Lesh, R., Post, T., & Behr, M. (1988). Proportional Reasoning. In J. Hiebert & M.

Behr
(!s.) Number Concepts and Operations in the Middle Grades (pp. 9"#118). Reston,
$%& La'ren(e rlba)* & +ational ,o)n(il o- Tea(hers o- Mathe*ati(s.

Proportional Reasoning

Ri(har! Lesh
.I,%T /0ste*s
Tho*as Post
1ni2ersit0 o- Minnesota
Merl0n Behr +orthern
Illinois 1ni2ersit0

Proportional reasoning is a -or* o- *athe*ati(al reasoning that in2ol2es a sense o-
(o#2ariation an! o- *)ltiple (o*parisons, an! the abilit0 to *entall0 store an!
pro(ess se2eral pie(es o- in-or*ation. Proportional reasoning is 2er0 *)(h
(on(erne! 'ith in-eren(e an! pre!i(tion an! in2ol2es both 3)alitati2e an!
3)antitati2e *etho!s o- tho)ght.
In o)r o'n resear(h 'e ha2e (onsi!ere! the essential (hara(teristi(s o- proportional
reasoning to in2ol2e reasoning abo)t the holisti( relationship bet'een t'o rational
e4pressions s)(h as rates, ratios, 3)otients, an! -ra(tions. This in2ariabl0 in2ol2es
the *ental assi*ilation an! s0nthesis o- the 2ario)s (o*ple*ents o- these
e4pressions an! an abilit0 to in-er the e3)alit0 or ine3)alit0 o- pairs or series o-
s)(h e4pressions base! on this anal0sis an! s0nthesis. It also in2ol2es the abilit0 to
generate s)((ess-)ll0 *issing (o*ponents regar!less o- the n)*eri(al aspe(ts o-
the proble* sit)ation. This perspe(ti2e has not been )ni2ersall0 e*plo0e! b0 the
resear(h (o**)nit0.
%ll persons 'ho sol2e a proble* in2ol2ing proportions !o not ne(essaril0 )se
proportional reasoning. In -a(t, one (o)l! noti(e si*ple n)*ber relationships (sin(e
% is three ti*es B, 5 *)st be three ti*es 6) or )se a rote algorith* s)(h as (ross
*)ltipli(ation. To sol2e proportions o- the t0pe %7B 8 476, st)!ents are o-ten ta)ght
the (ross *)ltipli(ation *etho! %96 8 49B 'here 4 8 %967B: 0et resear(h an!
e4perien(e ha2e (onsistentl0 sho'n that this *etho! is (1) poorl0 )n!erstoo! b0
st)!ents (Post, Behr, & Lesh, 1988), (;) sel!o* a <nat)rall0 generate!< sol)tion
*etho! (Hart, 198=), an! (") o-ten )se! b0 st)!ents to a2oi! proportional
reasoning rather than to -a(ilitate it. .e s)ggest here that the )se o- this pro(e!)re
pre(l)!es the )se o- proportional reasoning an! !oes not in2ol2e proportional
reasoning per se. .e there-ore pre-er to spea> o- proportion relate! proble*s
rather than proportional reasoning proble*s.
.e 2ie' proportional reasoning as a pi2otal (on(ept. ?n the one han!, it is the
(apstone o- (hil!ren@s ele*entar0 s(hool arith*eti(: on the other han!, it is the
1
(ornerstone o- all that is to -ollo'. This (hapter !is()sses this (onstr)(t -ro* both
perspe(ti2es in!i(ating 'hat 'e belie2e to be transition *e(hanis*s an! st)!ent
beha2iors. .e then e4plore re3)ire*ents -or a (o*p)ter base! *o!el -or the
sol)tion o- proportion relate! proble*s an! !is()ss the (on!itions )n!er 'hi(h this
*o!el is able to pro!)(e reasonable sol)tions. Ainall0, 'e raise 3)estions as to the
i*pli(ations 'hi(h this *o!el *ight ha2e -or -)t)re resear(h 'ith (hil!ren.
Pre2io)s atte*pts to assess proportional reasoning abilit0 (Barpl)s, P)los, & /tage,
198"a, 198"b: +oelting, 198Ca, 198Cb) ha2e -o()se! largel0 on in!i2i!)al
responses to *issing 2al)e proble*s. Those st)!ents 'ho 'ere able to ans'er
s)((ess-)ll0 the n)*eri(all0 <a'>'ar!DD sit)ations (ontaining non#integer *)ltiples
'ithin an! bet'een the rate pairs 'ere tho)ght to be at the highest le2el, an! their
ans'ers 'ere (onsi!ere! proportional responses. .e belie2e that this is a li*ite!
perspe(ti2e, a ne(essar0 b)t not a s)--i(ient (on!ition, espe(iall0 sin(e these
proble*s len! the*sel2es to p)rel0 algorith*i( sol)tions. This (hapter atte*pts to
e4pan! the pre2io)s 2ie' an! s)ggest that proportional reasoning en(o*passes
'i!er an! *ore (o*ple4 spe(tra o- (ogniti2e abilities 'hi(h in(l)!e both
*athe*ati(al an! ps0(hologi(al !i*ensions.
%((or!ing to Piaget (Piaget & Inhel!er, 19EF), ho'e2er, the essential (hara(teristi(
o- proportional reasoning is that it *)st in2ol2e a RL%TI?+/HIP BT.+ T.?
RL%TI?+/HIP/ (i.e., a <se(on!#or!er< relationship) rather than si*pl0 a
relationship bet'een t'o (on(rete obGe(ts (or t'o !ire(tl0 per(ei2able 3)antities).
Aor e4a*ple, Piagetians ha2e (onsi!ere! a balan(e#bea* tas> to be a protot0pe -or
proportional reasoning tas>s, e2en tho)gh the reasoning in2ol2e! !oes not -it the
e3)ation %7B 8 ,76 b)t instea! -its the e3)ation %4B 8 ,46. In -a(t, Piagetians
ha2e arg)e! that an earl0 phase in (hil!ren@s proportional reasoning (apabilities
o-ten in2ol2es <a!!iti2e reasoning< o- the -or* % # B 8 , # 6. .e belie2e that it is
!esirable to restri(t the ter* <proportional reasoning< to 2ario)s aspe(ts o-
*)ltipli(ati2e relationships bet'een rational e4pressions.
In s(ien(e e!)(ation, Barpl)s et al. (198"a, 198"b) represent still a thir!
perspe(ti2e, 'hi(h states that proportional reasoning *)st in2ol2e a LI+%R
RL%TI?+/HIP BT.+ T.? $%RI%BL/. /o tas>s (hara(teriHe! b0 the s0ste* o-
relationships I 8 *5 are (onsi!ere! to be proportion relate! tas>s ('hi(h o- (o)rse
the0 are), e2en tho)gh the t'o si!es o- the e3)ation are not s0**etri(. Tas>s
(hara(teriHe! b0 the s0ste* I 8 (a7b)5 J n *)st be !i--erentiate! -ro* the
proportional sit)ations.
% *aGor goal o- this (hapter 'ill be to sort o)t an! (lari-0 aspe(ts o- proportional
reasoning 'hi(h preser2e the inten!e! *athe*ati(al *eanings o- this ter* an!
'hi(h resear(h has sho'n to be e!)(ationall0 or ps0(hologi(all0 signi-i(ant. %nother
goal 'ill be to i!enti-0 negle(te! areas o- resear(h on proportional reasoning.

2
SOME IMPORTANT TYPES OF PROPORTIONAL REASONING TASKS

,riti(al insights )n!erl0ing *an0 o- the *ost basi( (on(epts in s(ien(e,
*athe*ati(s, an! e2er0!a0 proble* sol2ing o-ten (onsist o- re(ogniHing si*ilar
patterns or str)(t)ral si*ilarit0 in t'o !i--erent sit)ations. Be(a)se proportional
reasoning !eals 'ith one o- the *ost (o**on -or*s o- str)(t)ral si*ilarit0, it is
o-ten lin>e! to so*e o- the *ost i*portant ele*entar0 b)t !eep (on(epts at the
-o)n!ation le2el o- *an0 areas o- s(ien(e or *athe*ati(s. %s state! earlier, 'e
belie2e proportional reasoning is both the (apstone o- ele*entar0 arith*eti( an!
the (ornerstone o- all that is to -ollo'. It there-ore o(()pies a pi2otal position in
s(hool *athe*ati(s (an! s(ien(e) progra*s.
%s ea(h !o*ain o- >no'le!ge )ses this basi( reasoning para!ig*, it ten!s to be
*o!i-ie! in s)btle 'a0s to -it the pe()liar nee!s o- the !is(ipline. Aor e4a*ple, in
*i!!le s(hool arith*eti(, slightl0 !i--erent -or*s o- proportional reasoning are
relate! to so*e o- the -ore*ost (on(ept)al <tro)ble spots< in the ()rri()l)*&

K(e3)i2alent) -ra(tions& F7" 8 n7*
Klong !i2ision& 8CF7;" 8 n71
Kpla(e 2al)e an! per(ents& nL 8 EF71CC
K*eas)re*ent (on2ersion& n !ollars 8 (;7") * ,ana!ian !ollars
Kratios an! rates&
1F -eet7; se(on!s 8 n *iles per
ho)r

