Deep Space Communication

Seminar 2009 Deep Space Communication
1. INTRODUCTION
Deep space exploration and utilization are all along the dreams of human beings. The
exploration and utilization of the deep space are all along the dreams of human beings. Since the
Soviet Union began to explore the moon by using moon-1 in January 1959, there has existed
drastic competition in the area of deep space exploration and utilization among the countries all
over the world, especially among the United State, Russia and some countries in Europe. Besides
the technologies of launching and controlling of the probe, deep space communications has
played an important role in deep space exploration.
Deep Space Communication transmits the information obtained by the probe to the
ground and processes and analyzes it. Deep space usually refers to the outer space more than 2
million kilometers away from the earth. And deep space communications is referred to as
communication between the earth and other planets (including the Moon, the Mars, the Jupiter
etc.). Now spacecrafts are send to the farthest planet Pluto called Newhorizons which will enter
into Pluto’s orbit in 2015. Among them, the explorations to the Mars and moon are more
frequent. In recent forty years, Russia, United State and several Europe countries have made
explorations to the Mars more than thirty times and sent probes to the Moon. European Space
Agency (ESA), Japan, China and India also have their own Moon exploration probes right now.
Comparison with Normal Communication Compared with common terra and satellite
communications, deep-space communications presents more challenging environment for data
communications. The radio frequency channel predominantly used for communication typically
operates under the following constraints.
Long Distance: A lot of planets in deep space are several hundred million kilometers
away from the earth. Such long distance results in very low signal to noise ratio (SNR).
High Signal Propagation Delays: This is due to the enormous distances involved
between the communicating entities and the relativistic constraint restricting signal transmissions
to the speed of light. For example, one-way signal propagation delays for the Cassini mission to
Saturn are in the range of 1 hour and 8 minutes to 1 hour and 24 minutes.
Dept of ECE 1 College of Engineering Munnar

High Data Corruption Rates: Extremely long distances cause the signals to be
received at extremely low strengths at the receiver, and thereby increase the probability of bit-
errors in the channel due to random thermal noise errors, burst errors due to solar flares, etc.
Disruption Events: Since communicating entities in deep-space tend to be in motion
relative to one another, the communication channel between them is prone to disruption. A
planetary probe on the surface of Saturn’s moon Titan, for example, could experience disruption
due to
the rotation of Titan on its own axis (when it goes to the night side of Titan), when Titan passes
under Saturn’s shadow during its revolution around the planet, and when other moons/ planets/or
the Sun itself block the line of sight to the destination. Moreover, communicating with
an entity in deep-space requires expensive specialized equipment.
Complex Geography Environment: In the moon and other planets, conditions such
as the temperature radiation and liberation etc are more complex than those in the earth. For
example, the variation of the temperature in the moon is very high, from -183°C to 127°C. The
lowest temperature is -132°C in Mars and -140°C in Jupiter. So the electronics in the spacecraft
must be designed to support these extreme temperature variations.

2. SPACECRAFTS
spacecraft is the destination system of the deep space communication. spacecrafts are
launched for scientific study, the launch cost is higher as the spacecraft become bigger so we use
light weight systems and equipments so we cannot incorporate large antennas or powerful
communication systems. The spacecraft's small, light communications equipment consequently
transmits at very low power, typically limited to 20 watts, about the same as a refrigerator light
bulb. Signal power arriving at the antenna can be as weak as one 100-millionth of one 100-
billionth of a watt - 20 billion times less than the power required for a digital wristwatch. To
"hear" the whisper of a signal from a spacecraft at planetary distances, receiving antennas on
Earth must be very large and be equipped with highly sensitive receivers. The two main antennas
in a spacecrafts are high gain antenna and a low gain antenna.
2.1 Low Gain Antenna

Low-gain antenna that sends a very simple signal that small receivers can pick them up
on Earth. The "low-gain" antenna is constantly broadcasting one of four possible signals by a
simple code.
• Everything is OK
• Track me when you can
• Track before a certain time
• Help! Red alert!
2.2 High Gain Antenna

