. 12, 223, 229,
376
Clirol, DanioI 318
Clrislondom 51, 71,
222223, 253, 276, 280
Clrislian domocracy 253
Clrislmas cIubs 106107
Cluma, Hiroyuki 53 n. 48
cigar makors, soo lobacco vorkors
cily cooporalivos 135
CiviI War (Spain) 264
CiviI War (Unilod Slalos) 49, 75,
260 n. 3, 373
CIaronco-Smill, WiIIiam 66
cIass Iocalion, conlradiclory 34 n. 58
CIauss, WoIfgang 326
CIavson, Mary Ann 116 n. 19
cIorgy 133 n. 2, 195, 202203
cIosod slop 233
cIolling 66, 70, 97 n. 46, 161, 210, 246,
325
CoaIilion for }uslico in llo
MaquiIadoros 278
Coaso, RonaId H. 66 n. 8
cobbIors 124
coorcion 24, 33, 50, 51 n. 42, 69, 105,
151, 180, 182183, 232, 293295, 313,
333, 368
cognilion 2, 5253, 199, 229 n. 37, 252
n. 115, 270
Colon, G.A. 33, 315
Coln, SamuoI 190
CoIo, Slavn 75 n. 31
coIIocling sociolios 126, 126 n. 45, 126
n. 47
coIIoclivo aclion 9, 11, 12, 12 n. 19, 31,
59, 183 n. 47, 189 n. 64, 191192, 232,
251, 259, 263264, 270, 295, 298,
304305, 359, 369370, 372, 374377
coIIoclivo bargaining 9, 207, 225, 228,
240, 251252, 252 n. 115, 254255, 264,
277, 281
CoIombia 70 n. 21
CoIoniaI DovoIopmonl and voIfaro Acl
(Brilain) 223
Combinalion Iavs (Brilain) 239
Comil Ironlizoro do Obroras 278
commodi!calion 18, 19, 19 n. 4, 20, 20
n. 7, 32, 33 n. 57, 34, 39 n. 1, 55, 291,
333336, 346, 361363, 363 n. 12,
364367, 367 n. 26, 369, 376
commodilios 18, 30, 57, 60, 82, 134
n. 3, 135, 154, 180, 209, 209 n. 1, 210,
214, 215 n. 17, 229, 238, 308, 325, 327,
334, 336, 346, 350, 361, 361 n. 6, 362
363, 363 n. 12, 364, 364 n. 16, 365366
circuIaling 155, 209, 209 n. 1, 210,
326, 330
durabIo 12, 209, 210 n. 1, 226, 244
!clilious 243, 347, 361, 361 n. 6
!xod, soo durabIo
commodily clains 265, 307, 373374
Commons, }oln R. 226, 239, 299
Communicalion Workors of
Amorica 224
communicalionaI dislanco 190191, 191
n. 77, 248, 251
communism 2, 4, 123 n. 36, 222223,
253, 264265, 267268, 276, 278, 363
Communisl Ioaguo 267
Communisl Manifoslo 268, 363
Communislisclor Arboilor-BiIdungs-
Voroin 268
company lousing 29, 29 n. 41, 58 n. 59, 203
conconlralion camps 368 n. 31
ConoII, CaroI 190
Confoclion InduslrioIIo du
Ias-do-CaIais 194 n. 86
!", % &'()*
Confodoracin do IorrocarriIoros
(Argonlina) 250
Confdralion GnraIo du TravaiI
(Iranco) 222
conslruclion vorkors 1, 42, 83, 88, 100,
119, 143, 153, 155, 164, 192, 209 n. 1,
216, 223224, 249, 262, 269, 272, 342,
359
consumor cooporalivos, soo cooporalivos
consumor oxponsos 97 n. 46
consumor povor 209
Conlo, MiclaoI 162
conlracluaI mixos 72 n. 29
convoyor boIls 161
cooIios 24, 177, 183 n. 45
Coopor, Irodorick 179
cooporalivos 12, 8889, 96, 113,
133, 169, 211, 378
consumor cooporalivos 12, 89, 113,
133, 149, 151, 156157, 164, 211
producor cooporalivos 96, 144,
151154, 155 n. 11, 156, 157 n. 21,
158161, 161 n. 32, 162169
coopors 166167
coparlnorslip 166
coppor smoIlors 374
)*'+*,#-* 185
cordvainors 153
corporalo funds 125
CounciI of Iord Workors 278
Cox, Roborl W. 36 n. 63
crafl prido !!!
crodil 12 n. 18, 26, 85, 90, 9394, 104,
105, 107, 125 n. 42, 134, 138, 146, 148,
156, 162, 180, 183, 183 n. 47
crodil unions 94, 125 n. 42
crimo 21, 21 n. 15, 227, 241
Cromplon, GoraId 252
Cronin, }amos 299, 301
Cuba, soo Caribboan
Cummings, Idvard 165
Curaao, soo Caribboan
cullors 44, 157 n. 20, 199
dairymon 88
dancos 105, 111, 116, 343
Dandamaov, Mulammod 43
Darnlon, Roborl 175
Dalla, Iarllo 236
Davis, NalaIio Zomon 224, 278 n. 56,
337
Davos, Harry 158
DavIoy, AIan 109 n. 1
Do Goor, Gorard 373 n. 44
doall 45 n. 22, 6970, 74, 92, 9798, 101,
109, 111, 114, 116, 118, 196, 240
dobl bondago 24, 52, 104, 281, 376
dobls 35, 121, 151
docommodi!calion 362
dofauIl 90, 100103
Dofoo, DanioI 9192
DoIancoy, Mark W. 85, 90
domocracy, dirocl 93 n. 35, 119, 121,
169, 245, 251, 277
domograply 74, 313
Donmark 197, 273
Coponlagon 144, 274
dopondoncy lloory 288
Doulscl, Hans 209
Doulsclo Masclinonbau-Arboilor-
Kompagnio 160
Dov, ClarIos 49
diamond vorkors 220
Dickinson, Torry 297, 298 n. 39
disabiIily 109, 118, 125 n. 42
disoaso 70 n. 21
dividonds 116, 148
dividing sloros 89, 135
Dobb, Maurico 51
doclors funds 126
donalions 110, 116117, 130, 179, 234
Doro, RonaId 228
dormilorios 24, 191, 368 n. 31
DoucouIiagos, Clris 152
Drass, Kriss 312, 312 n. 94
Droizolnlor, AIois 43
dry goods 142143, 145, 148
Dubofsky, MoIvyn 304305
Dubois, Iiorro 182
DuBois, W.I.B. 371 n. 41
Duclosno, Ricardo 47 n. 32
duos 46, 111, 117118, 120, 123126, 126
n. 47, 155, 221, 233235, 241, 244, 246,
372
DunIop, }oln 199, 199 n. 112
DuIIossis, Roborl 313
dynamilo 174
Iaslorn Iuropo 1, 278, 297, 333
Iaux do VilloI 182
oconomic grovll 76, 268, 271, 289, 305,
324
Igypl 4344, 45 n. 22, 47, 301 n. 51, 320,
373
./0%"&/"" 365
IIslor, }on 105, 190
&'()* % !"-
IIvorl, Goorg 322 n. 11, 326, 330 n. 47,
334 n. 58
ombozzIomonl 27, 119
ompIoyoo-ovnod !rms 164
ompIoyors 1, 6, 12, 2324, 25, 25 n. 26,
26, 2830, 34, 34 n. 58, 35, 45, 5153, 53
n. 48, 54, 54 n. 48, 55, 58 n. 59, 65 n. 5,
66 n. 8, 70, 73 n. 29, 99, 124125, 128,
151152, 154, 158159, 168, 173, 173 n.