In the pre(e!ing >in!s o- topi(al areas, the -ollo'ing se2en t0pes o- proportion
relate! proble*s all arise nat)rall0. Iet, t0pes " thro)gh E ha2e been negle(te! in
te4tboo>#(entere! instr)(tion an! resear(h.
1. Missing 2al)e proble*s& %7B 8 ,76 'here three 2al)es (in(l)!ing one
(o*plete rate pair) are gi2en, an! the goal is to -in! the *issing part o- the
se(on! (an! e3)i2alent) rate pair.
2. ,o*parisons proble*s& %7B M8 N 8O ,76 'here all -o)r 2al)es are gi2en, an!
the goal is to G)!ge 'hi(h is tr)e&
%7B P ,76 or %7B 8 ,76 or %7B Q ,76
3. Trans-or*ation proble*s&
(a) !ire(tion o- (hange G)!g*ents&
%n e3)i2alen(e is gi2en o- the -or* %7B 8 ,76.
Then, one or t'o o- the -o)r 2al)es %, B, ,, or 6 is in(rease! or !e(rease! b0
a (ertain a*o)nt, an! the goal is to G)!ge 'hi(h relation ( P, Q, or 8 ) is tr)e
-or the trans-or*e! 2al)es.
(b) trans-or*ations to pro!)(e e3)alit0&
%n ine3)alit0 is gi2en o- the -or* %7B P ,76.
Then, -or one o- the -o)r 2al)es %, B, ,, or 6, a 2al)e -or 4 *)st be -o)n! so
that, -or e4a*ple (%J4)7B 8 ,76.
3
4. Mean 2al)e proble*s& T'o 2al)es are gi2en, an! the goal is to -in! the thir!.
(a) geo*etri( *eans& %74 8 47B
(b) har*oni( *eans& %7B 8 (%#4)7(4#B)
5. Proportions in2ol2ing (on2ersions -ro* ratios, to rates, to -ra(tions& The ratio
o- bo0s to girls in a (lass 'as 1F to 1;. .hat -ra(tion o- the (lass 'as bo0sN
6. Proportions in2ol2ing )nit labels as 'ell as n)*bers& (" -eet)7(; se(on!s) 8 4
*iles per ho)r or F -eet7se(on! 8 4 *iles7ho)r
7. Bet'een#Mo!e translation proble*s& % ratio (or -ra(tion or rate or 3)otient) is
gi2en in one representation s0ste*, an! the goal is to portra0 the sa*e
relationship )sing another representation s0ste*.
Realisti( 2ersions o- proportional reasoning proble*s o-ten in2ol2e bet'een#
representation (o*parisons. .e ha2e -o)n! that these ten! to be s)rprisingl0
!i--i()lt -or *ost st)!ents (Lesh, Behr, & Post, 198E).
2en 'hen the t'o si!es o- a proportion in2ol2e the sa*e representation s0ste*,
st)!ents@ sol)tions to these proble*s o-ten in2ol2e translations a*ong 2ario)s
representation s0ste*s. Aor e4a*ple, (onsi!er the 'or! proble* sho'n in Aig)re
1. .e ha2e -o)n! that s)((ess rates ten! to range bet'een 9.;L -or -o)rth gra!ers
an! =R.;L -or eighth gra!ers.
% st)!ent *ight thin> abo)t the proble* in Aig)re 1 b0

(a)
paraphrasing (i.e., translating to si*pler lang)age)& -i-teen is to -i2e
as is to .

(b) !ra'ing a !iagra* (i.e., translating to a pi(t)re or !iagra*)
H?1R 1 H?1R ; H?1R " H?1R = H?1R F
MMMMM MMMMM MMMMM MMMMM MMMMM

(() 'riting an e3)ation (i.e., translating to 'ritten s0*bols)&
1F7F 8 *7h
/o e2en 'hen a proble* !oes not appear to in2ol2e *ore than a single
representation s0ste*, its sol)tion *a0 in2ol2e se2eral translations.
/)e (an 'al> 1F *iles in F ho)rs.
Her ratio o- *iles per ho)r is&

a. F to 1F b. 1C to F
(. " to 1 !. not gi2en

Aig)re 1. % t0pi(al proportion relate! 'or!
proble*
4

5
PROPORTIONAL REASONING IS A WATERSHED CONCEPT

To !eter*ine 'hi(h aspe(ts o- proportional reasoning sho)l! be e*phasiHe! in the
-)t)re, it is i*portant to re(ogniHe the <(on(ept)al 'atershe!< role that
proportional reasoning has pla0e! at the bor!erline 'hi(h separates ele*entar0
-ro* *ore a!2an(e! (on(epts. That is, it is both (1) one o- the *ost ele*entar0
higher or!er )n!erstan!ings an! (;) one o- the highest le2el ele*entar0
)n!erstan!ings. Aor e4a*ple, in the ps0(holog0 o- h)*an learning, proportional
reasoning is 'i!el0 re(ogniHe! as a (apabilit0 'hi(h )shers in a signi-i(ant
(on(ept)al shi-t -ro* (on(rete operational le2els o- tho)ght to -or*al operational
le2els o- tho)ght (Piaget & Beth, 19RR).
The ne4t t'o se(tions o- this (hapter e4a*ine proportional reasoning -ro* t'o
!istin(t perspe(ti2es&

(1) Proportional reasoning as a (ornerstone o- algebra an! other higher
le2el areas o- *athe*ati(s.
(;) Proportional reasoning as a (apstone o- ele*entar0 arith*eti(,
n)*ber, an! *eas)re*ent (on(epts.

Proportional Reasoning as a Cornerstone of High School Mathematics
In the pre2io)s 'or! proble* (see Aig)re 1), s)ppose that 'e 'ante! to >no' ho'
-ar /)e 'o)l! 'al> in " ho)rs. This proble* (an be sol2e! in three steps&

(a) .rite an e3)ation to !es(ribe the proble* sit)ation, -or e4a*ple,
1F7F 8 *7".
(b) Trans-or* the <!es(ripti2e< -or* o- the e3)ation to an e3)i2alent
<(o*p)tational< -or*, -or e4a*ple, * 8 "4(1F7F).
(() ,o*p)te b0 (arr0ing o)t the in!i(ate! operations, * 8 "4(") 8 9.

This !es(ribe#trans-or*#(o*p)te pro(e!)re is one (hara(teristi( that !i--erentiates
algebra -ro* arith*eti(. +oti(e that it is not ne(essar0 -or the e3)ation 'hi(h
!es(ribes or *o!els a proble* to i**e!iatel0 spe(i-0 a series o- (o*p)tations -or
pro!)(ing an ans'er. In algebra, the !es(ription an! sol)tion phases o- proble*
sol2ing (an be separate!. In arith*eti(, st)!ents )s)all0 pro(ee! !ire(tl0 to a
series o- sol)tion#pro!)(ing (o*p)tational pro(e!)res.
Proportional reasoning inherentl0 in2ol2es so*e o- the *ost i*portant algebrai(
)n!erstan!ings ha2ing to !o 'ith e3)i2alen(e, 2ariables, an! trans-or*ations. .e
'ill !is()ss ea(h separatel0.
Le2els o- e3)alit0. The -ollo'ing >in!s o- e3)i2alen(e (lasses o(()r -re3)entl0 in
proportion relate! sit)ations&

6
(a) e3)i2alent n)*bers or ratios o- n)*bers, -or e4a*ple, 17" 8 ;7R 8
"79
(b) e3)i2alent e4pressions ha2ing both *eas)re*ent )nits an! n)*bers,
-or e4a*ple, >ilo*eters 7 *eters 8 1CCC 7 1 P##Q 1 >ilo*eter 8 1CCC
*eters
(() e3)i2alent e4pressions in2ol2ing relations an!7or operations as 'ell as
n)*bers an! )nits o- *eas)re
-or e4a*ple, R -eet7; se(on!s 8 " -eet per se(on! 8 ;.C=FF *iles per
ho)r
(!) e3)i2alent e3)ations, -or e4a*ple, ;75 8 5718 P##Q 5
;
8 ;418 P##Q
5 8 R 'here the trans-or*ations preser2e so*e i*portant properties
'hile (hanging others.
In arith*eti(, e3)als signs (8) (an )s)all0 be interprete! as *eaning <res)lts in<
or <gi2es< (e.g., 'hen the e3)ation F#"8; is rea! as <-i2e *in)s three res)lts in
t'o<). In algebra, ho'e2er, the <8< sign )s)all0 stan!s -or a *ore general t0pe o-
e3)i2alen(e. Aor e4a*ple, t'o e4pressions *a0 be treate! as e3)i2alent -or an0 o-
the -ollo'ing reasons&
(a) The0 are re!)(ible to the sa*e 2al)e, -or e4a*ple, R7; 8 = #1.
(b) The0 are str)(t)rall0 si*ilar: that is, the0 in2ol2e the sa*e pattern o-
relations an! operations, -or e4a*ple,

(?- (o)rse this is tr)e onl0 -or (ertain 2al)es o- the 2ariables.)
(() The0 ha2e i!enti(al graphs on sets o- non#Hero *eas)re, -or e4a*ple,
-(4) 8 ;4;7"4 an! g(4) 8 ;47".
(!) Their graphs (ross the 4 a4is at the sa*e points.
(e) ?ne e4pression (an be s)bstit)te! -or the other 'itho)t gaining (or
losing) interesting in-or*ation.

%n )n!erstan!ing o- proportional reasoning *)st go be0on! the si*ple notion that
t'o si!es o- an e3)ation are e3)al (in the sense o- being re!)(ible to the sa*e
2al)e). Aor e4a*ple, o)r int)itions tell )s that an e3)ation s)(h as <R7; 8 = # 1<
sho)l! not be (alle! a proportion (e2en tho)gh its t'o si!es are e3)al) be(a)se the
t'o si!es o- the e3)ation are not str)(t)rall0 si*ilar: that is, the0 !o not in2ol2e
the sa*e pattern o- relations or operations, an! the (o*ponents are not
*)ltipli(ati2el0 relate!.
The re(ognition o- str)(t)ral si*ilarit0 appears to be an essential (o*ponent -or
proportional reasoning to o(()r. Ho'e2er, i- 'e !e*an! a re(ognition o- str)(t)ral
si*ilarit0 as a ne(essar0 (on!ition -or a reasoning pro(ess to be (alle! proportional
reasoning, then, in general, tas>s 'hi(h are *o!ele! b0 the e3)ation I 8 (a7b)5
b)t 'hi(h are not *o!ele! b0 the e3)ation I75 8 a7b sho)l! not be (onstr)e! as
in2ol2ing proportional reasoning, e2en tho)gh I 8 (a7b)5 an! I75 8 a7b are in
so*e, b)t not all, 'a0s e3)i2alent.
Le2els o- 2ariables. In a!!ition to in2ol2ing a 2ariet0 o- !i--erent le2els o-
e3)i2alen(e, si*ple proportional reasoning sit)ations *a0 also in2ol2e se2eral
le2els o- 2ariables. It is not si*pl0 the abilit0 to 2ar0 that *a>es so*ething a
2ariable. Aor e4a*ple&
7

(a) In *an0 si*ple proportions, s)(h as "74847;E, the 2al)e o- 4 (annot
2ar0: 0et this !oes not *ean that 4 is not a 2ariable. Here, the
i*portant thing to >no' abo)t 4 is that it is an )n>no'n 'hi(h (an be
*anip)late! )sing r)les si*ilar to those that appl0 to >no'n
n)*bers.
(b) /o*eti*es e2en -i4e! (onstants, s)(h as S representing pi, (an be
assigne! a range o- 2al)es (e.g., ;;7E or ".1= or ".1=1F9;RF"FR)
!epen!ing on the le2el o- pre(ision that is (hosen as appropriate in a
gi2en sit)ation. Iet, this !oes not *ean that S is a 2ariable.

