VI - Self Study Exam Preparatory Note-Part 2

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang
ASNT Level III VT- Reading 2

Pre-Exam Preparatory Notes
My Self Study Notes 2014 August
Reading 2
Pump:
A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries,
by mechanical action. Pumps can be classified into three major groups
according to the method they use to move the fluid: direct lift, displacement,
and gravity pumps. Pumps operate by some mechanism (typically
reciprocating or rotary), and consume energy to perform mechanical work by
moving the fluid. Pumps operate via many energy sources, including manual
operation, electricity, engines, or wind power, come in many sizes, from
microscopic for use in medical applications to large industrial pumps.
Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications such as pumping
water from wells, aquarium filtering, pond filtering and aeration, in the car
industry for water-cooling and fuel injection, in the energy industry for
pumping oil and natural gas or for operating cooling towers. In the medical
industry, pumps are used for biochemical processes in developing and
manufacturing medicine, and as artificial replacements for body parts, in
particular the artificial heart and penile prosthesis.
Dynamic & Displacement Pumps
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Differences_between_dynamic_pump_and_positive_displacement_pump
The main difference between them is the way that energy is added to the fluid
to be converted to pressure increase. In dynamic pumps, energy is added to
the fluid continuously through the rotary motion of the blades. These rotating
blades raise the momentum of fluid and the momentum then is converted to
pressure energy through diffuser in pump outlet. In positive displacement
pumps, the energy is added periodically to the fluid. the pump has
reciprocating motion by pistons for example. When the fluid enters the pump
through valves, the reciprocating piston begins to press the fluid resulting in
going out of the pump with pressure rise.
Type of positive displacement pumps: gear pump, crescent gear pump, axial-
piston pump, radial-piston pump, linear-piston pump, & vane pump
Also, fuel injection pumps such as linear piston pumps and rotary piston
pumps.
Centrifugal Pumps
The pump impeller rotates within the pump housing (sometimes called the
volute), thus causing a reduced pressure at the inlet (suction) side of the
pump. The rotary motion of the impeller drives the fluid to the outside of the
pump volute, increasing its pressure, and sending it out of the pump
discharge, as shown in the diagram.
Both of these diagrams show a radial flow centrifugal pump, which has the
flow pattern just described above. This is the most common centrifugal pump
flow pattern. Another alternative is the axial flow centrifugal pump, which has
an impeller shaped somewhat like a propeller, that draws fluid in along the
pump axis and sends it out along the axis at the other side of the pump.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Flexible_impeller_pump.gif
Centrifugal Pump Displacement pump
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pump
Seismic snubbers
Seismic snubbers
Forging: Rolling Defects Hear what the Expert say
http://pmpaspeakingofprecision.com/tag/tears/
Miles Free
Forging: Rolled-in-Scales
Pre-rolled
scale
Rolled-in-Scale
Scabs
Scabs
Scabs are irregularly shaped, flattened protrusions caused by splash, boiling
or other problems from teeming, casting, or conditioning.-AISI Technical
Committee on Rod and Bar Mills, Detection, Classification, and Elimination of
Rod and Bar Surface Defect
(Teeming refers to the process of filling an ingot mold with molten steel from
the ladle. Well point out some continuous casting analogs later in this post.)
Scabs have scale and irregular surfaces beneath them; they tend to be round
or oval shaped and concentrated to only certain blooms or billets. Scabs are
always the same chemistry as the steel bloom or billet.
(If the gross irregular surface protrusion characteristic is appearing on all
product, it is not likely to be a scab. If the protrusion is a different analysis, it is
likely to be mill shearing.)
To differentiate between scabs and rolled in scale, scabs are ductile when
bent while scale is brittle and crumbles.
If the protrusion is brittle, it may be rolled in scale.
Scabs
Slivers
Slivers On Rolled Steel Products Slivers are elongated pieces of metal
attached to the base metal at one end only. They normally have been hot
worked into the surface and are common to low strength grades which are
easily torn, especially grades with high sulfur, lead and copper.- AISI
Technical Committee on Rod and Bar Mills, Detection, Classification, and
Elimination of Rod and Bar Surface Defects
Slivers are loose or torn segments of steel that have been rolled into the
surface of the bar.
Slivers are often mistaken for shearing, scabs, and laps.
surface of the bar.
surface of the bar.
Slivers often originate from short rolled out point defects or defects which
were not removed by conditioning.
Billet conditioning that results in fins or deep ridges have also been found to
cause slivers and should be avoided. Feathering of deep conditioning edges
can help to alleviate their occurrence.