Other, more important and complicated data is sent with the high-gain antenna only when
NASA can be relatively sure that DSN will pick up the signal. On scheduled times, the large
DSN (Deep Space Network) receivers are used to receive this "high-gain" signal with its more
complete information. This signal is used to send most of the scientific data DS1 will collect.
3. DEEP SPACE NETWORK

The NASA Deep Space Network - or DSN - is an international network of huge antennas
that allows people on the ground to communicate with satellites and other spacecraft missions, as
well as providing radio and radar astronomy observations for the exploration of the solar system
and the universe. It is best known for its large radio antennas. The network also supports selected
Earth-orbiting missions. DSN is part of the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL).
3.1 History of Deep Space Network
The forerunner of the DSN was established in January, 1958, when JPL, then under
contract to the U.S. Army, deployed portable radio tracking stations in Nigeria, Singapore, and
California to receive telemetry and plot the orbit of the Army-launched Explorer 1, the first
successful U.S. satellite. NASA was officially established on October 1, 1958, to consolidate the
separately developing space-exploration programs of the Army, Navy, and Air Force into one
civilian organization.
On 3 December 1958, the JPL was transferred from the Army to NASA and given
responsibility for the design and execution of lunar and planetary exploration programs using
remotely-controlled spacecraft. Shortly after the transfer of the JPL to NASA, NASA established
the concept of the Deep Space Network as a separately managed and operated communications
system that would accommodate all deep space missions, thereby avoiding the need for each
flight project to acquire and operate its own specialized space communications network. The
DSN was given responsibility for its own research, development, and operation in support of all
of its users. Under this concept, it has become a world leader in the development of low-noise
receivers; large parabolic-dish antennas; tracking, telemetry, and command systems; digital
signal processing; and deep space navigation.
The largest antennas of the DSN are often called on during spacecraft emergencies.
Almost all spacecraft are designed so normal operation can be conducted on the smaller (and
more economical) antennas of the DSN, but during an emergency the use of the largest antennas
is crucial. This is because a troubled spacecraft may be forced to use less than its normal
transmitter power, attitude control problems may preclude the use of high-gain antennas, and
recovering every bit of telemetry is critical to assessing the health of the spacecraft and planning
the recovery. The most famous example is the Apollo 13 mission, where limited battery power
and inability to use the spacecraft's high gain antennas reduced signal levels below the capability

of the Manned Space Flight Network, and the use of the biggest DSN antennas (and the
Australian Parkes Observatory radio telescope) was critical to saving the lives of the astronauts.
Although in this case Apollo was also a USA/NASA mission, DSN also provides this same
emergency service to other space agencies as well, in a spirit of inter-agency and international
cooperation. For example, the recovery of the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO)
mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) would not have been possible without the use of
the largest DSN facilities.
3.2 Present Condition

DSN currently consists of three deep-space communications facilities placed approximately
120 degrees apart around the world. They are:
• The Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex outside of Barstow, California,

United States;
• The Madrid Deep Space Communication Complex, 60 kilometers (37 miles) west of
Madrid, Spain; and
• The Canberra Deep Space Communications Complex (CDSCC) in the Australian Capital
Territory, 40 kilometers (25 miles) southwest of Canberra, Australia near the Tidbinbilla
Nature Reserve.
Each facility is situated in semi-mountainous, bowl-shaped terrain to shield against radio

frequency interference. This strategic placement permits constant observation of spacecraft
as the earth rotates, and helps to make the DSN the largest and most sensitive scientific
telecommunications system in the world.
NASA's scientific investigation of

the Solar System is being accomplished
mainly through the use of unmanned
spacecraft. The DSN provides the vital
two-way communications link that guides
and controls these machines, and brings
back the images and new scientific
information they collect. All DSN

steerable, high-gain, antennas are parabolic Figure 1: DSN facility around the world
reflector antennas.
The antennas and data delivery systems make it possible to:
• Acquire telemetry data from spacecraft.
• Transmit commands to spacecraft.
• Track spacecraft position and velocity.
• Perform Very Long Baseline Interferometry observations.
• Measure variations in radio waves for radio science experiments.
• Gather science data.
• Monitor and control the performance of the network.
The network is a facility of the JPL and is managed and operated for NASA by the California
Institute of Technology (Caltech). The Interplanetary Network Directorate (IND) manages the
program within JPL.
3.3 Antennas in DSN