/o the 2al)e o- a s0*bol *a0 be -i4e!, 0et the s0*bol is a 2ariable: or the 2al)e o-
a s0*bol *a0 be able to 2ar0, 0et the s0*bol is a (onstant. ?2erl0 si*plisti(
e4planations, s)(h as treating 2ariables as tho)gh the0 'ere si*pl0 things that (an
2ar0, are bo)n! to res)lt in (on-)sion -or (hil!ren.
Transformations and invariance. To generate a set o- ratios e3)i2alent to "79, a
series o- trans-or*ations (an be )se! to <*ap< one e4pression to another& 17" ##Q
"79 ##Q 97;E ##Q.... ?r, to -in! the )n>no'n 2al)e -or 4 in a proportion li>e "748
47;E, a series o- trans-or*ations (an be )se! to *ap one entire e3)ation to
another&
"74 8 47;E ##Q 4 8 ;E9"74 ##Q 5
;
8 81 ##Q 4 8 9. %n!, -or an0 o- the pre(e!ing
>in!s o- trans-or*ations, iss)es relate! to le2els o- e3)i2alen(e arise. %n0 ti*e an
obGe(t is trans-or*e!, so*e in-or*ation is lost or gaine!: the iss)e is 'hether the
altere! in-or*ation is o- interest. .hi(h properties re*ain in2ariant an! 'hi(h !o
notN Aor e4a*ple, t'o e3)ations *a0 be (onsi!ere! e3)i2alent -or an0 o- the
-ollo'ing reasons. (Re(all that in the pre2io)s se(tion a si*ilar list 'as generate!
-or e4pressions.)

(a) The0 ha2e the sa*e tr)th 2al)e (e.g., both tr)e or both -alse).
(b) The0 ha2e the sa*e sol)tion set (e.g., sa*e 2al)es satis-0 both).
(() ?ne is a si*pli-ie! -or* o- the other.
(!) The0 (an be trans-or*e! into one another )sing spe(i-ie! operations.

.hen e!)(ators treat trans-or*ations as tho)gh <e2er0thing is ?B as long as 0o)
!o the sa*e thing to both si!es o- an e3)ation,< it sho)l! be no s)rprise that this
si*plisti( notion o-ten lea!s to errors in (hil!renDs proportional reasoning. Aor
e4a*ple, in one o- o)r re(ent (lini(al st)!ies (Behr, .a(hs*)th, Post, & Lesh,
195=), st)!ents 'ere sho'n e3)alities s)(h as "7= 8 R75. Then a gi2en n)*ber
'as s)btra(te! -ro* one o- the -o)r n)*bers, an! the st)!ent 'as as>e! to (hange
one o- the re*aining three n)*bers to restore e3)alit0, (e.g., (" #1)7= 8 (R# N)78).
It 'as 2er0 (o**on -or st)!ents to si*pl0 in(rease or !e(rease the (orrespon!ing
n)*bers b0 the sa*e a*o)nt on both si!es. In -a(t, one st)!ent e2en <pro2e!<
that ("#1)7= 8 (R#1)78: he erase! the 1Ds -ro* both si!es, e4plaining <ItDs ?B,
D(a)se I !i! the sa*e thing on both si!esTT<
8
The )n!erstan!ing that an e3)ation (as a 'hole) represents an algebrai( <obGe(t<
'hi(h (an he trans-or*e! in spe(i-ie! 'a0s that lea2e (ertain interesting properties
(s)(h as the sol)tion set) in2ariant is at the heart o- algebrai( reasoning. This is
also essential in a si*ple -or* in the sol)tion o- si*ple proportions.
The e3)ation %7B 8 ,76 (an be tho)ght o- as a stati( (8) relationship bet'een t'o
si*ple *athe*ati(al s0ste*s 'hi(h are !es(ribe! in!epen!entl0 b0 the ratio
relationships %7B an! ,76. Ho'e2er, it (an also be tho)ght o- as a !0na*i(
trans-or*ation 'hi(h *aps one si*ple *athe*ati(al s0ste* (!es(ribe! b0 the ratio
relationship %7B) into an <e3)i2alent< s0ste* (!es(ribe! b0 the ratio relationship
,76). It see*s to )s that the re(ognition o- str)(t)ral si*ilarit0 is an essential
(o*ponent o- proportional reasoning. It -ollo's that iss)es relate! to str)(t)re
trans-or*ation an! in2arian(e sho)l! be i*portant the*es in proportional
reasoning, e2en at its *ost pri*iti2e le2els.
In spite o- the pre(e!ing -a(ts, tas>s !ealing 'ith trans-or*ations an! in2arian(e
ha2e been negle(te! in the resear(h literat)re on proportional reasoning, e2en
tho)gh Piaget (Piaget & Inhel!er, 19FR) an! a -e' others ha2e e*phasiHe! its
i*portan(e in (ertain t0pes o- (onser2ation tas>s.
?ne reason that trans-or*ation tas>s ha2e been negle(te! is their ten!en(0 to
in2ol2e !0na*i( a(tions 'hi(h are !i--i()lt to portra0 in te4tboo> or paper#an!#
pen(il testing -or*ats. % se(on! -a(tor is the arti-i(ial o2ere*phasis on <4 -in!ingDD
in the prese(on!ar0 an! se(on!ar0 s(hool *athe*ati(s ()rri()la. The
*is(on(eption that the essen(e o- *athe*ati(s is <going aro)n! loo>ing -or lost
4Ds< is an opinion share! b0 *an0. Iet, to )n!erstan! the essen(e o- proportional
reasoning, it is i*portant to )n!erstan! that *athe*ati(s is essentiall0 the st)!0 o-
str)(t)re an! in2arian(e, e3)i2alen(e an! non#e3)i2alen(e )n!er a 2ariet0 o-
!i--erent trans-or*ations. %s st)!ents progress to higher le2els o- *athe*ati(s, -ar
-e'er proble*#sol2ing a(ti2ities -it the <4 -in!ing< stereot0pe. Aar *ore -it into the
(ategor0 o- st)!0ing str)(t)re#trans-or*ation#in2arian(e.