Slivers often appeared on mills operating at higher rolling speeds.
When the frequency and severity of sliver occurrence varies between
heats, grades, or orders, that is a clue that the slivers probably did not
originate in the mill. Slivers are often mistaken for shearing, scabs and lap.
Seams On Rolled Steel Products
Seams are longitudinal crevices that are tight or even closed at the surface,
but are not welded shut. They are close to radial in orientation and can
originate in steelmaking, primary rolling, or on the bar or rod mill.- AISI
Technical Committee on Rod and Bar Mills, Detection, Classification, and
Elimination of Rod and Bar Surface Defects
Seams may be present in the billet due to non-metallic inclusions, cracking,
tears, subsurface cracking or porosity. During continuous casting loss of mold
level control can promote a host of out of control conditions which can reseal
while in the mold but leave a weakened surface. Seam frequency is higher in
resulfurized steels compared to non-resulfurized grades. Seams are generally
less frequent in fully deoxidized steels.
Seams can be detected visually by eye, and magnaglo methods; electronic
means involving eddy current (mag testing or rotobar) can find seams both
visible and not visible to the naked eye. Magnaflux methods are generally
reserved for billet and bloom inspection.
Seams are straight and can vary in length- often the length of several bars-
due to elongation of the product (and the initiating imperfection!) during rolling.
Bending a bar can reveal the presence of surface defects like seams.
An upset test (compressing a short piece of the steel to expand its diameter)
will split longitudinally where a seam is present.
These long, straight, tight, linear defects are the result of gasses or bubbles
formed when the steel solidified. Rolling causes these to lengthen as the steel
is lengthened. Seams are dark, closed, but not welded- my 1986 J unior
Metallurgist definition taken from my lab notebook. Weve a bit more
sophisticated view of the causes now.
The frequency of seams appearing can help to define the cause. Randomly
within a rolling, seams are likely due to incoming billets. A definite pattern to
the seams indicates that the seams were likely mill induced- as a result of
wrinkling associated with the section geometry. However a pattern related to
repetitious conditioning could also testify to billet and conditioning causation-
failure to remove the original defect, or associated with a repetitive grinding
injury or artifact during conditioning.
My rule of thumb was that if it was straight, longitudinal, and when filed
showed up dark against the brighter base metal it was a seam.
Rejection criteria are subject to negotiation with your supplier, as are
detection limits for various inspection methods, but remember that since
seams can occur anywhere on a rolled product, stock removal allowance is
applied on a per side basis.
If you absolutely must be seam free, you should order turned and polished or
cold drawn, turned and polished material. The stock removal assures that the
seamy outer material has been removed.
Metallurgical note: seams can be a result of propogation of cracks formed
when the metal soidifies, changes phase or is hot worked. Billet caused
seams generally exhibit more pronounced decarburization.
Laps On Rolled Steel Products
Laps are longitudinal crevices at least 30 degrees off radial, created by
folding over, but not welding material during hot working (rolling). A
longitudinal discontinuity in the bar may exist prior to folding over but the
defect generally is developed at the mill.- AISI Technical Committee on Rod
and Bar Mills, Detection, Classification, and Elimination of Rod and Bar
Surface Defects
http://pmpaspeakingofprecision.com/2012/05/15/laps-on-rolled-steel-products/
Laps On Rolled Steel Products
Laps: In plain language, a lap is a rolled over condition in a bar where a
sharp over fill or fin has been formed and subsequently rolled back into the
bars surface.
Laps: An etch of the full section shows what is going on in the mill. Laps were
often related to poor section quality on incoming billets, although overfill
scratches, conditioning gouges from chippinghave also been shown to
cause laps.
Laps: Laps are often confused with slivers, and mill shearing which we
shall describe and post soon. The term lap seam is sometimes used, but it
is careless usage; it implies the lap is caused by a seam it is not; a seam is
a longitudinally oriented imperfection, and so is used in this mongrel term as
a shorthand way of saying longitudinal.
Modern speakers sometimes try to use the word lamination to describe laps
but as we will see, not all lamination type imperfections are laps
Cross section of steel bar exhibiting laps (white angular linear indications).
When two laps are present 180 degrees apart, the depth to which they are
folded over can indicate where in the rolling the initial over fill ocurred. White
indicates decarburization, which confirms my interpretation that this lapping
occurred early in the rolling.
Central Bursts, Chevroning in Cold Drawn and Extruded Steels
In cold worked steels, failures can be broadly categorized in two categories.