2, 174, 176178, 180, 182184, 188192,
194200, 203207, 209, 219220, 220
n. 6, 225, 227, 230, 232233, 233 n. 50,
235237, 239240, 243, 245, 248,
251254, 254 n. 123, 256, 260, 262,
269270, 277, 292294, 353354, 367,
367 n. 27, 368369, 375376
ompIoyors associalions 188, 204
Ingorman, SlanIoy 75
ongravors 103
InlangIomonl Approacl 320321
onlranco foos 116, 233234
oquaIily 60
Irringlon, Irodorick 341 n. 1,
353 n. 50
Illiopia 88, 96, 102103
Illnoconlrism, soo Iuroconlrism
Iuroconlrism 3, 68, 8 n. 12, 9
Iuropo 1, 3, 8, 13, 17, 30, 44, 47, 51, 59,
59 n. 64, 134 n. 4, 174, 220, 223 n. 12,
239, 262, 266, 268, 276, 278, 289, 296,
303, 305, 315, 333, 369 n. 35, 375
Iuropoan Union 278
Ivors, Hans Diolor 320, 320 n. 3,
322324, 328330
faclory occupalions 185 n. 55,
186 n. 55
faclory sclooIs 125 n. 42
faclory vorkors 25, 175, 191, 207 n. 144,
244
Ianon, Iranlz 298
faliguo-Iabor 46
foar 71, 115, 137 n. 14, 192, 346, 348
Iobvro, Iucion 9, 9 n. 14
fominism 28, 278, 322323, 325 n. 25,
332
IonoaIloa, Slofano 67 n. 9, 68
Iornand BraudoI Conlor 287288, 290,
320 n. 2, 361
Iimmon, Ido 274
IinIand 202
IinIoy, Mosos 40
Iirsl InlornalionaI, soo InlornalionaI
Working Mons Associalion
Iisclor, WoIfram 125 n. 42
Iislman, WiIIiam 215
!xos 306, 376
!nanciaI 118, 125 n. 42, 134, 306, 376
Iabor modos 376
producl 26, 3435, 35 n. 60, 40, 60, 83,
110 n. 4, 154, 157, 163, 166, 169, 182,
200, 205, 210211, 214215, 221, 239,
243, 265, 291, 306308, 325, 376
spaliaI !x 306, 376
loclnoIogicaI/organizalionaI 306,
370, 376, 378
IIam, HoIona 11 n. 17
IIolclor, }amos 154 n. 9
"inl gIass makors 197 n. 103
"our cIubs 136
food 12 n. 18, 2728, 46 n. 26, 70, 83
n. 9, 89, 97 n. 46, 136137, 149, 186,
195, 205, 210, 216, 293, 308, 325327,
329331, 341, 354
Ioran Acl (Unilod Slalos) 266
foroign dirocl invoslmonl 278
Iorsyllo, Ann 296
IoucauIl, MicloI 173
Iranco 34, 51, 127, 138 n. 16, 139
n. 19, 160, 162165, 169, 182, 182 n. 41,
186187, 197 n. 103, 217, 224, 228, 233
n. 52, 269, 272, 279, 297
AIbi 164
Bosanon 187
GronobIo 262
Iimogos 269
MarsoiIIo 41 n. 8
Iaris 91, 102, 144 n. 33, 153154, 157
n. 20, 161, 168, 201 n. 121, 206 n. 143,
269, 287, 312 n. 94
Iranco-Irussian War 187071 271
Irank, Andr Gundor 30, 316 n. 110
IralornaI Domocrals 268
fraud 101102, 117, 236
froomasonry/Masonic 116 n. 19, 120
Ironcl May RovoIl 1968 185
Ironcl, }oln 2, 3 n. 3
friondIy sociolios, soo muluaIism
funoraIs 93 n. 35, 97, 101, 112
furniluro makors 161, 161 n. 48
Gamba, ClarIos 110 n. 5
Ganz, MarslaII 231
Gapon, Goorgii 202
Gardi, Ron 348
garmonl vorkors 230
gas-slokors 269
!#. % &'()*
gondor 6, 98, 113, 122, 142 n. 29, 193,
230, 238, 246, 297, 347, 350, 355, 367,
377
Gonovoso, Iugono 49
Gorof!, Gary 307
Gormany 4, 29, 87, 129130, 134, 139
n. 18, 147, 147 n. 44, 162163, 197
n. 108, 211, 214, 224, 228, 249, 269270,
272273, 275276, 297, 301 n. 51, 320,
339, 357 n. 65
BorIin 270
BrosIau/WrocIav 146, 155
Clomnilz 155, 160
Hamburg 136, 140, 144 n. 33, 270
Magdoburg 136
Slullgarl 274
Gorsclonkron, AIoxandor 59 n. 63
Govorlz, Doboral 341 n. 1, 345346,
353 n. 50
Glana/GoId Coasl 194, 200, 222223
Sokondi-Touradi 194
Gido, ClarIos 161, 168
gIass vorkors, soo aIso "inl gIass
makors, vindov-gIass vorkors
GIobaI Union Iodoralions 281
gIovors 262
GoId Coasl, soo Glana
goId-bricking, soo go-sIov
GoIdfrank, WaIlor 303, 310
Gorsky, Marlin 104
go-sIov 180, 185, 187
GouId, Rogor 191
Gramsci, Anlonio 275
Granior do Cassagnac, AdoIplo 266
griovanco procoduros 188
griovancos 188, 188 n. 61, 190, 201, 204
GualomaIa 141, 175 n. 15, 310
GuiIIaumo, }amos 5
Gunn, Clrisloplor 158
Gupla, Ranajil Das 2
Hagomann, Karin 140
Haili roboIIion (1791) 17, 77
Haili 77
HaII, Tlomas 318, 344
lammor-mon 180
1#" groups 149
Hanos, Clrisloplor 66
Hankins, Irank 118
Hanson, C.G. 124 n. 41
Harrod, }offroy 36 n. 63
HarlovoId, K. 88, 92, 98 n. 48, 100 n. 52,
106 n. 76
HarlIoy, }oan 195
larvoslors 45, 54 n. 49
HaskoII, Tlomas 58
Hausor-SclubIin, Brigilla 349350
Haxllauson, Augusl von 78 n. 39
Hayami, Yujiro 53 n. 48
loaIll insuranco 58 n. 59, 112, 126
Honigo, David 308
lordsmons 45, 69
loloronomy, inslilulod 33, 35
Hibbs, DougIas 303
Hicks, }oln 20 n. 7, 56, 207
HiIfording, RudoIf 229