Proportional Reasoning as a Capstone of lementar! School Mathematics

Man0 o- the -ore*ost (on(ept)al st)*bling blo(>s 'hi(h o(()r in the ele*entar0
s(hool ()rri()l)* are (riti(al in the (onte4t o- proportional reasoning. 4a*ples
in(l)!e (1) the part#'hole relationships !es(ribe! b0 Bieren (19ER) an! Behr, Lesh,
Post & /il2er (198"): (;) the (o*posite )nits (i.e., )nits *a!e )p o- other )nits)
e*phasiHe! b0 /te--e (/te--e & 2on Ulasers-el!, 198": /te--e, this 2ol)*e), ,obb
(198E), an! Post et al. (1988): (") the representation#relate! abilities e*phasiHe!
b0 Bap)t (198Ea: 198Eb) an! Lesh, Post, an! Behr (198E): an! (=) the
*eas)re*ent#relate! abilities e*phasiHe! b0 $ergna)! (198"), /tree-lan! (198=,
198F), Post et al. (1988), an! Bap)t (198F). (These areas ha2e been i!enti-ie! b0
resear(hers as the (on(ept)al )n!erpinnings o- the pre2io)sl0 *entione! tro)ble
spots, all o- 'hi(h see* relate! to proportionalit0 an! )lti*atel0 to proportional
reasoning.)
9
Pre"proportional reasoning. I- the *ost (riti(al (hara(teristi( o- proportional
reasoning is re(ogniHing <the in2arian(e o- a si*ple *athe*ati(al s0ste*,< then is
it al'a0s ne(essar0 -or this *athe*ati(al s0ste* to be !es(ribe! b0 the ratio
relation %7BN ?r 'o)l! s0ste*s (hara(teriHe! b0 % # B (or % 4 B or % J B) also
3)ali-0N Mathe*ati(al s0ste*s (hara(teriHe! b0 %7B are a*ong the si*plest that
(an e4ist: the0 in2ol2e relationships bet'een the t'o 3)antities % an! B. /o an
e3)ation s)(h as %7B 8 ,76 (an be interprete! as *eaning that the relationship <n
*ore than< applies to both si!es.
The relationship <n *ore than< (an be interprete! in t'o !istin(t 'a0s& (1) as the
a!!iti2e relationship %8 nJB (i.e., n8%#B) or (;) as the *)ltipli(ati2e relationship %
8 n9B (i.e., n 8 %7B). In the latter sit)ation it is generall0 re-erre! to as <n ti*es as
*an0.< In either (ase, reasoning abo)t these sit)ations is one o- the si*plest
sit)ations in 'hi(h (hil!ren go be0on! (o*parisons bet'een per(ei2able 3)antities
to thin> abo)t str)(t)ral si*ilarities bet'een *athe*ati(al s0ste*s as a 'hole.
Aor reasons si*ilar to those !es(ribe! abo2e, tas>s s)(h as a balan(e#bea* tas>,
'hi(h are (hara(teriHe! b0 the e3)ation %9B8,96 (rather than b0 the e3)ation %7B
8 ,76), are so*eti*es re-erre! to as <*)ltipli(ati2e proportional reasoning< tas>s:
an! tas>s (hara(teriHe! b0 the e3)ation % J B 8 , J 6 are )s)all0 (onsi!ere! to
in2ol2e a!!iti2e reasoning.
Tas>s (hara(teriHe! b0 %7B8,76 or %9B8,96 ten! to in2ol2e a *)ltipli(ati2e
relationship, b)t !o the0 in2ol2e proportional reasoningN ?)r r)le -or ans'ering this
3)estion is that i- there is no e2i!en(e that the (hil! re(ogniHes the str)(t)ral
si*ilarit0 represente! b0 the t'o si!es o- the e3)ation, then there is no e2i!en(e o-
proportional reasoning. Aor e4a*ple i- %9B (orrespon!s to a !ire(tl0 per(ei2able
3)antit0 (rather than to a relationship bet'een t'o 3)antities), then a tas> 'hi(h
*ight other'ise ha2e been (hara(teriHe! b0 %9B8,94 *a0 a(t)all0 be re!)(e! (in
the *in! o- the (hil!) to a tas> (hara(teriHe! b0 P 8 ,94, 'here P is a <ne'<
ele*ent in the s0ste*. In this (ase, str)(t)ral si*ilarit0 is not re(ogniHe!, an!
proportional reasoning is not re3)ire!. There-ore, the si*ple abilit0 to gi2e (orre(t
ans'ers to proble*s o- the -or* %9B 8 ,94 !oes not g)arantee that proportional
reasoning is being )se!. The sa*e is tr)e -or proble*s o- the -or* %7B8 476
('here the position o- 4 (an 2ar0).
/i*ilar (on(erns arise 'ith regar! to a!!iti2e tas>s (hara(teriHe! b0 the e3)ations
% J B 8 , J 4 or % # B 8 4 # 6. That is, the tas>s that these e3)ations !es(ribe
ten! to be nat)rall0 re!)(ible to non#proportions o- the -or*s P 8 , J 4 or P 8 4 #
6, 'here P is a !ire(tl0 per(ei2able 3)antit0.
I- (hil!renDs in(linations to )se a!!ition to sol2e proble*s (hara(teriHe! b0 %7B8476
are not 2er0 reliable in!i(ators o- proportional reasoning, then 'h0 ha2e
resear(hers (largel0 !e2elop*ental ps0(hologists) re-erre! to <a!!iti2e proportional
reasoning< in the resear(h literat)reN The ans'er is that !)ring earl0 stages in
(hil!renDs )n!erstan!ing o- proportional reasoning, a!!iti2e reasoning strategies
are o-ten )se! to respon! to tas>s 'hi(h sho)l! ha2e in2ol2e! *)ltipli(ati2e
relationships (Hart, 198=: +oelting, 198Ca, 198Cb: $ergna)!, 198"). Aor e4a*ple,
the -ollo'ing inter2ie' sho's ho' a!!iti2e reasoning arose nat)rall0 (b)t
in(orre(tl0) !)ring one o- o)r in2estigations o- *)ltipli(ati2e tas>s.
10
% se2enth gra!er 'as gi2en a ;4" re(tangle (see Aig)re ;) an! as>e! to <enlarge
it.< The st)!ent respon!e! ((orre(tl0) b0 !o)bling the lengths o- ea(h o- the si!es
to pro!)(e a =4R re(tangle. /o the re3)est 'as *a!e to <enlarge it again so that
the base 'ill be 9.< This ti*e the st)!ent !re' aE49 re(tangle, e4plaining, <I- I
!o)ble!, it 'o)l! ha2e been 1;: so I a!!e!" on, so the other si!e is 9.< There are a
n)*ber o- interesting things to noti(e abo)t this. Airst, a!!iti2e reasoning !oes in
-a(t o-ten appear <nat)rall0< as an earl0 stage in the !e2elop*ent o- proportional
reasoning. /e(on!, the reasoning para!ig* that a (hil! )ses o-ten 2aries 'ithin a
gi2en tas> (as in the pre(e!ing e4a*ple) or -ro* one tas> to another, !epen!ing on
parti()lar tas> (hara(teristi(s s)(h as the -ollo'ing& the (o*ple4it0 o- the n)*ber
relationships (Barpl)s et al., 198"a, 198"b), per(ept)al !istra(tors (Behr et al.,
198"), an! the pla(e*ent o- the <)n>no'n< 3)antit0 (BeH)>, 198R), -or e4a*ple,
47B8,76 2ers)s %748,76 2ers)s %7B8476 2ers)s %7B 8 ,74.
In general, tas>s (hara(teriHe! b0 a!!iti2e e3)ations (i.e., %#B8,#6 or % J B 8 , J
6) sho)l! not be re-erre! to as proportional reasoning tas>s: an! e2en
*)ltipli(ati2e tas>s (s)(h as balan(e#bea* tas>s or the pre(e!ing >in!s o- area
tas>s) (hara(teriHe! b0 the e3)ation %9B 8 ,96 *a0 be poor in!i(ators o- tr)e
proportional reasoning, espe(iall0 'hen these tas>s are relegate! to an algorith*i(
sol)tion. /o, in general, <proportional reasoning< is a ter* reser2e! -or the sol)tion
o- tas>s (hara(teriHe! b0 a relationship bet'een t'o rational e4pressions& that is,
%7B8,76. .e belie2e, ho'e2er, that this is a ne(essar0 b)t not a s)--i(ient
(on!ition. ?ther t0pes o- sit)ations also re-le(t tr)e proportional reasoning abilities.


11
Aig)re ;. nlarging a re(tangle

Transitions from pre"proportional reasoning to proportional reasoning.2en tho)gh
Piaget an! other !e2elop*ental ps0(hologists o-ten spea> o- proportional reasoning
as tho)gh it 'ere a global abilit0, or a *ani-estation o- a general (ogniti2e
str)(t)re, it appears that the e2ol)tion o- proportional reasoning is (hara(teriHe! b0
a gra!)al in(rease in lo(al (o*peten(e (e.g., Lesh, Post, an! Behr, 198E: To)rniaire
& P)los, 198F: Barpl)s et al.. 198"a 198"b). Proportionalit0 is initiall0 *astere! in
s*all an! restri(te! (lasses o- proble* settings. ,o*peten(e is then gra!)all0
e4ten!e! to larger (lasses o- proble*s.
In this se(tion 'e s)ggest that the pre(e!ing <gra!)all0 in(reasing lo(al
(o*peten(e 2ie'< o- (ogniti2e !e2elop*ent has i*portant i*pli(ations -or resear(h
an! instr)(tion that in2ol2e proportional reasoning. This 2ie' also pro2i!es
g)i!an(e -or resear(h an! instr)(tion relate! to proble* sol2ing.
The e4a*ple that 'e !is()ss ill)strates so*e o- the *ore i*portant *e(hanis*s
that enable st)!ents to !e2elop -ro* pre#proportional (a!!iti2e) reasoning to
general -or*s o- *)ltipli(ati2e proportional reasoning. The proble* sho'n in Aig)re
" 'as )se! in LeshDs resear(h on )sing *athe*ati(s in e2er0!a0 sit)ations. The
proble* is espe(iall0 interesting be(a)se
12

(a) /ol)tions to it 2ali!ate! !e2elop*ental se3)en(es in proportional
reasoning, 'hi(h ha2e been h0pothesiHe! b0 Piaget (Inhel!er &
Piaget, 19F8: Piaget, UriHe, /He*ins>a, & Bang, 19R8), +oelting
(198Ca, 198Cb), Barpl)s et al. (198"a, 198"b), Barpl)s an! Peterson
(19EC), Hart ( 1981), an! *an0 others.
(b) /ol)tions sho'e! ho' *e(hanis*s 'hi(h ha2e been sho'n to
-a(ilitate general (on(ept)al e2ol)tion *a0 also pla0 i*portant roles
in proble* sol2ing.

Be-ore 'e (onsi!er a <t0pi(alDD sol)tion to this proble*, it is )se-)l to -irst
o)tline so*e o- the *ost i*portant stages 'hi(h !e2elop*ental
ps0(hologists ha2e obser2e! in the e2ol)tion o- (hil!renDs general
proportional reasoning (apabilities.

(a) In their *ost pri*iti2e responses, st)!ents ten! to ignore part o- the
!ata, perhaps, -or e4a*ple, b0 (o*paring n)*erators onl0 in the
e3)ation %7B 8 ,76.
(b) %t a slightl0 *ore sophisti(ate! le2el, st)!ents *a0 noti(e
relationships a*ong the -o)r -a(tors in the proportion %7B8,76 b)t
*a0 relate the* onl0 in a 3)alitati2e *anner.
(() arl0 atte*pts at 3)anti-0ing o-ten in2ol2e (onstant a!!iti2e
!i--eren(es (i.e., % # B 8 , # 6) rather than *)ltipli(ati2e
relationships.
(!)
The earliest )se o- *)ltipli(ati2e reasoning is o-ten base! on a sort o-
<pattern re(ognition an! repli(ation< strateg0, 'hi(h so*e ha2e (alle!
a <b)il!#)p< strateg0 (Hart, 198=: Barpl)s & Peterson, 19EC: Piaget et
al., 19R8). Aor e4a*ple& % (an!0 store sells ; pie(es o- (an!0 -or 8
(ents. Ho' *)(h !o R pie(es o- (an!0 (ostN The sol)tion *ight be
re(or!e! as&
K; pie(es -or 8 (ents
K= pie(es -or 1R (ents
KR pie(es -or ;= (ents
Ui2en a table o- 2al)es, (hil!ren *a0 noti(e a pattern 'hi(h is then
applie! to !is(o2er an )n>no'n 2al)e. Ho'e2er, as 'e pointe! o)t
earlier in this (hapter, s)((ess in the )se o- this strateg0 is a relati2el0
'ea> in!i(ator o- proportional reasoning.
Piaget et al. (19R8) re-erre! to this stage as <pre#proportionalit0<
be(a)se (hil!ren ha2e the int)ition that the !i--eren(es (hange 'ith
the siHe o- the n)*bers an! that the (hange *a0 be *)ltipli(ati2e in
13
nat)re, b)t the0 !o not ne(essaril0 realiHe that the0 nee! to (onsi!er
the (onstantl0 in(reasing !i--eren(e bet'een the relate! ter*s o-
ea(h rate pair, that is, o- ea(h ratio. %((or!ing to Piaget, pre#
proportionalit0 is bro)ght abo)t b0 (oor!inating -)n(tions, 'hereas
proportionalit0 is base! on re2ersible operations. The *ain !i--eren(e
bet'een -)n(tion relate! thin>ing an! operation#relate! thin>ing is
that the -irst t0pe is essentiall0 non#re2ersible: that is, gi2en a (hange
in one o- the -o)r 2ariables in a proportion, the (hil! (annot
(o*pensate b0 (hanging one o- the re*aining 2ariables.
(e) PiagetDs <logi(al proportions< in!i(ates a le2el o- tho)ght in 'hi(h a
*)ltipli(ati2e relationship is noti(e! bet'een t'o ter*s: this
relationship is then applie! to the other t'o ter*s.