The first, are those nucleated by localized defects- such as seams, pipe, and
exogenous inclusions. The second, are those which result from exceeding the
strength of the material itself.
The compressive stresses of cold working results in failures by shear along
planes 45 degrees to the applied stress. These are known as shear failures.
The presence of shear failures in an otherwise metallurgically normal material
indicates excessive mechanical deformation. While often the result of tooling
issues, conditions which lower material ductility including chemistry,
macrostructure, nonmetallics, microstructure, aging, and hydrogen
embrittlement have also been implicated in investigations of premature shear
failure.
http://pmpaspeakingofprecision.com/tag/steel-defects/
This post will focus on the central Bursts in the product of cold drawn steel,
especially from the point of view of a shop making parts on automated
equipment.
Ignoring the steel factors that may play a role in triggering the central bursts
or chevrons, the role of tooling is usually considered to be the root cause, as
replacement of dies typically eliminates the central bursting.
A bar which exhibited central bursting was saw cut lengthwise to show the
internal ruptures.
Burst- Chevron
Chevron
About Glaring:
Polarization: (also polarisation) is a property of waves that can oscillate with
more than one orientation. Electromagnetic waves such as light exhibit
polarization, as do some other types of wave, such as gravitational waves.
Sound waves in a gas or liquid do not exhibit polarization, since the oscillation
is always in the direction the wave travels.
In an electromagnetic wave, both the electric field and magnetic field are
oscillating but in different directions; by convention the "polarization" of light
refers to the polarization of the electric field. Light which can be approximated
as a plane wave in free space or in an isotropic medium propagates as a
transverse waveboth the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to
the wave's direction of travel.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Rising_circular.gif/200px-Rising_circular.gif
About Bolt
Bolt Naming
Bolt Naming
About Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry
Borescope
Objective lens
Relay lens
Eye pieces
Borescope
Objective lens
Relay lens
Eye pieces
Borescope
Diffraction
refers to various phenomena which occur when a wave encounters an
obstacle or a slit. In classical physics, the diffraction phenomenon is
described as the interference of waves according the Huygens Fresnel
principle. These characteristic behaviors are exhibited when a wave
encounters an obstacle or a slit that is comparable in size to its wavelength.
Similar effects occur when a light wave travels through a mediumwith a
varying refractive index, or when a sound wave travels through a medium with
varying acoustic impedance. Diffraction occurs with all waves, including
sound waves, water waves, and electromagnetic waves such as visible light,
X-rays and radio waves.
Since physical objects have wave-like properties (at the atomic level),
diffraction also occurs with matter and can be studied according to the
principles of quantum mechanics. Italian scientist Francesco Maria Grimaldi
coined the word "diffraction" and was the first to record accurate observations
of the phenomenon in 1660.
Diffraction
Diffraction
http://physicshelp.co.uk/images/waves/single-slit.gif
Diffraction
Diffraction
Diffraction
Diffraction
Diffraction
Diffraction
Diffraction
Optical filters
are devices that selectively transmit light of different wavelengths, usually
implemented as plane glass or plastic devices in the optical path which are
either dyed in the bulk or have interference coatings.
Filters mostly belong to one of two categories. The simplest, physically, is the
absorptive filter; interference or dichroic filters can be quite complex.
Optical filters selectively transmit light in a particular range of wavelengths,
that is, colours, while blocking the remainder. They can usually pass long
wavelengths only (longpass), short wavelengths only (shortpass), or a band
of wavelengths, blocking both longer and shorter wavelengths (bandpass).
The passband may be narrower or wider; the transition or cutoff between
maximal and minimal transmission can be sharp or gradual. There are filters
with more complex transmission characteristic, for example with two peaks
rather than a single band;[1] these are more usually older designs traditionally
used for photography; filters with more regular characteristics are used for
scientific and technical work
Optical Filters
Borescope
Item#: E-TS083250-OZ2X
Type: Ocular zoom with 1 to 2x adjustable magnification
Diameter: 8mm (.236")
Working Length: 32cm (12.59")
Field of View: 50
Direction of View: Variable Viewing from 45-115
32 mm diameter standard eyepiece (1.259")
Full metal handle
Focus adjustment
Multilayer coated optical components
Removable connectors for compatibility with other brands of light cables
Optical systems optimized for each instrument diameter
FEATURES INCLUDE
Focusing Ring
Scanning Ring: 45 fore-oblique to 115 retrograde direction of view.
Viewing arc: 20 fore-oblique to 140 retrograde.