Each complex consists of at least four deep space terminals equipped with ultra-sensitive
receiving systems and large parabolic-dish antennas.
There are:
• One 34-meter (111-ft) diameter High Efficiency antenna.
• One or more 34-meter Beam Waveguide antennas (three at the Goldstone Complex, two
at the Robledo de Chavela complex (near Madrid), and one at the Canberra Complex).
• One 26-meter (85 ft) antenna.
• One 70-meter (230 ft) antenna.
Five of the 34-meter beam waveguide antennas were added to the system in the late
1990s. Three were located at Goldstone, and one each at Canberra and Madrid. A second 34-
meter beam waveguide antenna (the network's sixth) was completed at the Madrid complex in
2004.
3.4 Arraying

Antenna arraying combines the signals received by multiple antennas at different

locations to synthesize a single large antenna. It is commonly used to improve reception of weak
signals. Arraying is beneficial in deep space communications where the signal transmitted by a
spacecraft becomes very weak as it travels across vast interplanetary distances. When the signal
arrives at Earth, it is spread over a large area, and the ground antenna is able to receive just a
small part of the signal. Arraying allows the capture of these very weak signals and enables a
higher data rate.
The ability to array several antennas was incorporated to improve the data returned from
the Voyager 2 Neptune encounter, and extensively used for the Galileo spacecraft, when the high
gain antenna did not deploy correctly[4]. The array electronically links the 70-meter dish antenna
at the Deep Space Network complex in Goldstone, California, with an identical antenna located
in Australia, in addition to two 34-meter (111 ft) antennas at the Canberra complex. The
California and Australia sites were used concurrently to pick up communications with Galileo.
Arraying of antennas within the three DSN locations is also used. For example, a 70-
meter dish antenna can be arrayed with a 34-meter dish. For especially-vital missions, like
Voyager 2, the Canberra 70-meter dish can be arrayed with the Parkes Radio Telescope in
Australia; and the Goldstone 70-meter dish can be arrayed with the Very Large Array of
antennas in New Mexico. Also, two or more 34-meter dishes at one DSN location are commonly
arrayed together.
All the stations are remotely operated from a centralized Signal Processing Center at each
complex. These Centers house the electronic subsystems that point and control the antennas,
receive and process the telemetry data, transmit commands, and generate the spacecraft
navigation data.
Once the data is processed at the complexes, it is transmitted to JPL for further
processing and for distribution to science teams over a modern communications network,
frequently using satellite communications.

4. FUNCTIONS OF DSN
some of the functions of DSN are shown below
4.1 Telemetry
The purpose of the Telemetry System is to provide the capability to acquire, process, decode
and distribute deep space probe and Earth orbiter telemetry data. Telemetry data consists of
science and engineering information modulated on radio signals transmitted from the spacecraft.
The Telemetry System performs three main functions: Telemetry data acquisition, telemetry data
conditioning and transmission to projects and telemetry system validation.two types of telemetry,
science data and engineering data. science data is the important data because the mission success
depends on this data. engineering data contains the health and positional information of the
spacecraft.
4.2 Spacecraft Command

The purpose of the Command System is to provide the means by which a Project controls
the activities of its spacecraft. Control information (Command Data), provided by the Project, is
modulated on the RF carrier and transmitted to a spacecraft by a DSN station. The Command
System functions as a transfer medium between the Project Control Center and its spacecraft.