Materials# (al()lator, /ears (atalog)e -ro* 1C 0ears
ago, ()rrent /ears (atalog)e, ne'spaper -ro* 1C 0ears
ago, ()rrent ne'spaper.
Students# This proble* has been )n!erta>en b0
st)!ents 'or>ing either in!i2i!)all0 or in gro)ps o-
three, raging -ro* *i!!le s(hool thro)gh a!)lts. The
gro)p !es(ribe! in this se(tion 'ere a2erage abilit0
se2enth gra!ers.
Problem# Are! Ainle0 began tea(hing 1C 0ears ago in
,enter2ille. He an! his ne' bri!e rente! an! apart*ent
at "188 Main /treet -or V;FC per *onth. He also
bo)ght a ne' $. rabbit -or V=FCC. His starting salar0
'as V1=,CCC. This 0ear, Are!@s brother, To*, also
began tea(hing in ,enter2ille. He an! his ne' bri!e
rente! the 2er0 sa*e apart*ent that Are! ha! rente!
1C 0ears earlier, onl0 no' the rent 'as V="C per
*onth. He too bo)ght a ne' $. rabbit: the pri(e 'as
no' V89CC. ?ther pri(e !i--eren(es (an be -o)n! in the
(atalogs an! ne'spapers that 0o) ha2e been gi2en.
.hat sho)l! To*@s ()rrent starting salar0 be, so that it
'ill be e3)i2alent to Are!@s salar0 -ro* 1C 0ears agoN
Aig)re ". The in-lation proble*.
(ret)rn to te4t re-eren(e)
In general, a((or!ing to Piaget, a!oles(entsD proportional reasoning !e2elops -ro*
(1) a global (o*pensator0 strateg0 (o-ten a!!iti2e in nat)re) to (;) a *)ltipli(ati2e
strateg0 'itho)t generaliHation to all (ases to (") a -inal -or*)lation o- a la' o-
proportions. Ho'e2er, in atte*pts to 2eri-0 PiagetDs theor0, it has been note! that
14
the le2el o- reasoning that a (hil! )ses is o-ten not (onsistent a(ross tas>s or e2en
'ithin a gi2en tas> (e.g., 'hen the n)*ber relationships or per(ept)al !istra(tors
or (onte4t)al 2ariables are (hange! slightl0). 2en tho)gh the stages that Piaget
!es(ribes ha2e pro2en to be 3)ite rob)st -or !es(ribing (hil!renDs beha2iors on a
gi2en tas>, 2ariabilit0 a(ross tas>s is o-ten 3)ite large. This has been re-erre! to as
<horiHontal !e(alage.< ,on(ept)al !e2elop*ent in the area o- proportional
reasoning see*s to be (hara(teriHe! b0 gra!)all0 in(reasing lo(al (o*peten(e *ore
than b0 the a(3)isition o- so*e general all#p)rpose reasoning strateg0.
n2iron*ental intera(tions ob2io)sl0 pla0 a large role in this !e2elop*ent.
/ol)tions li>e the one !es(ribe! belo' )s)all0 too> o)r st)!ents bet'een ;C an! =C
*in)tes to pro!)(e. The sol)tion !es(ribe! here is t0pi(al o- those pro!)(e! b0 o)r
st)!ents, 'ho 'ere a2erage abilit0 *i!!le s(hoolers thro)gh a!)lts. /t)!ents
generall0 'ent thro)gh -i2e !istin(t re(on(ept)aliHation (0(les !)ring their =C
*in)te session. +oti(e the si*ilarit0 bet'een the stages in their sol)tion an! the
stages note! b0 Piaget an! others.
Conceptuali$ation %# The st)!entsD -irst (on(ept)aliHation o- the proble* )se!
a!!iti2e reasoning base! on onl0 a biase! s)bset o- the gi2en in-or*ation. The
gro)p s)btra(te! to -in! pri(e !i--eren(es -or pairs o- pres)*abl0 (o*parable ol!
an! ne' ite*s. B)t onl0 a -e' ite*s 'ere (onsi!ere!: these 'ere si*pl0 the ones
that 'ere noti(e! -irst, s)(h as the (ar an! one or t'o ite*s in the (atalog.
A)rther*ore, nothing 'as sai! e4pli(itl0 to in!i(ate ho' these s)btra(te!
!i--eren(es 'o)l! allo' a ne' salar0 to be !eter*ine!.
Conceptuali$ation &# .h0 !i! the st)!ents shi-t to a se(on! (on(ept)aliHation o- the
proble*N T'o possible e4planations are s)ggeste!. (1) %s the0 'or>e! o)t !etails
relate! to their -irst (on(ept)aliHation, the0 began to re(ogniHe !i--i()lties that ha!
at -irst been ignore! (e.g., <.hi(h ite*s sho)l! 'e (onsi!erN< an! <.hat are 'e
going to !o 'ith this in-or*ation an0'a0N<). (;) Be(a)se it 'as te!io)s to (arr0 o)t
the pro(esses asso(iate! 'ith the -irst (on(ept)aliHation, other 'a0s to thin> abo)t
the proble* 'ere (onsi!ere!.
The st)!entsD se(on! (on(ept)aliHation o- the proble* 'as base! on an e4tre*el0
pri*iti2e *)ltipli(ati2e relationship in2ol2ing an e2en *ore biase! s)bset o- the
gi2en in-or*ation. .hereas the -irst (on(ept)aliHation ha! lost sight o- the o2erall
goal 'hen attention 'as -o()se! on !etails (in!i2i!)al s)btra(ti2e !i--eren(es), the
se(on! (on(ept)aliHation ignore! !etails 'hen attention 'as -o()se! on the
relationship bet'een the t'o salaries. Be(a)se 1C 0ears ha! passe!, the st)!ents
g)esse! that perhaps To*Ds salar0 sho)l! be 1C ti*es as large as Are!DsT
%ltho)gh this <brainstor*< 'as 3)i(>l0 re(ogniHe! as -oolish, it ser2e! a 2er0
positi2e -)n(tion: it intro!)(e! a *)ltipli(ati2e 'a0 to thin> abo)t relationships
bet'een ol! pri(es an! salaries an! ()rrent pri(es an! salaries.
Conceptuali$ation '# The st)!entsD thir! (on(ept)aliHation o- the proble* )se! a
pattern re(ognition an! repli(ation t0pe o- pre#proportional reasoning. The st)!ents
noti(e! a pattern o- ite*s 'hose pri(e in(reases 'ere (appro4i*atel0) a si*ple
integer ratio (i.e., appro4i*atel0 a -a(tor o- ;). /o the0 g)esse! that To*Ds salar0
sho)l! be appro4i*atel0 t'o ti*es Are!Ds ol! salar0. This insight sho'e! real
15
pro*ise: ho'e2er, the ne' (larit0 o- tho)ght that it intro!)(e! enable! the
st)!ents to noti(e that, -or e4a*ple, so*e ite*s ha! a(t)all0 !e(rease! in pri(e
e2en tho)gh *ost o- the* ha! in(rease!.
Conceptuali$ation (# The st)!entsD -o)rth (on(ept)aliHation )se! a tr)e
*)ltipli(ati2e proportion, b)t it 'as still base! on onl0 a biase! s)bset o-
in-or*ation: that is, the st)!ents began spea>ing abo)t <per(ent in(reases< (b)t
a(t)all0 (al()late! ratios base! on si*ple integer -a(tors). Per(ent in(reases 'ere
(al()late! -or se2eral ite*s, an! these 2al)es 'ere then a2erage!.
Conceptuali$ation )# The st)!entsD -i-th (on(ept)aliHation )se! a *)ltipli(ati2e
proportion 'hi(h 'as base! on a (lear an! e4pli(it sa*pling pro(e!)re. Here, -or
the -irst ti*e, the st)!ents a(t)all0 'rote a ((r)!e) *athe*ati(al senten(e o- the
-or* <% is to B as , is to 6.< The 2al)es -or % an! B 'ere base! on s)*s o- pri(es
-or a n)*ber o- <t0pi(al< ite*s, an! the st)!ents noti(e! that a-ter a s)--i(ient
n)*ber o- ite*s ha! been in(l)!e! in the s)*, the ratio 'as not a--e(te! *)(h b0
the a!!ition o- *ore ite*s.
The pre(e!ing sol)tion 'as not at0pi(al. ?)r st)!ents )s)all0 progresse! thro)gh ;
to 1C !istin(t re(on(ept)aliHation (0(les !)ring their =C#*in)te proble* sol2ing
sessions: these (0(les nearl0 al'a0s rese*ble! (o*pa(t 2ersions o- PiagetDs
!e2elop*ental se3)en(es. Re(all that these se3)en(es !es(ribe the gra!)al
e2ol)tion o- (hil!renDs general proportional reasoning (apabilities o2er se2eral
0ears. There-ore, be(a)se o- these stri>ing si*ilarities, 'e began to re-er to o)r
proble* sol2ing sessions as <lo(al (on(ept)al !e2elop*ent sessions.<
Aro* a theoreti(al stan!point, the i!ea o- interpreting proble* sol2ing as lo(al
(on(ept)al !e2elop*ent has enor*o)s i*pli(ations. Me(hanis*s 'hi(h appear as
i*portant in lo(al (on(ept)al !e2elop*ent sessions (an be )se! to help e4plain
general (on(ept)al !e2elop*ent -ro* earl0 a!!iti2e -or*s o- reasoning to
proportional reasoning an! other higher or!er )n!erstan!ings.
Thin>ing o- proportional reasoning as a gra!)all0 in(reasing lo(al (o*peten(e
rather than as a global *ani-estation o- so*e general (ogniti2e str)(t)re sho)l!
res)lt in *ore, not less, i*portan(e -or !e2elop*ental theories an! -or proportional
reasoning as a 2er0 ri(h resear(h site. The )lti*ate i*portan(e o- proportional
reasoning res)lts -ro* its po'er to -a(ilitate proble*#sol2ing (apabilities. ?ne o-
the *ost i*portant reasons to *a>e proble* sol2ing a (entral part o- the s(hool
*athe*ati(s ()rri()l)* is the (ontrib)tions that s)(h e4perien(es *a>e to
(hil!renDs )n!erstan!ings o- other (entral (on(epts, *an0 o- 'hi(h in t)rn are
relate! to an! in2ol2e proportional reasoning.