Viewing orientation touch indictator
Viewing orientation index in the image
PVC Case
Level II- Notes
My self Study Notes
About Steel Ingots
Steel Ingots
Steel Ingots
Steel Ingots
Stainless Steel Ingots
Level II Question on Ingot (my mistake)
Q49: An inherent discontinuity associated with the original solidification of
metal in the ingot is called:
a) A seam
b) Thermal fatigues
c) Hot tear (wrong! )
d) Porosity
Ingot Discontinuities
http://products.asminternational.org/fach/data/fullDisplay.do?database=faco&record=2081&trim=false
Ingot Discontinuities
http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=structure_of_killed_steel_ingot&DokuWiki=00c51b3aea35614ea05a35fd92dee0c3
Metal More Reading
http://www.substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=metals
Metal More Reading
Nondestructive Examination (NDE) Technology and Codes
Student Manual
Chapter 3.0
Classification and Interpretation of Indications
http://pbadupws.nrc.gov/docs/ML1214/ML12146A174.pdf
http://pbadupws.nrc.gov/docs/
Bimetallic Thermometer:
A temperature-measuring instrument in which the differential thermal
expansion of thin, dissimilar metals, bonded together into a narrow strip and
coiled into the shape of a helix or spiral, is used to actuate a pointer. Also
known as differential thermometer.
Read more: http://www.answers.com/topic/bimetallic-thermometer#ixzz3BJ 3QtCnY
Bimetallic Thermometer:
Hyperthermia is elevated body temperature due to failed thermoregulation
that occurs when a body produces or absorbs more heat than it dissipates.
Extreme temperature elevation then becomes a medical emergency requiring
immediate treatment to prevent disability or death.
The most common causes include heat stroke and adverse reactions to drugs.
The former is an acute temperature elevation caused by exposure to
excessive heat, or combination of heat and humidity, that overwhelms the
heat-regulating mechanisms. The latter is a relatively rare side effect of many
drugs, particularly those that affect the central nervous system. Malignant
hyperthermia is a rare complication of some types of general anesthesia.
Hyperthermia can also be deliberately induced using drugs or medical
devices and may be used in the treatment of some kinds of cancer and other
conditions, most commonly in conjunction with radiotherapy.[1]
Hyperthermia differs from fever in that the body's temperature set point
remains unchanged. The opposite is hypothermia, which occurs when the
temperature drops below that required to maintain normal metabolism.
Hyperthermia Treatment
Sitting in a bathtub of tepid or cool water (immersion method) can remove a
significant amount of heat in a relatively short period of time. A recent study
using normal volunteers has shown that cooling rates were fastest when the
coldest water was used".
In exertional heat stroke, studies have shown that although there are practical
limitations, cool water immersion is the most effective cooling technique and
the biggest predictor of outcome is degree and duration of hyperthermia. No
superior cooling method has been found for non-exertional heat stroke. When
the body temperature reaches about 40 C, or if the affected person is
unconscious or showing signs of confusion, hyperthermia is considered a
medical emergency that requires treatment in a proper medical facility. In a
hospital, more aggressive cooling measures are available, including
intravenous hydration, gastric lavage with iced saline, and even hemodialysis
to cool the blood.
Photometry & Radioscopy
Photometry is the science of the measurement of light, in terms of its
perceived brightness to the human eye.[1] It is distinct from radiometry, which
is the science of measurement of radiant energy (including light) in terms of
absolute power. In modern photometry, the radiant power at each wavelength
is weighted by a luminosity function that models human brightness sensitivity.
Typically, this weighting function is the photopic sensitivity function, although
the scotopic function or other functions may also be applied in the same way.
In optics, radiometry is a set of techniques for measuring electromagnetic
radiation, including visible light. Radiometric techniques characterize the
distribution of the radiation's power in space, as opposed to photometric
techniques, which characterize the light's interaction with the human eye.
Radiometry is distinct from quantum techniques such as photon counting.
Radiometry is important in astronomy, especially radio astronomy, and plays
a significant role in Earth remote sensing. The measurement techniques
categorized as radiometry in optics are called photometry in some
astronomical applications, contrary to the optics usage of the term.
Spectroradiometry is the measurement of absolute radiometric quantities in
narrow bands of wavelength
Stroboscope
A stroboscope, also known as a strobe, is an instrument used to make a
cyclically moving object appear to be slow-moving, or stationary. The
principle is used for the study of rotating, reciprocating, oscillating or vibrating
objects. Machine parts and vibrating strings are common examples.
Intense flashing/pulsing light of various frequencies can trigger epileptic
seizures in people who suffer from photosensitive epilepsy.