4.3 Radiometric Tracking

The purpose of the Tracking System is to provide two-way communication between Earth
based equipment and spacecraft, to make measurements that will allow the state vector (position
and velocity) of spacecraft to be determined.
4.4 Very Long Baseline Interferometry

The purpose of the Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) System is to provide the
means of directly measuring plane-of-the-sky angular positions of radio sources (natural or

spacecraft), DSN station locations, interstation time and frequency offsets, and Earth orientation
parameters.
4.5 Radio Science

The field of Radio Science improves our knowledge of the solar system and the theory of
general relativity through radio frequency experiments performed between spacecraft and the
Deep Space Network's (DSN) Radio Science System. In the past, Radio Science has performed
experiments which have allowed scientists to characterize planetary atmospheres and
ionospheres, characterize planetary surfaces, characterize the planetary rings, characterize the
Solar corona, confirm general relativity, characterize interplanetary plasma, search for
gravitational waves, characterize planetary gravity , and determine the mass of the planets,
moons, and asteroids.
4.6 Monitor and Control

The purpose of the Monitor and Control System is two-fold: to provide real time monitor
data to projects which reflect the status of project support by DSN systems, and to provide
monitor and control capabilities to operators of DSN systems' components.

5. WORKING OF DSN
This section includes the working and challenges of deep space communications.
5.1 The theory and challenges of deep space communications

Distance is the main problem in space communications, since the intensity of
electromagnetic radiation decreases according to 1/r2, that is why signals from deep space probes
are usually very weak when they reach the Earth. In order to receive the faint signal back on
Earth large parabolic disc antennas are used. To collect as much as possible of the faint signal the
antenna dish must be big. Since the electromagnetic radiation cannot move faster than the speed
of light there are considerable time lag introduced in the communications making real time
communications impossible.
It takes over 5 hours for a signal from earth to reach the orbit of Pluto in the outer part of
the solar system. In order to communicate with the Earth the spacecraft must have a free line of
sight to the Earth, since radio waves cannot pass through large solid objects such as planets and
moons. A space probe orbiting a planet will therefore lose contact with earth every time it gets
on the far side of the planet. This means that the spacecraft will not be able to communicate with
the Earth at all times. Even if the probe has a free line of sight to the Earth the receiving antenna
could be on the wrong side of the Earth, however by using several antennas in different places
around the planet that could be solved.
The gain of an antenna is a measure of how good the antenna is at focusing the radiated
energy. A low gain antenna radiates in a wide angle, while a high gain antenna radiates in a
narrow beam. On spacecraft high gain antennas are used to send scientific measurements at high
data rates back to earth as well as receiving steering commands from earth; these antennas are
highly directional and require very accurate aiming. Spacecraft are always equipped with at least
one low gain antenna often two. These low gain antennas are very important since they can
intercept signals from almost any direction, this is useful if the spacecraft gets disoriented and

the main high gain antenna doesn’t point towards Earth. If the spacecraft only had a high gain
antenna it would then not be able to receive any more instructions from Earth. The low gain
antennas are used in these kinds of situations as a backup to receive the appropriate commands
that will turn the spacecraft so that the main antenna gets properly aligned to earth again.
However, the low gain antenna can only handle a fraction of the data rate compared to the high
gain antenna.
5.2 Frequency used by DSN

Since the signal has to pass through the Earth’s atmosphere some limitations are placed
on which frequencies that could be used.
S-Band 1.55 – 5.2 GHz (2.3 GHz)
X-Band 5.2 – 10.9 GHz (8.4 GHz)
Ku-Band 12 – 8 GHz
Ka-Band 20 – 40 GHz (32 GHz)
Table 5.1: commonly used frequency bands for space communication, most common frequencies
within parenthesis
The ionosphere is almost opaque to some of the lower frequency bands so space
communication mainly uses high frequency bands between 2GHz and 40GHz which are less
affected by atmospheric disturbances. However at these frequencies one start to get interference
from molecular excitations, there are several frequency bands that could not be used because of
this e.g. water has a strong resonance frequency at 22GHz. Water is a severe problem at
frequencies above 2GHz, dense clouds, rain and snow can distort and absorb large parts of a
transmission. Despite that, frequencies above 2GHz are in common use for space
communication, that is because higher frequencies allows for higher data rates, short wavelength
radiation can carry much higher data rates than long wave radiation.
The space industry is always looking for ways to increase the data rate between Earth
and interplanetary probes; low data rate has always been limiting factor during interplanetary
communications. On a common interplanetary space probe the low gain antenna usually

receives/transmits in the S-band while the high gain antenna receive/transmit in the X band,
however we are now in a transition phase and in the future the high gain antennas will be used
with the higher Ka-band.
5.3 Coding used in DSN