Hilclman CoaI & Coko Company 240
n. 73
Hobsbavm, Iric 225 n. 19
Hoolink, Harry 88
Hoffmann, WaIllor G. 56 n. 54
Hong Kong 194
Honig, ImiIy 114 n. 12
lonor 58, 93, 122, 266
Hopkins, Toronco 307
lospilaIs 125 n. 42
Houso, AIborl 66
lousoloIds 2, 29, 32, 3435, 35 n. 60, 36
n. 62, 43, 52, 87, 94, 9798, 109110, 110
n. 2, 111, 120, 123, 126 n. 47, 133134,
134 n. 5, 138, 141, 143, 146, 159, 214,
217, 233, 294, 296297, 297 n. 36, 298,
298 n. 39, 322324, 326334, 336367,
369 n. 34
lousosmills 228
lousovivos 325, 334
lousovi!zalion 354
lousing, soo aIso company lousing
Hoxio, Roborl I. 227
Hubor, V.A. 161
lumanilarianism 5861, 61 n. 5, 71, 260
Hungarian uprising 1956 376
Hungary 185, 211
Budaposl 212
Iocs 185
lunlor-gallorors 42
Hyman, Riclard 249 n. 105
IalmuI 339, 341, 341 n. 3, 342343, 343
nn. 6, 8, 344349, 349 n. 349 n. 35,
350354, 354 n. 53, 355, 355 n. 58,
356358
idonlily 28, 164, 188, 191, 260, 351
group idonlily 188
parlicipalion idonlily 191
IIiffo, }oln 113
immigralion Iavs 185
imprinling 370
&'()* % !#/
inconlivos 23, 50, 59, 63, 65, 69, 71 n. 24,
75, 124, 139, 141, 158, 235, 241, 293
!nos 93 n. 35
punislmonl 69, 72, 103, 192
rovards 6869, 83 n. 9
indonlurod Iaborors 910, 1213, 17,
24, 66, 72 n. 29, 173 n. 2, 175, 333, 347,
366
Indopondonl Iabour Iarly 254 n. 121
India 8, 53 n. 48, 144, 183 n. 45, 186, 220,
240, 243, 279, 373, 377 n. 58
Almodabad 220
Assam 2, 177
BongaI 2, 183 n. 45
Bombay (Mumbai) 179, 194 n. 89,
223, 231 n. 45
CaIculla (KoIkala) 226, 236
Clola Nagpur 190
Gujaral !!!
Madras (Clonnai) 183 n. 45
Iondiclorry 186
Indonosia 3, 24, 53 n. 48, 261, 321, 328
}akarla 328, 330
}ava 26, 100, 124, 234
Sumalra 185, 326
InduslriaI and Irovidonl Sociolios Acl
(Brilain) 146
InduslriaI Workors of llo WorId 374
In"alion 293
informalion 47, 66, 72, 75, 101, 157,
167, 197, 207, 232, 248, 264, 279,
287 n. 1, 300, 341, 343, 347, 357358,
372
iniliaI soIulion 370 n. 37
insuranco companios 104107, 126, 126
n. 45, 129
InlornalionaI Confodoralion of Iroo
Trado Unions 222, 265, 276
InlornalionaI Cooporalivo AIIianco
151
InlornalionaI Iodoralion of Clrislian
Trado Unions 276
InlornalionaI Iodoralion of Trado
Unions 274
InlornalionaI Iabor Organizalion 243,
263
InlornalionaI MolaIvorkors
Iodoralion 264
InlornalionaI Socrolarial of NalionaI
Trado Union Confodoralions 274
InlornalionaI Trado Union
Confodoralion 276 n. 45
InlornalionaI Transporl Workors
Iodoralion 263, 374
InlornalionaI Workors Ordor 123 n. 36
InlornalionaI Working Mons
Associalion (Iirsl InlornalionaI) 135
n. 7, 261, 269, 272, 276
inlornalionaIism 259283
Inuil 42
invaIidily 367 n. 26
Iran 44, 376 n. 52
Iraq 175
IroIand 18, 32, 115, 116 n. 19, 127, 130,
211 n. 5, 261
DubIin 274
IsIam 260
IlaIy 27, 43, 75 n. 31, 139 n. 18, 160,
162163, 169, 186, 197 n. 108, 216218,
224, 233 n. 52, 297, 301 n. 51, 333
IIoronco 221
NapIos 262
Izigobongu 175
}ackson, Roborl 198, 248
}amaica 23, 26, 31, 77, 102, 106
}apan 224, 240, 305, 364
Tokyo 194
jobbors 231 n. 45
}onos, I.}. 183 n. 48
journoymon 110, 120, 175, 189 n. 64,
224, 233, 248
julo vorkors 226
Kaln, }ooI 52
Kaufmann, Horsl 41 n. 7,
Konya 179
Mombasa 179
Kirsclbaum, Iranz 357
Kisor, Idgar 312
KIang slrikos (MaIaya) 184 n. 49
KIugo, AIoxandor 365
Kniglls of Iabor 163, 253, 265
Kocka, }urgon 369 n. 35
KoIclin, Iolor 12 n. 18
Korff, Rudigor 329, 331
Korovkin, MiclaoI A. 104 n. 68
Korzoniovicz, MiguoI 307, 307 n. 74
Korzoniovicz, Roborlo 296, 301 n. 51
KoloIavaIa, }oln 194
KovaIovski, David 310
Krupp 29
Kuominlang 223
Ia Mujor Obrora 230, 278
IaboIIing 210211, 214215
Iabor mobiIily 151
Iabor muluaIs 8284
!#0 % &'()*
Iabor povor 10, 1820, 20 n. 7, 21, 25,
28, 3133, 33 n. 57, 34, 36, 3941, 60,
159, 220, 229, 294295, 308, 317, 325,
331, 334, 334 n. 58, 335, 364, 367368
Iabor produclivily 74, 237
Iabor suppIy 52, 231, 293
Iabour Iarly (Brilain) 223, 254 n. 121,
277 n. 50
Ianguago 76, 78, 90, 116 n. 19, 206, 230,
272, 304
Iargo, Sloplon 245
IasIoll, }oln 252 n. 115
Iasl cullors 157 n. 20
Iallors 180
Ialifundia 68, 75 n. 31
Ialin Amorica 23, 10, 24, 30, 128 n. 51,
224, 276
Iaundrymon 196
Iav of Transformalion
(Opponloimor) 166
Iavs 12 n. 19, 18 n. 4, 19 n. 6, 47, 53 n.