A stroboscope
Photometry & Radiometry: Photometry is the science of the measurement
of light, in terms of its perceived brightness to the human eye.It is distinct from
radiometry, which is the science of measurement of radiant energy (including
light) in terms of absolute power.
In modern photometry, the radiant power at each wavelength is weighted by a
luminosity function that models human brightness sensitivity. Typically, this
weighting function is the photopic sensitivity function, although the scotopic
function or other functions may also be applied in the same way.
Photopic (daytime-adapted, black curve) and scotopic (darkness-adapted,
green curve) luminosity functions. The photopic includes the CIE 1931
standard (solid), the J udd-Vos 1978 modified data (dashed), and the
Sharpe, Stockman, J agla & J gle 2005 data (dotted). The horizontal axis is
wavelength in nm.
Photopic
scotopic
Color
Color or colour (see spelling differences) is the visual perceptual property
corresponding in humans to the categories called red, blue, yellow, green and
others. Color derives from the spectrum of light (distribution of light power
versus wavelength) interacting in the eye with the spectral sensitivities of the
light receptors. Because perception of color stems from the varying spectral
sensitivity of different types of cone cells in the retina to different parts of the
spectrum, colors may be defined and quantified by the degree to which they
stimulate these cells. These physical or physiological quantifications of color,
however, do not fully explain the psychophysical perception of color
appearance.
The science of color is sometimes called chromatics, colorimetry, or simply
color science. It includes the perception of color by the human eye and brain,
the origin of color in materials, color theory in art, and the physics of
electromagnetic radiation in the visible range (that is, what we commonly refer
to simply as light).
Color
Additive color is light created by mixing together light of two or more different
colors. Red, green, and blue are the additive primary colors normally used in
additive color systems such as projectors and computer terminals.
Subtractive coloring uses dyes, inks, and pigments to absorb some
wavelengths of light and not others. The color that a surface displays comes
from the parts of the visible spectrum that are not absorbed and therefore
remain visible. Without pigments or dye, fabric fibers, paint base and paper
are usually made of particles that scatter white light (all colors) well in all
directions. When a pigment or ink is added, wavelengths are absorbed or
"subtracted" from white light, so light of another color reaches the eye.
If the light is not a pure white source (the
case of nearly all forms of artificial lighting),
the resulting spectrum will appear a slightly
different color. Red paint, viewed under blue
light, may appear black. Red paint is red
because it scatters only the red components
of the spectrum. If red paint is illuminated by
blue light, it will be absorbed by the red paint,
creating the appearance of a black object.
Metallurgical Microscope
An optical microscope that is commonly use on the studies and observation of
metals, ceramic and polymeric materials, plastics, minerals, precious stones,
alloys and many other substances are known as Metallurgical Microscope. It
differs from other microscope because it provides you a closer view on flat
and highly polished surfaces like metals.
This type of microscope is often use on Metallography, Archaeometallurgy,
Crystallography and Gemology. Metallography is an ocular observation using
metallurgical microscope on metal surfaces that can discovers relevant
information about crystals, chemicals, minerals and the mechanical
composition of the matter.
Metallurgical Microscope
Ocular
Level III- Notes
My self Study Notes
Single Len Magnification
Magnifying glass: The maximum angular magnification (compared to the
naked eye) of a magnifying glass depends on how the glass and the object
are held, relative to the eye. If the lens is held at a distance from the object
such that its front focal point is on the object being viewed, the relaxed eye
(focused to infinity) can view the image with angular magnification:
Magnification = 25cm / f = 10 inches/ f
Here, is the focal length of the lens in centimeters. The constant 25 cm is an
estimate of the "near point" distance of the eyethe closest distance at which
the healthy naked eye can focus. In this case the angular magnification is
independent from the distance kept between the eye and the magnifying
glass. If instead the lens is held very close to the eye and the object is placed
closer to the lens than its focal point so that the observer focuses on the near
point, a larger angular magnification can be obtained, approaching:
Magnification = (25cm / f) + 1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnification
Single Lens magnification
Astigmatism is an optical defect in which vision is blurred due to the inability
of the optics of the eye to focus a point object into a sharp focused image on
the retina. This may be due to an irregular or toric curvature of the cornea or
lens. The two types of astigmatism are regular and irregular. Irregular
astigmatism is often caused by a corneal scar or scattering in the crystalline
lens, and cannot be corrected by standard spectacle lenses, but can be
corrected by contact lenses. The more common regular astigmatismarising
from either the cornea or crystalline lens can be corrected by eyeglasses or
toric lenses. A 'toric' surface resembles a section of the surface of a Rugby
ball or a doughnut where there are two regular radii, one smaller than the
other one. This optical shape gives rise to astigmatism in the eye
Astigmatism- Hyperobia & Myopia
http://optical-casper-wyoming.com/vision/wp-admin/install.php
Farsightedness/ Hyperobia
http://www.lasik.md/learnaboutlasik/refractiveerrors.php#.U_piqZCS3IU
Short Sightedness/ Myopia
About Sampling Terms & Definitions
Acceptance Sampling
Sampling inspection in which decisions are made to accept or reject product.;
also the science that deals with procedures by which decisions, dicisions to
accept or reject are based on the results of the inspection of samples.