Most missions employ error detecting – error correcting codes to substantially improve
telemetry link performance. DSN users are reminded that their encoders should conform to the
CCSDS Telemetry Channel Coding Blue Book (CCSDS 231.0-B-1, September 2003.
Acceptable codes include:
1) Convolutional r = 1/2, k = 7 only.
2) Reed-Solomon 223/255 only.
3) concatenated Convolutional / Reed-Solomon
4) Turbo codes with rates: 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, or 1/6, block sizes: 1784, 3568, 7136, and 8920.
CCSDS File Delivery Protocol (DSN) to improve station utilization efficiency as well as reduce
mission risk and costs, all DSN users should employ the CCSDS File Delivery Protocol (CFDP),
to transfer data to and from a spacecraft. CFDP operates over a CCSDS conventional packet
telecommand, packet telemetry, or an Advanced Orbiting System (AOS) Path service link.
CFDP enables the automatic transfer of a complete set of specified files and associated
information from one storage location to another replacing an expensive labor-intensive manual
method. It can transfer a file from a source point to a destination site using an Automatic Repeat
Queuing (ARQ) protocol.
In an acknowledged mode, the receiver notifies the transmitter of any undelivered file
segments or ancillary data so that the missing elements can be retransmitted guaranteeing
delivery. An unacknowledged mode is also permitted.
5.4 Bandwidth Efficient Modulation (DSN)

Missions operating in the 2 and 8 GHz bands, should employ bandwidth efficient
modulation methods in conformance with SFCG (space frequency coordination group) and
CCSDS Recommendations.

5.5 Multiple Spacecraft Per Antenna (MSPA)

Where a multiplicity of spacecraft lie within the beam width of a single DSN antenna, it
may be possible to capture data from two or more spacecraft simultaneously using the Multiple
Spacecraft per Aperture (MSPA) system. MSPA decreases DSN loading and will save the
project’s money. There are a few constraints.
First, only a single uplink frequency can be transmitted. Generally, this means that only
one spacecraft at a time can operate in a two-way coherent mode, while the remainder must be in
a one-way (i.e., non-coherent) mode.
Second, multiple independent receivers are required at the Earth station. This sets a
practical limit of two spacecraft that can be served simultaneously.
Third, ranging and two-way coherent Doppler data can only be obtained from the single
spacecraft operating in a two-way coherent mode.
Approximately 30-minutes are required to transfer two-way coherent operations from one
spacecraft to another irrespective of whether or not the spacecraft, which will be in the two-way
coherent mode, is currently part of the MSPA cluster. When switching the uplink from one
spacecraft to the next, full Aperture Fee (AF) costs apply to the new two-way coherent user at
the onset of the switching operation. Transfers of two-way coherent operations require:
1) Tuning the uplink of the spacecraft in a two-way coherent mode to its rest frequency,
2) Setting the station uplink frequency to the next spacecraft’s and acquiring the uplink,
3) Reconfiguring the command subsystem (if required) for the next spacecraft,
4) Reconfiguring ranging (if required) for the next spacecraft,
5) Reconfiguring the Monitor and Control subsystem,
6) Relocking the Earth station’s receiver and telemetry processor following the switch.
For a Project to avail itself of the MSPA savings, the following conditions must apply:
All spacecraft must lie within the beamwidth of the requested antenna. Projects must
accept reduced link performance from imperfect pointing. Spacecraft downlinks must operate on
different frequencies. Only one spacecraft at a time can operate with an uplink in a coherent
mode.
a. Commands can only be sent to the spacecraft receiving an uplink.
b. Ranging & coherent Doppler are available from the spacecraft in a 2-way mode.
c. Remaining spacecraft transmit 1-way downlinks with telemetry only.
5.6 Data Relaying