16
PROPORTIONAL REASONING AND RATIONAL N!M"ER CONCEPTS
In earlier se(tions, 'e s)ggeste! that resear(h on proportional reasoning sho)l!
pa0 greater attention to tas>s in2ol2ing (1) !0na*i( trans-or*ations, (;) *ore than
a single representation s0ste*, (") *eas)re*ent )nits as 'ell as n)*bers, an! (=)
*ore than a single t0pe o- rational e4pression (rate, ratio, 3)otient, -ra(tion). ?n
the other han!, 'e belie2e that the ter* <proportional reasoning< sho)l! be
restri(te! to sit)ations (hara(teriHe! b0 the e3)i2alen(e o- t'o rational e4pressions
(%7B8,76). 2en 'ith this restri(tion, ho'e2er, a n)*ber o- a*big)ities re*ain&
(a) 2en i- a *athe*ati(ian (or e!)(ator or ps0(hologist) (hara(teriHes a
tas> )sing the proportion %7B8,76, this !oes not ne(essaril0 *ean
that s)(h an e3)ation !es(ribes the pro(esses an! relationships that a
(hil! )ses to interpret an! sol2e the tas>.
(b) %*ong lea!ing resear(hers in the area o- rational n)*bers (or
rational e4pressions), there is !isagree*ent abo)t the essential
(hara(teristi(s that !isting)ish, -or e4a*ple, rates -ro* ratios
(Are)!enthal, 198": Bap)t, 198F: Barpl)s et al., 198"a, 198"b:
/tree-lan!, 198=: +oelting, 198?a, 198Cb: To)rniaire & P)los, 198F:
$ergna)!, 198"). In -a(t, it is (o**on to -in! a gi2en a)thor
(hanging ter*inolog0 -ro* one p)bli(ation to another, perhaps to
(on-or* to (o**on )sage, 'hi(h is itsel- in(onsistent.
* Computer +ased Model This se(tion !es(ribes the !e-ining (hara(teristi(s that 'e
ha2e -o)n! to be *ost )se-)l -or !isting)ishing a*ong the 2ario)s t0pes o- rational
e4pressions. The po'er an! internal (onsisten(0 o- o)r !e-initions 'ere teste!
)sing a (o*p)ter#base! *o!el: this *o!el 'as )se! to in2estigate the range o-
sit)ations in 'hi(h the r)les an! !e-initions that !ri2e o)r *o!el 'ill pro!)(e
appropriate res)lts an!, *ore i*portantl0, to help i!enti-0 appropriate 2ariables
an! perspe(ti2es -or )se in resear(h 'ith (hil!ren.
Some alternative vie,s about the nature of -rates-. %*ong the parti(ipants at this
(on-eren(e. $ergna)! an! /(h'artH are t'o 'ho ha2e ta>en (onsi!erabl0 !i--erent
points o- 2ie' abo)t the *ost essential (hara(teristi(s that !isting)ish rates an!
ratios.
$ergna)! (198", this 2ol)*e) -ollo's a tra!ition establishe! b0 the earl0 Uree>s&
rates are !e-ine! as ha2ing to !o 'ith 3)antities in t'o !i--erent *eas)re spa(es
(e.g., "C *iles7F ho)rs), 'hereas ratios are !e-ine! as ha2ing to !o 'ith 3)antities
'ithin a single *eas)re spa(e (e.g., 1F (oo>ies71C (oo>ies). The Uree>s -a2ore!
this perspe(ti2e be(a)se the0 'ere parti()larl0 intereste! in 'a0s that earlier
'hole#n)*ber#base! *eas)re*ent (on(epts -lo'e! into the !o*ain o- rational
n)*bers an! rational e4pressions. $ergna)!, being a !e2elop*ental ps0(hologist,
no !o)bt -a2ors this perspe(ti2e -or si*ilar reasons.
Bap)t, L)>e, Pohols>0, an! /a0er (198R) an! /(h'artH (198", this 2ol)*e) -ollo' a
tra!ition si*ilar to Ua)ss. This position is re-le(te! to!a0 b0 Are)!enthal (19E"),
Lebes3)e (19RR), .hitne0 (19R8a: 19R8b) an! other *athe*ati(ians 'ho ha2e
been less (on(erne! abo)t re(on(iling rational n)*ber (on(epts 'ith lo'er or!er
'hole#n)*ber#base! (on(epts an! *ore (on(erne! abo)t -in!ing lin>s to higher
or!er topi(s relate! to 2ario)s t0pes o- -)n(tions an! *ore (o*ple4 *eas)re
spa(es. Theirs is base! on a *athe*ati(s o- 3)antit0 as (ontraste! 'ith the *ore
17
(o**onl0 )se! *athe*ati(s o- n)*ber. Bap)t an! /(h'artH begin 'ith a
!istin(tion bet'een t'o basi( t0pes o- 3)antities&

(a) 4tensi2e 3)antities in(l)!e e4a*ples s)(h as F *iles, F !egrees
(te*perat)re), F !egrees (angle), or F ser2ings (-oo!). 4tensi2e
3)antities tell <ho' *)(h< (i.e., the <e4tent<) o- a 3)antit0 is
asso(iate! 'ith a gi2en obGe(t.
(b) Intensi2e 3)antities (or <per< 3)antities) in(l)!e e4a*ples s)(h as "C
*iles#per#ho)r or "C !ollars#per#ite*. Intensi2e 3)antities !o not tell
<ho' *)(h< o- a gi2en 3)antit0 in absol)te ter*s: instea!, the0
e4press relationships bet'een one 3)antit0 an! one )nit o- another
3)antit0.

+ote that s(alar 3)antities are treate! as spe(ial t0pes o- intensi2e 3)antities in
'hi(h the t'o 3)antities being relate! in2ol2e the sa*e >in! o- )nits& -or e4a*ple,
"C !ollars#per#!ollars (earne!#*one07sa2e!#*one0). %((or!ing to the 2ie' o-
/(h'artH an! Bap)t, a rate is a single (intensi2e) 3)antit0, 'hereas a ratio is a
relationship bet'een t'o 3)antities.
Both $ergna)!Ds an! /(h'artHDs points o- 2ie' a!e3)atel0 (lari-0 iss)es in their
o'n pri*ar0 areas o- interest b)t ea(h lea!s to a*big)ities 'hen e4ten!e! to the
otherDs area o- interest. Aor e4a*ple, a((or!ing to /(h'artH an! Bap)t, sho)l! <"C
*iles7F ho)rs< be (onsi!ere! a rate (a single intensi2e 3)antit0) or a ratio (a
relationship bet'een t'o 3)antities) or a 3)otient (an operation in2ol2ing t'o
3)antities)N %((or!ing to $ergna)!, !oes <" ,ana!ian#6ollars7; 1./. 6ollars<
in2ol2e t'o *eas)res 'ithin a single *eas)re spa(e (a ratio) or t'o !i--erent
*eas)re spa(es (a rate)N .hat abo)t <= 3)arters71 !ollar<N
?ne !i--i()lt0 'ith the Uree> perspe(ti2e has to !o 'ith !eter*ining 'hen t'o
*eas)re spa(es are the sa*e. .hat i- a single 3)antit0 is *eas)re! )sing se2eral
!i--erent )nits as in the e4a*ples abo2eN ?r 'hat i- a single )nit is )se! to
*eas)re t'o !i--erent t0pes o- 3)antitiesN Aor e4a*ple, in se'ing, a length
*eas)re (e.g., " 0ar!s o- (loth) !es(ribes an area: si*ilar sit)ations o(()r in
(oo>ing, (arpentr0, -ar*ing, an! so on. In -a(t, these >in!s o- sit)ations are
espe(iall0 (o**on in the s(ien(es, 'here in!ire(t *eas)res o- basi( 3)antities
*)st o-ten be )se!, so a )nit o- one t0pe o- 3)antit0 is )se! to *eas)re a se(on!
t0pe o- 3)antit0.
% -)n!a*ental !i--i()lt0 -or ps0(hologists an! e!)(ators is that *athe*ati(ians
ha2e sel!o* ta>en the tro)ble to pro2i!e rigoro)s !e-initions 'hi(h highlight *an0
tas> (hara(teristi(s that are e!)(ationall0 or ps0(hologi(all0 signi-i(ant: this is
be(a)se a *athe*ati(ianDs obGe(ti2e is )s)all0 to -o()s on str)(t)ral si*ilarities
bet'een tas>s rather than on the ps0(hologi(al !istin(tions bet'een the*. /o -or
*an0 tas> (hara(teristi(s 'hi(h are ps0(hologi(all0 signi-i(ant, there !o not e4ist
(orrespon!ing <(orre(t< !e-initions. % nee! -or greater agree*ent an! (onsisten(0
is (lear in *athe*ati(s e!)(ation resear(h an! instr)(tion. The goal o- the ne4t
se(tion is to !es(ribe si*ilarities an! !i--eren(es a*ong rates, ratios, -ra(tions, an!
3)otients )sing lang)age that is s)--i(ientl0 po'er-)l an! (onsistent so that&
18

(a) ?)r (o*p)ter#base! *o!el, P%T ('hi(h stan!s -or <Proble*
Trans-or*erDD), (an pro!)(e appropriate res)lts -or a reasonabl0 large
(lass o- proportional reasoning proble*s.
(b) The *aGor !istin(tions 'hi(h ha2e been note! b0 resear(hers s)(h as
Are)!enthal (198"), Bap)t (198F), Barpl)s et al. (198"a, 198"b),
+oelting (198Ca, 198()h), /tree-lan! (198F), To)rniaire an! P)los
(198F), an! $ergna)! (198") 'ill be ta>en into a((o)nt.