Comment: Typical uses of acceptance sampling in manufacturing include
making acceptance decisions about incoming raw materials lots, in-process
sub-lots, and finished product lots
Terms & Definitions from:
Glossary and Tables for Statistical Quality Control - ASQC
More on Terms & Reference Curves
http://www.samplingplans.com/glossary.htm
Acceptance Sampling Plan
A specific plan that states the sample size or sizes to be used and the
associated acceptance and rejection criteria.
Comment: Most acceptance sampling plans in use are either attributes plans
and variables plans.
AOQ curve
Acronym for Average Outgoing Quality. Useful to evaluate sampling plan
applications where rejected lots are rectified by replacing or reworking
defective items. The AOQ curve is the average quality of outgoing product as
a function of the incoming quality.
Comment: AOQ is the quality of an average outgoing lot. Therefore, you
should expect half of the lots to be worse than AOQ. The AOQ calculation
does not consider that the incoming quality usually varies.
AOQL
Acronym for Average Outgoing Quality Limit. The maximum AOQ over all
possible values of incoming product quality, for a given acceptance sampling
plan.
Comment: Maximum of the AOQ curve. See AOQ
AQL
Acronym for Acceptable Quality Level. As used in the development of two-
point acceptance sampling plans, the values of AQL and alpha jointly define
the producers point of the operating characteristic curve.
If the value of a quality characteristic of a particular lot is exactly equal to the
AQL of it's acceptance sampling plan, the probability that the plan will accept
the lot is (Pa=1-alpha).
Example of specifying AQL
For a discussion of common confusions about AQL, see AQL Primer.
"Glossary and Tables for Statistical Quality Control" - ASQC.
AQL ..continues
Comment: This definition of AQL is statistically exact and appropriate for use
with two-point sampling plans, as supported by the software of H & H
Servicco Corp.
On the other hand, a more vague definition of AQL is typically used by
documents that support one-point sampling plans. The most common of such
documents are:
Mil-Std-105,
Mil-Std-414,
ANSI/ASQC Z1.4,
ANSI/ASQC Z1.9
These one-point sampling plans do not make use of the consumer's point -
they do not address the issue of accepting low-quality lots. They are
particularly vulnerable to this for small sample sizes.
ARL curve
Acronym for Average Run Length. ARL is the average number of accepted
lots between rejections. The ARL curve is a plot of ARL as a function of lot
quality level.
Comment: Use the ARL curve to assess the impact of an acceptance
sampling plan on smoothness operations.
ASN curve
Acronym for Average Sample Number. ASN is the average number of sample
units inspected per lot in reaching decisions to accept or reject. The ASN
curve is a plot of ASN versus lot quality.
Comment: Use ASN curves to evaluate sequential sampling plans to
anticipate the amount of inspection that each plan will require.
Audit sampling
Sampling in which the goal is to estimate the value a quality characteristic but
not provide a firm decision rule. The sample size n is chosen to provide a
desired margin of error of the estimate.
Comment: Many audit sampling situations involve more than one category,
each having a different sample size. The categories having the smaller
sample sizes will have estimates with larger margins of error. Conversely, the
categories having the larger sample sizes will have estimates with smaller
margins of error.
Margin of Error
The sampling error of the estimated statistic. The margin of error is usually
expressed as half the the width of a confidence interval.
OC curve
Acronym for Operating Characteristic Curve. A curve showing, for a given
sampling plan, the probability of accepting a lot, as a function of the lot quality
level. It is knowledge (by the person who designs or selects the plan) of the
oc curve that makes an acceptance sampling plan statistically valid.
RQL
Acronym for Rejectable Quality Level. As used in the development of two-
point acceptance sampling plans, the values of RQL and beta jointly define
the consumers point of the operating characteristic curve.