48, 75 n. 31, 106, 127, 135 n. 7, 139 n. 18,
140, 146, 146 n. 42, 147 n. 42, 162163,
180, 184185, 199, 199 n. 112, 201202,
215, 233, 239, 240 n. 73, 241, 252253,
256, 270, 277278, 291, 293, 366, 370
Iavson, RonaId 217
Iooson, R.A. 197 n. 108
Iogion, CarI 274
Ioibonsloin, Harvoy 368
Iovis, Oscar 105
Iiborlios, civiI 184
Iibrarios 116, 358 n. 70
Iibya 44
Iinobaugl, Iolor 17
III 187, 187 n. 59
Iipsol, Soymour 250
Ioi Io ClapoIior (Iranco) 239
Iondon dock slriko (1889) 202 n. 124
Iondon Socioly of Composilors 269
Iong vavo lloory 280281, 288, 301,
305
Iongsloromon 2, 27, 32, 136, 185,
196197, 261, 281 n. 61, 374
Ionl, Holzo 100
Iooling 27, 216
Iora, GuiIIormo 2
Iovoll, WiIIiam 268
Iuddism, soo maclino broaking
IudIov, }.M. 112
Iudlko, AIf 365
Iumboring 42
IumponproIolarial 10, 2122, 27, 267,
298
Iuxomburg, Rosa 372373, 373 n. 43
Iuxury 56, 213
MacfarIano, AIan 47 n. 31
maclino broaking 174, 182, 220 n. 6
maclino buiIdors 154155
MacMuIIon, Ramsay 110 n. 4
MaIaya 110 n. 5
MaIaysia 53 n. 48, 191, 321
managomonl 67 n. 11, 96, 119, 121,
125126, 129, 139, 145, 152, 154156,
162, 164165, 180, 188189, 198, 201,
222, 236, 263, 368
Mancloslor OddfoIIovs 120
MandoI, Irnosl 299, 301, 316, 316 n.
110, 317
Mann, MiclaoI 7
manumission 74, 75 n. 31, 87
maroons, soo runavay sIavos
Marquoz, Bonjamin 230
Marlin, WiIIiam 315
Maruani, Margarol 193
Marx, KarI 1, 10, 18, 18 nn. 34, 19, 19
nn. 4, 6, 20, 21 n. 14, 22, 22 n. 15, 3334,
41, 49, 56 n. 54, 57, 63, 209, 209 n. 1,
288, 316, 361364, 365 n. 21, 373 n. 43,
376
Marxism 39 n. 1, 299
Masons 46 n. 26, 136, 160
mass consumplion 57, 58 n. 59, 304
mass modia 201, 206, 376 n. 52
Malsumura, Takao 255
Maurilius 8485
MazIisl, Bruco 360 n. 3
Moad, Margarol 342, 347, 358 nn.
6970
moans of produclion 9, 1819, 21, 25,
31, 3335, 35 n. 60, 36, 46 56 n. 54, 67,
71, 76, 91, 153, 155, 159, 177, 180, 183,
183 n. 46, 204 n. 134, 205, 308, 316, 328,
330, 334, 342343, 345346, 362367
moclanicaI onginoors 124
modialors 198
MoiIIassoux, CIaudo 321322, 325 n. 22,
332 n. 54, 335
Morcosur 278
Mosopolamia, soo aIso BabyIonia 54
n. 49, 361
Mszros, Islvn 364
molaI vorkors 54 n. 51, 160, 175,
203
Mooloron, NicoIaas van 82
Mlraux, Rloda 358 n. 69
MouscloI, Sigrid 57 n. 57
&'()* % !#1
Moxico 7, 2526, 86 n. 18, 105, 205, 230,
263, 321, 327
Clilualua 31
RoaI doI Monlo 205
Rio Grando 201, 327
Miclaud, Irancino 41 n. 8
MicloIs, Roborl 249
middIomon 138, 153
midvivos 161 n. 32
migranls 56, 46 n. 24, 74, 84, 86, 90,
104, 104 n. 69, 105 n. 69, 106 n. 77, 151,
194, 222, 233, 272, 322, 325, 327 n. 32,
341, 345346, 348, 350352, 354356,
375, 376 n. 52
miIIors 124
MiIIs, C. Wrigll 36
MiIno, Maurico 201
Mino Workors Iodoralion
(Gormany) 240
Minors Associalion (Brilain) 241,
243244
Minors Iodoralion of Groal Brilain 254
minors 2, 27, 31, 124, 137, 152, 181, 184,
195 n. 93, 197, 201 n. 119, 205, 217,
240241, 243244, 273, 275, 321
bauxilo minors 263
bismull minors 192 n. 82
coaI minors 24, 27, 30, 152, 154 n. 9,
185186, 217, 279
coppor minors 25 n. 26, 184, 186, 195,
205, 243, 374
goId minors 174, 180, 241, 347
siIvor minors 26, 31, 314
Minlz, Sidnoy 36, 313, 375
missionarios 339, 345346, 350 n. 39,
355 n. 56, 357
MilcloII, AIIan 126
Miyazaki, Hajimo 166 n. 51
modo of oxpIoilalion 39, 5354 n. 48
Moos, }oln 7475
moniloring 53 n. 48, 68, 68 n. 16, 6970,
102, 158, 331
movors 44
Murray, Marlin 295
muluaI insuranco 91, 93, 93 n, 35,
9697, 101103, 110, 110 nn. 45,
111114, 114 n. 12, 115120, 120 n.