To a((o*plish these goals, 'e 'ill (1) e4ten! $ergna)!Ds perspe(ti2e b0 (lari-0ing
'hen t'o *eas)re spa(es are the sa*e or !i--erent an! (;) e4ten! /(h'artHDs
perspe(ti2e b0 !e-ining -ra(tions, rates, ratios, an! 3)otients in s)(h a 'a0 as to
re*o2e a*big)ities 'ithin the (lass o- proportional reasoning proble*s in s(hool
*athe*ati(s an! s(ien(e te4tboo>s.
% brie- !es(ription o- the P%T (Proble* Trans-or*er) )tilit0. Aor the p)rposes o- this
(hapter, the *ain point to )n!erstan! abo)t P%T is that it 'as !esigne! to enable
st)!ents to <'rite< (i.e., asse*ble -ro* an on#line !i(tionar0, 'hi(h (an be
e4ten!e! gra!)all0) 'or! proble*s li>e those gi2en in their te4tboo>s 'hi(h P%T
then trans-or*s 'hen the st)!ent gi2es (o**an!s s)(h as (1) 1+6RLI+ b0
highlighting the >e0 'or!s an! !ata, (;) P%R%PHR%/ )sing si*pler senten(es an!
no irrele2ant in-or*ation, (") ?1TLI+ )sing a list o- <gi2ens< an! <goals,< (=)
/IMPLIAI b0 presenting the sa*e proble* 'ith si*pler n)*bers, (F) UI$ %+
%+%L?UI 'ith the sa*e str)(t)re in a !i--erent (onte4t, (R) /1B#/TP b0
i!enti-0ing an <inter*e!iate 3)estion< 'hi(h (an be ans'ere! )sing the a2ailable
!ata, (E) B%,B#/TP b0 i!enti-0ing an inter*e!iate 3)estion base! on 'or>ing
ba(>'ar!s -ro* the goals to the gi2ens, (8) M?6L )sing ele(troni( 2ersions o-
'ell#>no'n (on(rete *anip)lati2es, an! (9) %B/TR%,T b0 'riting an algebrai(
e3)ation, -)n(tion, or e4pression to !es(ribe the proble*. It is o)r 2ie' that these
trans-or*ation#relate! s>ills re3)ire! b0 P%T are also i*portant in!i(ators o-
(hil!renDs proportional reasoning abilities.
The (riti(al )n!erstan!ings nee!e! to (reate a )tilit0 s)(h as P%T are those 'hi(h
enable resear(hers to !es(ribe si*ilarities in the )n!erl0ing str)(t)re o- proble*s
('ithin so*e ri(h b)t s)--i(ientl0 si*ple (on(ept)al !o*ain).
% se(on! rele2ant P%T (hara(teristi( is that its (o*p)tational abilities are si*ilar to
those o- /(h'artHDs (198") /M,%L,: that is, P%T re-)ses to allo' st)!ents to enter
e4pressions that ha2e no )nit labels. Aor e4a*ple, i- a st)!ent t0pes in <"< (or "4,
or "a4), P%T respon!s b0 as>ing, <" 'hatsNTT< 'here)pon the st)!ent is pro*pte!
to enter (1) ho' *)(h, (;) the )nit o- *eas)re, an! (") the >in! o- )n!erl0ing
3)antit0, -or e4a*ple, WD" *iles (!istan(e)< or <" *iles#per#ho)r (spee!).<
I- a st)!ent enters <" apples J ; oranges< then (1) i- the >no'le!ge that both
apples an! oranges are -r)its is alrea!0 (ontaine! in P%TDs on#line librar0, P%T 'ill
si*pli-0 this state*ent to <F -r)its,< or (;) i- the librar0 !oes not (ontain the
pre(e!ing in-or*ation, P%T respon!s b0 as>ing <.hat is the relationship bet'een
apples an! orangesN< (*)ltiple (hoi(e)& %ll apples are also oranges. %ll oranges
19
are also apples. %ll apples an! oranges are X-ill in the blan>Y. P%TDs librar0 is then
*o!i-ie! to in(l)!e the ne' in-or*ation gaine! -ro* the st)!entDs response.
.hen P%T is in <(o*p)tation *o!e,< it *anip)lates *athe*ati(al e4pressions,
'hi(h in(l)!e (1) )nit labels (e.g., -eet, *iles per ho)r), (;) 3)antit0 t0pes (e.g.,
length, spee!), (") 2ariables (e.g., 4 an! 0), (=) literal (onstants (e.g., a, b, *),
an! (F) <p)re< n)*bers.
.ractions/ rates/ ratios and 0uotients. Aor o)r p)rposes, t'o *eas)re spa(es 'ill be
(onsi!ere! !i--erent 'hene2er the0 in2ol2e (1) a !i--erent set o- obGe(ts, (;) a
!i--erent t0pe o- )n!erl0ing 3)antit0 (e.g., length, 'eight, ti*e, et(.), (") a
!i--erent )nit o- *eas)re, or (=) a !i--erent s(he*e -or assigning n)*bers (i.e.,
*eas)res) to obGe(ts in the spa(e. Aor e4a*ple, i- st)!ents heights are *eas)re!
in in(hes an! also in -eet then these *eas)re*ents 'ill be (onsi!ere! to be in t'o
!istin(t spa(es, an! the (on2ersion -ro* one t0pe o- )nit to the other 'ill be
treate! as a *apping (or trans-or*ation or translation) -ro* one *eas)re spa(e to
another.
.ith the pre(e!ing )n!erstan!ings in *in!, -ra(tions, rates, ratios, an! 3)otients
(an be !isting)ishe! a((or!ing to 'hether the0 are (1) single (e4tensi2e or
intensi2e) 3)antities, (;) relationships bet'een pairs o- 3)antities, or (") operations
per-or*e! on pairs o- 3)antities. These !istin(tions are (riti(al to a si*ple#*in!e!
st)!ent s)(h as P%T, be(a)se the r)les -or (o*bining (or lin>ing or a!!ing) are
o-ten 3)ite !i--erent !epen!ing on 'hether the <obGe(ts< being operate! on are
3)antities, relations, or operations It is i*portant to e*phasiHe that the -ollo'ing
!e-initions 'ere re3)ire! in or!er that P%T not pro!)(e gibberish. ?)r p)rpose is to
raise the 3)estion as to 'hether P%TDs re3)ire*ents ha2e i*pli(ations -or -)t)re
resear(h 'ith (hil!ren. .e thin> the ans'er *a0 be 0es. The !e-initions 'hi(h
-ollo' ha2e the (onsisten(0 ne(essar0 -or P%T b)t are not ne(essaril0 ones 'hi(h
'e are a!2o(ating -or general )sage.

(a) Ara(tions are spe(ial >in!s o- e4tensi2e 3)antities: the0 tell the siHe o-
a single obGe(t, -or e4a*ple, "7= piHHa.
+ote& (1) P%T reall0 interprets <"7= piHHa< as <" -o)rths#piHHa,< 'here <-o)rths#
piHHa< is the )nit o- *eas)re, an! " tells the siHe o- the obGe(t being *eas)re!. /o
<" -o)rths#piHHa< is treate! in the sa*e 'a0 as <" (enti*eters.< (;) Mathe*ati(all0,
a 3)antit0 li>e <" -o)rths#piHHa< (an be represente! as a point on an integer
n)*ber line, 'hi(h is labele! )sing )nits o- <-o)rths#piHHa< (see Aig)re =).
(b) Rates are intensi2e 3)antities: the0 (an be re(ogniHe! b0 the <per< in
their )nit labels, -or e4a*ple, " *iles#per#ho)r. Ara(tional rates s)(h
as <"7= *iles#per#ho)r< (an be interprete! in a straight-or'ar! 'a0
as <" -o)rth#*iles#per#ho)r.<
+ote& (1) /o*e a)thors re-er to <)nit rates< an! to <non#)nit rates.< Ho'e2er,
a((or!ing to the ter*inolog0 )se! here (an! P%TDs re3)ire*ents), onl0 )nit#rates
'ill be (alle! rates. Re(all that an0 !i2ision o- t'o e4tensi2e 3)antities 'ill pro!)(e
a )nit rate, -or e4a*ple, = ha*b)rgers7; persons 8 ; ha*b)rgers per person, or
"C *iles71C ho)rs 8 " *iles per ho)r. Th)s an0 in!i(ate! (o*parison (%7B) o- t'o
3)antities (an be (on2erte! to a )nit rate an! e4presse! in the *ore )s)al -or* <so
*an0 %Ds per 1 B< b0 si*pl0 (arr0ing thro)gh 'ith the in!i(ate! !i2ision. P%T,
20
ho'e2er, is *ore (o*-ortable 'ith the interpretation o- rates being restri(te! to
)nit rates. (;) Mathe*ati(all0, a 3)antit0 s)(h as <" *iles#per#ho)r< (an again be
represente! as a point on an integer n)*ber line, 'hi(h is labele! )sing )nits o-
<*iles#per#ho)r< (see Aig)re F).
(() Ratios are binar0 relations 'hi(h in2ol2e or!ere! pairs o- 3)antities
(o- either the e4tensi2e, intensi2e, or s(alar t0pes).
+ote& Mathe*ati(all0, a relation bet'een t'o *eas)re spa(es, P an! B, is )s)all0
represente! )sing or!ere! pairs (or e3)i2alen(e (lasses o- or!er pairs) in the
*eas)re spa(e -or*e! b0 the (ross#pro!)(t P4B (seeAig)re R).
(!) Z)otients are binar0 operations 'hi(h (o*bine t'o 3)antities
(e4tensi2e, intensi2e, or s(alar) b0 *apping the* to a 3)antit0 in a
thir! *eas)re spa(e.