If the value of a quality characteristic of a particular lot is exactly equal to the
RQL of it's acceptance sampling plan, the probability that the plan will accept
the lot is (Pa=beta).
Sequential Analysis, Sequential Sampling
The technique by which we build up our sample one item at a time, and after
inspecting each item, ask ourselves: "Can we be sure enough to accept or
reject this batch on the information so far collected?"
Its value is in enabling reliable conclusions to be wrung from a minimum of
data. This was deemed sufficient to require that it be classified "Restricted "
within the meaning of the Espionage Act during the war of 1939-45.
Statistically Valid
An acceptance sampling plan is statistically valid when the person who
designs or selects it knows the probabilities that the plan will accept lots that
were manufactured to various quality levels. These probabilities are shown by
the operating characteristic curve
http://www.samplingplans.com/glossary.htm
Birefringence is the optical property of a material having a refractive index
that depends on the polarization and propagation direction of light.[1] These
optically anisotropic materials are said to be birefringent (or birefractive). The
birefringence is often quantified as the maximum difference between
refractive indices exhibited by the material. Crystals with asymmetric crystal
structures are often birefringent, as well as plastics under mechanical stress.
Birefringence is responsible for the phenomenon of double refraction whereby
a ray of light, when incident upon a birefringent material, is split by
polarization into two rays taking slightly different paths. This effect was first
described by the Danish scientist Rasmus Bartholin in 1669, who observed
it[2] in calcite, a crystal having one of the strongest birefringences. However it
was not until the 19th century that Augustin-J ean Fresnel described the
phenomenon in terms of polarization, understanding light as a wave with field
components in transverse polarizations (perpendicular to the direction of the
wave vector).
About Light & Vision
Birefringence
Blue-light hazard is defined as the potential for a photochemical induced
retinal injury resulting from electromagnetic radiation exposure at
wavelengths primarily between 400 ~ 500 nm. This has not been shown to
occur in humans, only inconclusively in some rodent and primate studies. The
mechanisms for photochemical induced retinal injury are caused by the
absorption of light by photoreceptors in the eye. Under normal conditions
when light hits a photoreceptor, the cell bleaches and becomes useless until
it has recovered through a metabolic process called the visual cycle.
Absorption of blue light, however, has been shown in rats and a susceptible
strain of mice to cause a reversal of the process where cells become
unbleached and responsive again to light before they are ready. At
wavelengths of blue light below 430 nm this greatly increases the potential for
oxidative damage. For blue-light circadian therapy, harm is minimized by
employing blue light at the near-green end of the blue spectrum. 1 ~ 2 min of
408 nm and 25 minutes of 430 nm are sufficient to cause irreversible death of
photoreceptors and lesions of the retinal pigment epithelium. The action
spectrum of light-sensitive retinal ganglion cells was found to peak at 470 ~
480 nm, a range with lower damage potential, yet not completely outside the
damaging range
Classical interference microscopy (also referred to as quantitative
interference microscopy) uses two separate light beams with much greater
lateral separation than that used in phase contrast microscopy or in
differential interference microscopy (DIC).
In variants of the interference microscope where object and reference beam
pass through the same objective, two images are produced of every object
(one being the "ghost image"). The two images are separated either laterally
within the visual field or at different focal planes, as determined by the optical
principles employed. These two images can be a nuisance when they overlap,
since they can severely affect the accuracy of mass thickness measurements.
Rotation of the preparation may thus be necessary, as in the case of DIC.
About Fillet Weld
Fillet Weld
Convex Fillet Weld= Weld Size Weld Length
Concave Fillet Weld= Weld Size < Weld Length
Fillet weld measurements: L: Leg length, S:
Fillet weld Size, T: Theoretical throat, V:
Convexity, C: Concavity, W: Effective weld
length
Fillet Weld Legs Determine Size and Throat of Fillet Welds
In heavy machinery, ships, and buildings, extensive frameworks and intricate
angles may be composed of many kilometers of welded joints. Among them,
fillet welds are used to join corners, Ts. and lap joints because they are more
economical than groove welds. That is, fillet welded joints are simple to
prepare from the standpoint of edge preparation and fit-up.