28, 121122, 122 n. 33, 123, 123 n. 35,
124131, 135, 241, 245
muluaIism 12 n. 18, 24, 81, 81 n. 1,
8283, 94, 102, 104105, 107, 111, 224,
224 n. 17, 372
conlingonl 94, 9798, 100, 104, 313
non-rolaling 94, 9697, 99
rolaling 12 n. 18, 83 n. 9, 84, 84 n. 14,
86 n. 17, 87, 9394, 96, 98, 100, 102,
116, 119, 119 n. 23
scloduIod 94, 9799, 103
Norll Amorican Iroo Trado Agroomonl/
(NAITA) 278
Nair, }anaki 365
Nasl, }uno 333
NalionaI Insuranco Acl (Brilain) 123
n. 35, 129130
NalionaI SociaIism 61, 147, 147
n. 44, 332 n. 54, 368 n. 31
NalionaI Union of Minovorkors (Soull
Africa) 241
nalionaIily 367
2#3%" riluaI 347
nocropoIis vorkors 47
nogolialions 54 n. 49, 142, 159, 189, 198,
205207, 217, 220, 236, 251252, 256,
263
Nogl, Oskar 365
NollorIands 41 n. 5, 88, 139 n. 18, 179,
179 n. 33, 197 n. 108, 204, 220, 268269,
273274, 288, 297, 346, 374
Amslordam 127 n. 49
Rollordam 195
Tvonlo 204
Nourall, Ollo 13, 359
Nov Toslamonl 42
Nov ZoaIand 116 n. 19, 374
Nigoria 84 n. 14, 98, 181, 203, 226,
235
Inugu 181
Nisbol, Roborl 8, 8 n. 12
Norllorn Rlodosia, soo Zambia
Norvay 250, 273
Nubia 44, 45 n. 22
nursos 232, 355
Nvabugluogu, Anllony I. 97
Offo, CIaus 204 n. 134
Ojiyi, Isaial OkvudiIi 181
oId ago 70, 72, 112, 123, 125 n. 42
OIson, Mancur 123
Ono Big Union (Canada) 228
OnsoIon, ClarIos van 2
Opponloimor, Iranz 154, 162, 166
Orizol, }oan 161
Olsuka, Koijiro 5354 n. 48
Olloman Impiro 174
Iadgug, Roborl 57
painlors 160
!#! % &'()*
Iakislan 3, 53 n. 48
Karacli 3, 198
IaIal, Madlavan 184
Ian-africanism 5
Iapua Nov Guinoa 104 n. 69, 106
n. 77, 252, 339, 341, 351, 354, 357358,
358 n. 71
RabauI 341, 349, 351353, 355357
Wovak 350351, 356
parados 116
Iarkin, Irank 207 n. 144
Iarks, Sam 228
palornaIism 104 n. 68, 166
pall dopondonco 370
palronago 104, 104 n. 68
4#5 !7%'/8#"# 310
4#5 !9&('#$/#"# 344
4#5 :'/(#""/8# 310
4#5 ;*"0*$/8# 362
<%89$/97 40, 69
ponsions 58 n. 59, 72, 123, 129, 203,
356
IorIman, SoIig 11, 163, 299
Iorrono, Iuca 199 n. 114, 207 n. 144
Iorry, IIisaboll 185 n. 53
polilions 175, 175 n. 15, 211 n. 4, 253
pliIanllropisls 110, 152, 156
IliIippinos 53 n. 48, 134, 279
ManiIa 25 n. 28, 152 n. 2, 234
piano buiIdors 91, 153, 269
pickols 232, 241 n. 79
piocovork 180
Iiodmonl 93
piIforing 27
pIaguo 46 n. 26
pIanlalion vorkors 2, 24 n. 23, 185
pIanlalions 57 n. 57, 6566, 67 n. 11, 68,
71, 77 n. 35, 90, 141, 144, 144 n. 35, 173,
174, 175 n. 15, 177, 179, 182, 184 n. 49,
185, 191, 322, 331, 333 n. 56, 344, 345 n.
16, 346348, 350351, 353354, 375
IIug IIol riols (Brilain) 193
pIumbors 180
pIyvood vorkors 158, 168
IlImann, Roborl von 376
IoIand 185, 261
Kalovico 185
IoInyi, KarI 361, 361 n. 6
poIico larassmonl 163
poIicomon 184 n. 49, 186, 192, 202, 202
n. 124, 223, 241 n. 79, 354, 367 n. 26
pork sociolios 90 n. 29
IorlugaI 262, 279
posilionaI povor 199 n. 114
Ioslan, MiklaiI 47 n. 33
Iollor, Boalrico, soo Wobb, Boalrico
pollors 155, 269
IovdorIy, T.V. 265
prico oIaslicily 200
primilivo accumuIalion 317
prinlors 160, 205, 223224, 269, 272
prisonors 45 n. 22, 315, 368 n. 31
producor cooporalivos, soo cooporalivos
pro!l slaring 151152, 154, 166
promiso-kooping 59, 59 n. 63
promolion, inlornaI 58 n. 59, 260, 263
proslilulos 21, 22 n. 15, 101, 267
Iroudlon, Iiorro-}osopl 81 n. 1
pubIic aullorilios 6, 163, 184, 188, 192,
192 n. 80, 198, 202, 205206
pubIic sorvanls 104 n. 69
pubs 116 n. 19, 119, 201
IuliIov vorks 203
quarry vorkors 124
rackols 227, 229, 232
raiIroad vorkors 137, 193
raiIvay vorkors 124, 194, 200
Ramosos III 48
ralionaI cloico lloory 81
rav maloriaIs 18, 155, 158, 180, 183,
186, 200, 289, 296, 307, 334, 362263
Roclo, Ollo 344 n. 11
Rod InlornalionaI of Iabor Unions 264,
276
Rodikor, Marcus 17
roIigion 8, 28, 71, 94, 105, 112, 116,
122, 134 n. 4, 141, 188, 195, 202, 223,
229230, 246, 257, 260, 265, 267, 278,
311, 348, 370, 377
RonauIl 279
ronl sIovdovns 217
ronl slrikos 216
ropIacomonl cosls 70
roproduclion cosls 335
Rosoarcl Working Group on WorId
Iabor 299
rosislanco, liddon 185
Rosnick, Sloplon A. 22
roslriclion of oulpul 225
rolaiIors 133, 137, 140, 145
roliromonl 109, 154, 168, 356
rovoIulionary syndicaIism 169, 226,
229, 253
Roy, Iiorro-IliIippo 321 n. 7
rickslav puIIors 25, 175 n. 15
rigll lo slriko 184
RipIoy, Brian 226
&'()* % !#"
risks 56 n. 53, 7172, 76, 9192, 100 n.