Some missions may propose dropping probes, landers, or even rovers to explore the
surface of a planet/body. Others may insert orbiters around the same body. The result can be a
multiplicity of spacecraft on or around a planet/body. While Mars has been the recent focus, it is
foreseeable that other planets or objects in space could be of equal interest in the future. Where
several spacecraft are relatively close together and positioned far from the Earth, it makes sense
to send data to and from small vehicles via a relay (Proximity Link). Typically, this has been an
orbiting spacecraft carrying a special transceiver operating at UHF frequencies.
Relaying data from surface objects can save money and reduce size and power
requirements of landed equipment. Proposals for landed objects in the vicinity of an orbiting
spacecraft should consider whether a data relay makes sense for their application. Some
Announcements of Opportunity (AOs) have required orbiting spacecraft with certain
characteristics to carry Proximity Link hardware.
5.7 Critical Event Communications

Some times spacecraft needed emergency telemetry support during Critical Events.
Critical Events are defined as: “spacecraft events that could result in the loss of mission if
anomalies occur.” These events include launch, early orbit operations, and those listed as
follows:
 Spacecraft separation
 Powered flight
 Critical Maneuvers (e.g., DSMs)
 Orbit insertion
 Entry/Descent/Landing
 Flybys
An Earth station is normally required during launch, early orbit and separation. It could
be one of the DSN or NEN Earth stations if the launch trajectory permits; however, in cases
where there are gaps, another Agency’s Earth station or a small portable station may be required.
The costs for Critical Event support must be included in the proposal.
5.8 Unmanned Spacecraft Tracking

One of the prime objective of DSN is telemetry and tracking of unmanned space
missions.there are about 3 dozens of spacecrafts right now functioning,some of them are in the
edge of our solarsystem.Let me explain the tracking and telemetry of mars exploration rovers.
5.8.1 Mars Exploration Rovers

NASA's Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Mission is an ongoing robotic mission of
exploring Mars, that began in 2003 with the sending of two rovers Spirit and Opportunity to
explore the Martian surface and geology.
Primary among the mission's scientific goals is to search for and characterize a wide
range of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity on Mars. The mission is part of
NASA's Mars Exploration Program which includes three previous successful landers: the two
Viking landers in 1976 and Pathfinder in 1997.
Two Mars rover missions will be launched by NASA in May and June of 2003, during
the 2003 Mars launch opportunity. They are the Mars Exploration Rovers, MERA and MERB.
The spacecrafts will enter the Mars atmosphere directly, without first going into Mars orbit. The
rovers will land on the Mars surface in January and February of 2004, in a similar manner to the
successful Mars Pathfinder landing in 1996.
5.8.2 EDL sequence

During the Entry, Descent and Landing (EDL) phases, it is important to maintain
communications from the spacecraft to the Earth. Although this communication cannot affect the
landing because the long round-trip-light time precludes real time feedback from Earth to the
spacecraft, the communication could be critical to the success of future missions. This is
especially true in case of a mission failure, when the diagnostic data would be very important.
As the EDL scenario of Figure 5.1 begins, the lander is enclosed in a heat shield and a
backshell, all attached to the main spacecraft. The entry turn begins approximately 70-min before
entry, properly orienting the heat shield. When this is completed, approximately 15-min prior to
entry, the cruise stage separation occurs, leaving the lander protected by the heat shield. Entry,
defined as reaching a predefined altitude above the Mars surface, occurs approximately 365-s
before landing.

Figure 5.1 steps of EDL sequence of MER.
5.8.3 Communications Links

The rover has a low-gain and a high-gain antenna. The low-gain antenna is
omnidirectional, and transmits data at a low rate to Deep Space Network (DSN) antennas on
Earth. The high-gain antenna is directional and steerable, and can transmit data to Earth at a
higher rate.
The rovers also use the low-gain antennas to communicate with spacecraft orbiting Mars,
the Mars Odyssey and (before its failure) the Mars Global Surveyor. The orbiters relay data from
and to Earth; most data to Earth is relayed through Odyssey. The benefits of using the orbiters
are that they are closer to the rovers than the antennas on Earth, and have view of Earth for much
longer than the rovers. The orbiters communicate with the rovers using UHF antennas, which
have shorter range than the low and high-gain antennas. One UHF antenna is on the rover and
one is on a petal of the lander to aid in gaining information during the critical landing event.