The strength of a fillet weld is based, in the design, on the product (effective
area of the weld: T x W) of the theoretical throat (design throat thickness) and
effective weld length as shown in Fig. 1. Fillet weld legs determine fillet weld
sizes. Fillet weld sizes are measured by the length of the legs of the largest
right triangle that may be inscribed within the fillet weld cross section.
http://www.kobelco-welding.jp/education-center/abc/ABC_2000-01.html
Fig. 1 - Fillet weld measurements:
L: Leg length, S: Fillet weld Size,
T: Theoretical throat, V:
Convexity, C: Concavity, W:
Effective weld length
Fillet weld sizes determine theoretical throat. The product of the size and
cos45 in case where an isosceles right triangle may inscribe within the fillet
weld cross section: S x cos45 = 0.7S, as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 How to calculate theoretical throat
Fillet weld sizes must be large enough to carry the applied load, but the
specified fillet weld size should not be excessive to minimize welding
distortion and costs. AWS D1.1 (Structural Welding Code- Steel) specifies the
minimum fillet weld size for each base metal thickness: e.g. 6-mm size for
thickness over 12.7 up to 19.0 mm. AWS D1.1 also specifies the maximum
convexity, because excessive convexity may cause stress concentration at
the toes of the fillet weld, which may result in premature failure of the joint. In
quality control of fillet welds on actual work, leg or size, throat, convexity, and
concavity are inspected by using several types of welding gages. Fig. 3
shows a multipurpose gage measuring a fillet weld leg.
Fig. 3 - Measuring a fillet weld leg by means of a multipurpose welding gage
Fastener Failures
http://ipgparts.com/blog/common-failures-for-fasteners-head-studs-main-studs-rod-bolts-etc/#channel=f25869488a334be&origin=http%3A%2F%2Fipgparts.com
http://ipgparts.com/blog/common-failures-for-fasteners-head-studs-main-studs-rod-bolts-etc/
Photoemissive, Photovoltaic, Photoconductive
Photoemissive
Phototube or photoelectric cell is a type of gas-filled or vacuum tube that is
sensitive to light. Such a tube is more correctly called a 'photoemissive cell' to
distinguish it from photovoltaic or photoconductive cells. Phototubes were
previously more widely used but are now replaced in many applications by
solid state photodetectors. The photomultiplier tube is one of the most
sensitive light detectors, and is still widely used in physics research.
Operating principles
Phototubes operate according to the photoelectric effect: Incoming photons
strike a photocathode, knocking electrons out of its surface, which are
attracted to an anode. Thus current flow is dependent on the frequency and
intensity of incoming photons. Unlike photomultiplier tubes, no amplification
takes place, so the current that flows through the device is typically of the
order of a few microamperes.
The light wavelength range over which the device is sensitive depends on the
material used for the photoemissive cathode. A caesium-antimony cathode
gives a device that is very sensitive in the violet to ultra-violet region with
sensitivity falling off to blindness to red light. Caesiumon oxidised silver gives
a cathode that is most sensitive to infra-red to red light, falling off towards
blue, where the sensitivity is low but not zero.
Vacuum devices have a near constant anode current for a given level of
illumination relative to anode voltage. Gas filled devices are more sensitive
but the frequency response to modulated illumination falls off at lower
frequencies compared to the vacuum devices. The frequency response of
vacuum devices is generally limited by the transit time of the electrons from
cathode to anode.
Photovoltaic
Photovoltaics (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting
solar radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit
the photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels
composed of a number of solar cells containing a photovoltaic material. Solar
photovoltaics power generation has long been seen as a clean sustainable
energy technology which draws upon the planets most plentiful and widely
distributed renewable energy source the sun. The direct conversion of
sunlight to electricity occurs without any moving parts or environmental
emissions during operation. It is well proven, as photovoltaic systems have
now been used for fifty years in specialized applications, and grid-connected
systems have been in use for over twenty years
Photoconductivity is an optical and electrical phenomenon in which a
material becomes more electrically conductive due to the absorption of
electromagnetic radiation such as visible light, ultraviolet light, infrared light,
or gamma radiation.
When light is absorbed by a material such as a semiconductor, the number of
free electrons and electron holes increases and raises its electrical
conductivity. To cause excitation, the light that strikes the semiconductor must
have enough energy to raise electrons across the band gap, or to excite the
impurities within the band gap. When a bias voltage and a load resistor are
used in series with the semiconductor, a voltage drop across the load
resistors can be measured when the change in electrical conductivity of the
material varies the current flowing through the circuit.
Classic examples of photoconductive materials include the conductive
polymer polyvinylcarbazole, used extensively in photocopying (xerography);
lead sulfide, used in infrared detection applications, such as the U.S.
Sidewinder and Russian Atoll heat-seeking missiles; and selenium, employed
in early television and xerography.
The End

VI - Self Study Exam Preparatory Note-Part 2

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Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

ASNT Level III VT- Reading 2

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