52, 101102, 109112, 114, 118119,
122123, 154, 159160, 162, 175, 192,
207, 232233, 235, 293, 369
RocldaIo pionoors 134, 134 n. 4, 139,
142
Rodnoy, WaIlor 5 n. 9
Roman Impiro 41 n. 8, 75, 110
RopovaIkors 32
Rosos Acl (Brilain) 128
Roslovlzoff, MiclaoI 363
rolaling manumission funds 87
rolaling savings and crodil associalions/
(ROSCA) 8485, 86 n. 17, 87, 89 n. 27,
93, 9596, 96 n. 94, 100 n. 52, 101103,
104 n. 69, 105106, 106 n. 75
Rollordam larbor slriko of (1979) 195
round robin 188
rubbor pIanlalions 184 n. 49, 191
runavay sIavos 17, 78, 177179
Runciman, W.G. 39 n. 1
ruraI vorkors 191
Russia 1, 3031, 72 n. 27, 75 n. 32, 78,
139 n. 18, 140 n. 24, 192, 223, 333, 375,
376 n. 52
Moscov 144 n. 33, 196
Iolrograd 175, 196, 203
Russian RovoIulion 1905 375
Russian RovoIulion 1917 376
sabolago 49, 69, 181182, 193, 202
sago 343, 343 n. 6
SalIins, MarslaII 322
SaiIors 13, 175176, 194
Sainlo Croix, G.I.M. do 45
Sandorson, Sloplon 296297
So Tom and Irincipo 66
Sargonl, I.T. 312
Sarlorius von WaIlorslauson,
Augusl 25
savings and Ioan associalions 87, 94
Savos 341343, 343 n. 6, 344
ScagIion, Riclard 345 n. 16
scavongors 27, 161
SclaclorI, MiclaoI 213, 215
Sclodivy, Roborl 149
SclindIbock, Markus 341, 349
Sclmid, }rg 349 n. 36
Scloonborg, RonaId 308309
ScloIz, Rosvilla 366, 366 n. 25
Sclnlovon, KIaus 249
Scluslor, Moinlard 349, 349 n. 34
Scolcl CallIo movomonl 183 n. 48
ScoviIIo, }amos 274
Scropanli, Irnoslo 301
soamslrossos 161 n. 32, 355
Socond InlornalionaI 273
SoIdon, Mark 301 n. 51, 305
SoIf-ImpIoyod Womons Associalion
(India) 220
soIf-ompIoymonl 10, 1213, 17, 2122,
2527, 32, 34 n. 58, 35, 109, 128 n. 51,
133, 151, 154, 159, 219220, 281, 291,
297, 315, 325, 352, 367, 376, 378
soIf-sorvico sloros 148
SoIIor, Maxino Sclvarlz 246 n. 98
somi-manufacluros 180, 183, 186, 200
Sopik Rivor 339, 345
sorfdom, aboIilion of (Russia) 72 n. 27,
375
sorfs 31, 46, 47, 54 n. 51, 175, 323, 375
sorvanls 29, 43, 141, 146, 223, 267,
356357, 367 n. 26
SclondoI, WiIIom van 360
slaming 197
Slanin, Toodor 333
slaro-croppors 10, 26, 3032, 5253, 64,
73, 133, 151, 173 n. 2, 220, 291293, 297,
335
slaroloIdors 137 n. 14, 156, 183
sloIlor organizalions 162, 169
slirking 53 n. 48, 54 n. 50, 158, 174,
235
slirl makors 161
Sliv Sona 223
sloomakors 157 n. 20, 239, 269,
271 n. 33
slop slovards 189
SibaIis, MiclaoI 102
sicknoss 33 n. 57, 58 n. 59, 70, 72, 109,
112, 118119, 122123, 125
n. 42, 126, 127 n. 49, 129, 149, 233,
367 n. 26
SiogoI, Bornard }. 42
SiIvor, BovorIy 305306, 306 n. 72, 376
SiIvorman, Iric KIino 358 n. 69
SindicaIismo Iibro (Spain) 223
Sirol, Slplano 185 n. 51
SkoIdon, RonaId 105 n. 69
skiII 29, 32, 4345, 4850, 65, 65 n. 5,
6869, 71, 111, 113, 120, 142, 154155,
167, 196, 199200, 203, 207, 220, 222,
229230, 257, 262, 266, 268, 272, 277,
292, 294, 298, 345, 355
SkocpoI, Tloda 289
sIavo popuIalion, slabiIily of 7375
sIavory, aboIilion of 59 n. 64, 375
sIavos 910, 12, 12 n. 18, 13, 17,
!## % &'()*
19, 20 n. 7, 2123, 2627, 3134, 34 n. 58,
3536, 39, 39 n. 1, 40, 41 n. 8, 43, 45, 46
n. 25, 4854, 55 n. 51, 3659, 59 n. 64,
60, 6365, 65 n. 5, 6667, 67 n. 11, 68, 68
n. 16, 69, 69 n. 18, 7071, 71 n. 24, 72, 72
n. 29, 7377, 77 n. 35, 78, 98, 109, 173,
173 n. 2, 174179, 291294, 296, 298,
332333, 333 n. 56, 361362, 363 n. 12,
363 n. 12, 366, 368, 371, 373, 375, 378
sIavos-for-liro 23, 65, 65 n. 5, 70, 87,
133 n. 1
SIovonia 279
smaII commodily producors 21 n. 14,
88, 204
Smill, Adam 30, 63, 204
Smill, CaroI 316 n. 109
Smill, }oan 298 n. 39
sociabiIily 105, 111, 114 n. 12, 116, 116
n. 19, 117, 119, 121 n. 31, 122, 126,
130131, 201
sociaI socurily 24, 72, 109, 128131, 277,
322
Sociolas Vorbi Divini 346, 357
sofl Ioan sociolios 104 n. 68
soIdiors 32, 40, 4445, 161, 241 n. 79,
267, 271, 367 n. 26
SoIidarno#$ 253
SoIomon IsIands 204