+ote& (1) I- t'o e4tensi2e 3)antities are *appe! to an intensi2e 3)antit0, then the
operation is o-ten (alle! a <partiti2e< !i2ision (e.g., " piHHas7= bo0s "7= piHHas#
per#bo0). (;) I- an e4tensi2e an! an intensi2e 3)antit0 are *appe! to an e4tensi2e
3)antit0, the operation is o-ten (alle! a <3)otiti2e< !i2ision (e.g., " piHHas7 ("7=
piHHas#per#bo0) = bo0s). (") Mathe*ati(all0, a binar0 operation -ro* t'o
*eas)re spa(es P an! B into a thir! *eas)re spa(e / is )s)all0 represente! as a
*apping -ro* P4B into /.
%ll -o)r t0pes o- rational e4pressions (an be seen in !i--erent regions o- !iagra*s
s)(h as Aig)re E. Aor e4a*ple& (1) be(a)se -ra(tion an! rates are both 3)antities,
the0 'ill o(()r as a4es relate! to P, B, or /: (;) be(a)se ratios are relations, the0
'ill o(()r as points in P4B: an! (") be(a)se 3)otients are operations, the0 'ill
o(()r as *appings -ro* P an! B into /.


Aig)re =.
Integer n)*ber line labele! )sing )nits o-
-o)rths#piHHa.
(ret)rn)


21
Aig)re F.
Integer n)*ber line labele! )sing )nits o-
*iles#per#ho)r.
(ret)rn)


Aig)re R.
Meas)re spa(e -or*e! b0 the (ross#pro!)(t
P4B.
(ret)rn)


Aig)re E.
Mapping -ro* t'o *eas)re spa(es P an! B in to a thir! *eas)re
22
spa(e /.
(ret)rn)

%t an e2en higher le2el o- abstra(tion, all -o)r basi( t0pes o- rational e4pressions
(-ra(tions, rates, ratios, an! 3)otients) (an be represente! )sing a single
*athe*ati(al *o!el, a ho*ogeneo)s spa(e (onsisting o- "4" *atri(es. ?bGe(ts,
relations, operations, an! trans-or*ations (an all be represente! as *atri(es 'ithin
this single 2e(tor spa(e. Aro* an int)iti2e point o- 2ie', this is not s)rprising
be(a)se, -or e4a*ple, e2en tho)gh -ra(tions an! rates both re-er to single
3)antities, both also i*pli(itl0 in2ol2e (o*parisons bet'een t'o 3)antities. Aor
-ra(tions (e.g., "7= piHHa), the (o*parison is (on(eale! 'ithin the <n)*ber hal-< o-
the e4pression (e.g., "7=), 'hereas -or rates, the relationship is (on(eale! in the
<)nits hal-< o- the e4pression (e.g., piHHas#per#bo0). The relationship that is
(on(eale! 'ithin " -o)rths#piHHa is bet'een the siHe o- the )nit (i.e., a -o)rth#piHHa)
an! the siHe o- the obGe(t being *eas)re! (i.e., ").
Aro* a ps0(hologi(al perspe(ti2e, there are !angers in the pre(e!ing >in!s o-
*athe*ati(al generalit0. It sho)l! not !e(ei2e )s into belie2ing that G)st be(a)se
rates, ratios, 3)otients, an! -ra(tions (an all be interprete! as e3)i2alent t0pes o-
obGe(ts (in a "4" 2e(tor spa(e), the0 are 2ie'e! as e3)i2alent b0 0o)ng st)!ents.
Aor e4a*ple, it is onl0 at a rather sophisti(ate! le2el o- )n!erstan!ing that a rate
s)(h as <three#-o)rths *iles#per#ho)r< is (onsi!ere! to be e3)i2alent to the ratio
<three *iles to -o)r ho)rs.<
?perations 'ith -ra(tions, rates, ratios, an! 3)otients. %((or!ing to the !e-initions
o- -ra(tions, rates, ratios, an! 3)otients that ha2e been gi2en here, so*e'hat
!i--erent r)les appl0 to the -o)r basi( t0pes o- rational e4pressions 'hen 'e a!!
the*, *)ltipl0 the*, or e3)ate the*. /o, to en! this (hapter, e4a*ples 'ill be
gi2en to sho' ho' P%T !eals 'ith so*e o- these !i--eren(es at the (o*p)tational
phase.
Be(a)se -ra(tions an! rates are 3)antities, the0 (an be a!!e! an! *)ltiplie! )sing
the stan!ar! r)les that appl0 to si*pler t0pes o- 3)antities. Aor e4a*ple&

(1)?nl0 3)antities 'hi(h are in the sa*e *eas)re spa(e (an be a!!e!.
" %PPL/ J ; %PPL/ 8 F %PPL/
" MIL/#PR#H?1R J ; MIL/#PR#H?1R 8 F MIL/#PR H?1R
(;)I- t'o 3)antities are in !i--erent b)t relate! *eas)re spa(es, then
the0 *)st be *appe! into the sa*e *eas)re spa(e be-ore the0 (an
be a!!e!.
" A?1RTH/#PI[[% ; THIR6/#PI[[%

9 T.LATH/#PI[[% J 8 T.LATH/#PI[[%
+ote& The abilit0 to trans-or* bet'een <relate!< *eas)re spa(es is a
(riti(al s>ill in the pre(e!ing operations.
23
(")The stan!ar! r)les -or a!!ition )s)all0 !o not *a>e sense -or ratios
(i.e., or!ere! pairs o- 3)antities). Aor e4a*ple, 'hat 'o)l! it *ean to
<a!!< a bo0#to#piHHa ratio o- t'o#to#three to a bo0#to#piHHa ratio o-
three#to#-o)rN /e2enteen#to#t'el2e 'o)l! not be a sensible ans'er.
(=)Z)antities -ro* !i--erent *eas)re spa(es (an be *)ltiplie! )sing the
)s)al r)les o- *)ltipli(ation (altho)gh the res)lts *a0 or *a0 not
ha2e <sensible< interpretations).
F M+ 4 " H?1R/#?A#.?RB 8 1F M%+9H?1R/#?A#.?RB
F MIL/#PR#H?1R 4 " H?1R/ 8 1F MIL/
F AT 4 " AT 8 1F AT 4 AT 8 1F AT
;
8 1F /Z1%R#AT

+ote& %n e4tensi2e 3)antit0 ti*es another e4tensi2e 3)antit0 (orrespon!s to the
<(ross#pro!)(t< interpretation o- *)ltipli(ation an! an e4tensi2e 3)antit0 ti*es an
intensi2e 3)antit0 (orrespon!s to <repeate! a!!ition.<
Part o- the goal in )sing a (o*p)ter#base! *o!el s)(h as P%T is to *a>e e4pli(it
(ertain tho)ght pro(esses 'hi(h *a0 be i*portant in (hil!renDs thin>ing, e2en
tho)gh these pro(esses *a0 be )se! onl0 i*pli(itl0 or 'itho)t *)(h re-le(tion.
%re )nit labels an! trans-or*ations a*ong *eas)re spa(es an! (on2ersions a*ong
the 2ario)s t0pes o- rational e4pressions reall0 as i*portant as P%TDs sol)tions
see* to s)ggestN In general, o)r resear(h s)ggests that the ans'er is <0es<:
translations a*ong 2ario)s 3)antit0 t0pes an! (on2ersions a*ong 2ario)s <rational
e4pression< t0pes (rates, ratios, 3)otients an! -ra(tions) appear to be real
ps0(hologi(al -a(tors. /t)!entsD abilities to !o <)nit label arith*eti(< an! to s'it(h
-le4ibl0 -ro* one t0pe o- rational e4pression to another, 'ere, in o)r 'or>,
parti()larl0 reliable in!i(ators o- e2er0!a0 proble* sol2ing abilit0. .e s)spe(t that
the n)*ber o- (on2ersion#relate! steps that P%T ta>es to sol2e a proble* is an
e4(ellent pre!i(tor o- ite* !i--i()lt0.
The *ost i*portant tas> (hara(teristi(s re3)ire! b0 P%T to generate <si*ilar
proble*s< are those !ire(tl0 relate! to )nit t0pes an! to rational e4pression t0pes

S!MMARY

In this (hapter, 'e ha2e atte*pte! to !e2elop a (oherent -ra*e'or> 'hi(h -o()ses
attention on the *aGor insights that ha2e e2ol2e! o)t o- past resear(h on
proportional reasoning. .e ha2e also atte*pte! to -o()s attention on so*e
negle(te! (ategories o- tas>s an! to s)ggest a -e' ne' ones -or in2estigation in
-)t)re resear(h an! !e2elop*ent. .e ga2e attention to (lari-0ing lang)age
!i--i()lties be(a)se, in the !o*ain o- proportional reasoning, (on-)sing an!
in(onsistent ter*inolog0 are serio)s i*pe!i*ents to -)t)re progress.
.hether 'e loo>e! at proportional reasoning as a (apstone o- ele*entar0
*athe*ati(s or as a (ornerstone o- a!2an(e! *athe*ati(s, si*ilar the*es
appeare!. These in2ariabl0 ha! to !o 'ith trans-or*ations an! e3)i2alen(es an!
24
'ith translations 'ithin an! a*ong 2ario)s *eas)re*ent s0ste*s an!
representation s0ste*s.
%ltho)gh !e2elop*ental ps0(hologists ha2e ten!e! to spea> o- proportional
reasoning as tho)gh it 'ere a global abilit0 relate! to so*e general (ogniti2e
str)(t)re, *athe*ati(s e!)(ation resear(h (learl0 sho's that the e2ol)tion o-
proportional reasoning is (hara(teriHe! b0 a gra!)al in(rease in lo(al (o*peten(e.
It is o)r perspe(ti2e that resear(h (hara(teriHe! b0 lo(al (on(ept)al !e2elop*ent
'ill pro2i!e (riti(al insights abo)t the *e(hanis*s b0 'hi(h (hil!ren e2ol2e to
higher or!er -or*s o- reasoning. Proportional reasoning see*s to be an espe(iall0
pro!)(ti2e resear(h area -or st)!0ing this pheno*enon.

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%,B+?.L6UM+T/
This resear(h 'as s)pporte! in part b0 the +ational /(ien(e Ao)n!ation )n!er grant
+o. 6P#8=Et51EE. %n0 opinions, -in!ings an! (on(l)sions e4presse! are those o-
the a)thors an! !o not ne(essaril0 re-le(t the 2ie's o- the +ational /(ien(e
Ao)n!ation.(top)
28