Sombarl, Wornor 45
SommorviIIo, AIox 236
Soull Africa 24, 29, 95, 113, 174, 185,
212, 222, 241, 264, 279, 301 n. 51, 321,
327, 374
Capo Tovn 89
}olannosburg 3, 212
NalaI 212
TransvaaI 180
Woslorn Capo 212
Soull Koroa 3, 203, 279
Soviol Union, soo aIso Russia and
Ukraino
Spain 139 n. 18, 169, 223, 279
GaIicia 73 n. 29, 262
Mondragn (Basquo Counlry) 165
spoclacIo-makors 168
Spoddon, Irnosl 210, 214
SpioImans, }oln V. 199 n. 112
spIil Iabor markol lloory 377 n. 57
squalling 135 n. 7, 217
Sraffa, Iioro 362
Sri Ianka/CoyIon 144, 194, 222
CoIombo 194, 196
Slanok, MiIan 349352
Slarobin, Roborl 72
slalo formalion 5152
slalo inlorvonlion 127, 253
Slalulo of Iabourors 51
Sloin, Ioronz 4
Slorn, Slovo 290, 314, 315 n. 103
Slovonson, }oln 12 n. 19
Slovards 43, 182, 189
SligIilz, }osopl 72 n. 29, 75
Slinclcombo, Arllur 69, 370
Slockmon 32
Slrauss, Goorgo 249
slroolcar vorkors 124
slriko funds 179, 186, 194, 203, 205, 224,
234
slriko-broakors 182, 186, 196197, 197 n.
108, 198, 269270
slrikos
roIIing slrikos 184, 217
boycoll slrikos 185
Iuro-slriko 279
gonoraI slrikos 179, 185, 185 n. 53,
195, 202
go-sIov slrikos 180, 185, 187
lospilaI slrikos 232
psoudo-viIdcal slriko 256 n. 129
slam slrikos 189 n. 64
sil-dovn slrikos 185186
slimuIi slrikos 190
sympally slrikos 184, 198
viId-cal slrikos 145, 195, 256
vork-in 186, 187 nn. 58, 60
Sludnilz, Arllur von 89
SlurmllaI, AdoIf 277
subaIlorn vorkors 1213, 3133, 33
n. 57, 3436, 5254, 66, 73 n. 29, 109,
118, 173, 173 n. 2, 174175, 179180,
259, 281, 363 n. 12, 365, 367, 367 n. 26,
368369, 369 n. 34, 370372, 374378
subconlraclors 30, 160
subsislonco Iabor 28, 33 n. 57, 55, 294,
319326, 326 n. 26, 327335, 335 n. 58,
336, 364
Sudan 222
supormarkols 148
Surinam 176
Suzuki, Bunji 245
Svodon 145, 254, 273
SlockloIm 147
SvilzorIand 139 n. 18, 164, 269,
271272, 339
BasIo 144, 146
Gonova 239 n. 70, 243, 254
&'()* % !#+
laiIors 128, 155, 236, 236 n. 62, 269270,
271 n. 33
Taivan 279
Tanzania 176
Dar-os-SaIaam 113
largol vorking 233 n. 53
laxos 116, 212, 346
TayIor, Iaurio 181
TayIorism 161
loa pIanlalions 177
loamslors 32
loclnoIogy 4850, 52, 7677, 77 n. 35,
166167, 191, 193, 266, 296, 306
loIoconnoclions 372373, 373 n. 44, 374,
376
lonanls 30, 46, 53 n. 48,
64, 212, 217, 293, 332
TonfoIdo, KIaus 191
Torray, ImmanuoI 321 n. 7
loxliIo vorkors 2, 24, 29 n. 40, 30, 56,
114 n. 12, 153, 179, 186, 188 n. 62,
190191, 193, 231 n. 45, 275, 373
TlaiIand 53, 321
Bangkok 329, 331
Tlano, Ial 124 n. 41
Tlofl 27, 28 n. 37, 174, 178, 182 n. 43
TloobaId, Robin 104 n. 68
Tlompson, I.I. 174 n. 6, 313, 378
Tlompson, Rull 226
llrifl cIubs 156
TlurnvaId, Riclard 343
Tijn, Tloo van 229 n. 37
TiIIy, ClarIos 47, 202, 303
lin-pIalo vorkors 269
TISCO slriko (India) 190
Tobacco Iaclory Workors Union 244
lobacco vorkors 152 n. 2, 186, 244
loiIol makors 29 n. 40,
157 n. 19
Tomicl, DaIo 296, 314 n. 99
TomIinson, }im 169
Tolomianz, Valan 134 n. 4, 142
Tovnsond, G.W.I. 357
lrado socrols 167
lrado unions
aulocracy 227, 231, 245
buroaucralizalion 165, 249, 249
n. 105, 250, 254, 256
conlraIizalion 48, 121, 165, 247,
253257
domain of conlroI 229, 232, 237,
242
morgors 238, 238 n. 67, 280, 305
muslroom unions 110
n. 4, 226, 235, 296
profossionaIizalion 247250,
254255
Trados Union CounciI (Brilain) 222,
270
lrading bIocs 278
lraining cosls 67
lransnalionaI corporalions 278
TransnalionaI Informalion
Ixclango 279
lravoI monoy 233, 272
Trimborgor, IIIon Kay 316
Trinidad, soo Caribboan
Trolsky, Ioon 303
lruck syslom 29, 58 n. 59, 203
Tugan-Baranovskii, MiklaiI 168
Turnor, Horborl A. 219 n. 2, 254
lypograplors 164
=/(0#"0%" 179
Ukraino 191
UIman, IIoyd 243 n. 83
unompIoymonl 97, 100, 109, 114115,
118, 120, 123, 153, 196197, 231, 325,
367 n. 24
unompIoymonl bono!ls
unompIoymonl counciIs 196
unoquaI oxclango 288, 290, 343 n. 6
unfroo Iaborors 10, 13, 133 n. 1
uniIaloraI prico adjuslmonls/uniIaloraI
prico or quanlily adjuslmonls 211,
215216
Union ol TravaiI 161
Unin GaIaico-Iorluguosa 262
Unin Marl-Macoo 120 n. 28
Union Mining Company (Unilod
Slalos) 163
Unilod Aulo Workors (Unilod
Slalos) 278
Unilod IIinl GIass Makors Socioly
(Brilain) 197
Unilod Iruil Company 29
Unilod Slalos
BaIlimoro 71 n. 24
CaIifornia 272, 364
CannoIburg, IN 163
Clicago 180, 199
II Iaso 230
IIorida 120
Goorgia 66
Miami 182
MinnoapoIis 166
!#, % &'()*
Nov York Cily 228, 230, 248
IonnsyIvania 27, 217, 217 n. 28, 254
IliIadoIplia 153, 297
Iills!oId, MA 334
San Irancisco 196, 312 n. 94
Soull CaroIina 49
Toxas 230
Virginia 4950
Unilod SlooI vorkors of Amorica 263
Uppor CIydo SlipbuiIdors
Company 186 n. 58
Uro, Androv 190, 197
vaccinalion 66
VaIonzuoIa, Iuis 374
Vanok, }arosIav 168
VonozuoIa 310, 321
3/#(/897, soo lravoI monoy
vinoyard vorkors 220
vioIonco 31, 33, 54, 64, 71, 99, 174, 181
n. 41, 183, 186, 192, 196198, 220 n. 6,
225, 227, 240242, 275, 343, 346
Virginia Company 72
vago Iabor 10, 13, 18, 19 nn. 4, 6, 22,
23, 25, 2728, 30, 39, 39 n. 1, 4041, 41
nn. 6, 8, 4246, 46 n. 26, 4748, 5153,
53 n. 48, 54 n. 50, 5557, 58 n. 59, 60,
63, 66, 66 n. 8, 66 n. 11, 71, 73 n. 29, 78
n. 39, 83, 122, 159, 233, 233 n. 53, 278,
292294, 317, 322323, 327330, 333,
339, 352, 356, 361, 363, 367, 368 n. 29
vago-difforonliaIs 165, 256257
Wagnor acl (Unilod Slalos) 224
Wagonors 32
WaIIorsloin, ImmanuoI 287, 287 n. 1,
288289, 289 n. 5, 290, 290 n. 8, 291, 291
n. 11, 293294, 294 n. 29, 295299, 307,
307 n. 74, 313316, 316 n. 100, 320 n. 2,
363
WaIlon, }oln 200
WaIlon, IauI 181
vars 4445, 45 n. 22, 51 n. 42, 75, 75
n. 31, 101, 140, 161, 216, 227,
275276, 302306, 310, 343
Waro, Norman 166
vaslorvomon 161 n. 32
Wassmann, }urg 349 n. 36
valcl makors 155, 187
Walorfronl ImpIoyors Union (Unilod
Slalos) 196
Woavors 4950, 200
Wobb, Sidnoy and Boalrico
Wobor, Max 64, 249 n. 105
WoiIor, Iolor 275
Woiss, IIoronco 349352, 354355, 358
n. 69
WorIlof, CIaudia von 323, 325 n. 25, 332
Wosl-Africa 55 n. 51
Woslorn Iodoralion of Minors (Unilod
Slalos) 243
vlilo coIIar vorkors 105 n. 69
Wlilman, Sloplon 71 n. 24
vloIosaIors 133, 135, 143
Wlullnov, Roborl 311, 311 n. 90
WiosonllaI, HoImul 204 n. 134
WiII, Idouard 40 n. 4
WiIIiams, Raymond 370 n. 36
vindov-gIass vorkors 265
WinslanIoy, MiclaoI 145
Wisconsin SclooI 299
WoIf, Iric 316
WoIff, Riclard D. 22 n. 15
WoIpo, HaraId 322 n. 9
vomon 23, 2728, 30, 35, 83, 88, 98,
114 n. 12, 115, 116 n. 19, 122, 122 n. 33,
141142, 142 n. 29, 146, 153154, 157
n. 19, 161, 175, 187 n. 59, 191,
193196, 214215, 215 n. 17, 230, 239
n. 68, 241, 241 n. 79, 245246, 246
n. 98, 266, 278, 281, 297298, 322323,
331332, 341342, 346347, 350352,
354355, 366, 371 n. 41
Wong, Diana 334335 n. 58
vooI cardors 221
vork ollic 158
vork lo ruIo 182 n. 41, 368
vorkor conlroI 135 n. 7, 152
Working Mons Associalion
(Brilain) 268269
Working Mons Iarlios (Unilod
Slalos) 254
WorId Confodoralion of Iabor 276
n. 45
vorId-syslom lloory 287318,
318 n. 71
WorId Trado Organizalion 279
WorId War I 211212, 228, 236, 259,
275, 299, 372
WorId War II 2, 2 n. 1, 5, 110 n. 5, 146,
217, 222, 261, 275, 276, 299, 303, 344
n. 14, 347, 350, 357 n. 65
Wrigll, Irik OIin 239 n. 71
yoIIov unions 224, 228229, 240
yoIIov-dog conlracl 240, 240 n. 73
&'()* % !#-
Yoo, Codric 68
Yoruba 87, 95
Yrigoyon, HipIilo 192
Y"aikai 245
YugosIavia 185
TorbovIyo 185
Zambia (Nollorn Rlodosia) 25, n. 26,
95 n. 40, 195, 205
>#"?, rovoIl of llo 175
Zimbabvo (Soullorn Rlodosia) 2, 224
n. 17
Zimmormann, Hans-Diolor 45 n. 24
Zizok, SIavoj 10 n. 15

Marcel Van Der Linden Workers of The World, Essays Toward A Global Labor History Studies in Global Social History 2008

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