From cruise stage separation until the lander is separated from the backshell,
communication is by a direct-to-Earth (DTE) X-band (8.4-GHz) link, using the backshell low-
gain antenna (BLGA). After the lander separates from the backshell, the BLGA can no longer be
used. From this point until landing, two methods of communication will be used: a DTE link
using the rover low-gain antenna (RLGA), and a UHF relay link. The UHF link transmits the
data to either the Mars Odyssey or the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft, which then relays the
data to the Earth using a standard phase-coherent X-band link. The reason that the UHF relay
link is used is that sufficiently reliable communication is not possible with the DTE link, as
explained later. The UHF link is the prime communication link, but it is not as reliable as
desired, so the DTE link will also be used, as a backup. Although the UHF link is prime during
this period, it is not discussed further in this paper, because the subject of this paper is the DTE
link. After landing, the UHF link will no longer be used, and the DTE link is again the only link.
5.9 Spacecraft Emergencies

On November 2, 2006, NASA planned to communicate with MGS through the Deep Space
Network (DSN) via a prescheduled 13-minute routine contact. Prior to this contact, commands
had been transmitted to MGS. These commands were designed to move the position of the solar
arrays away from the sun line in order to maintain thermal control. At the beginning of the
contact on November 2, the spacecraft reported numerous alarms, indicating that one solar array
drive had been stuck and that the spacecraft had automatically switched to the redundant drive
controller. The spacecraft telemetry also gave indication that the solar array drive was rotating
freely on the redundant hardware and gave no indication the mission was in immediate danger.

The spacecraft operations team (Lockheed Martin (LM) in Denver, Colorado) appropriately and
immediately contacted the necessary engineering personnel to help troubleshoot the problem.
At the next scheduled contact, approximately 2 hours later, the normal spacecraft signal
was not detected by the main DSN receivers. The operations team subsequently attempted to
command the spacecraft multiple times, without success. On November 4, 2006, the operations
team declared a spacecraft emergency to ensure long-term DSN antenna coverage. All attempts
to command the spacecraft and reestablish communication were unsuccessful. During the week
following the anomaly, it was discovered that radio science equipment at the DSN, operating on
a pre-programmed observation schedule, had recorded signals from MGS just hours after the
initial anomaly. However that signal was below the detection limits of the main DSN receivers.
Beginning on November 14th, 2006, NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) and ESA’s
Mars Express tried unsuccessfully to image and locate MGS. Formal recovery efforts were
terminated on January 28th, 2007
6. MANNED SPACE FLIGHT NETWORK (MSFN)
Tracking vehicles in low Earth orbits is quite different from tracking deep space
missions. Deep space missions are visible for long periods of time from a large portion of the
Earth's surface, and so require few stations (the DSN uses only three). These few stations,

however, need huge antennas and ultra-sensitive receivers to cope with the very weak signals.
Low earth orbit missions, however, are only visible from a small fraction of the Earth' surface at
a time, and the satellites move overhead very quickly. Therefore a large number of tracking
stations are required, spread all over the world. The antennas do not need to be so big, but they
must be able to track quickly.
These differing requirements led NASA to build a number of independent tracking

networks, each optimized for its own mission. Prior to the mid 80's, when the TDRSS satellites
became operational, NASA used a several networks of ground based antennas to track and
communicate with earth orbiting spacecraft. For the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo missions,
these were the primary means of communication, with the DSN being assigned a
supporting/backup role.
6.1 The Apollo Missions

The MSFN during the Apollo era was also called the Apollo Network. Large dish
antennas with high gains, such as the 26-m paraboloids employed in the DSN, would have to be
added to the MSFN to track and communicate at lunar distances. Extant MSFN stations could
not properly monitor the very critical mission phases when the spacecraft was inserted into its
lunar trajectory and when it plunged into the narrow reentry corridor on the return trip. The result
was that the MSFN had to be extended with ships, aircraft, and additional land sites. Small
paraboloidal antennas would have to be added at some MSFN sites to communicate with the
Apollo spacecraft while it was still below the horizon for the 26-m dishes (below about 16,000
km) but beyond the range of the Gemini telemetry antennas. The communication traffic during
the Apollo missions would be several times that planned for Gemini. NASCOM lines would
have to be augmented. To meet these requirements, the MSFN used a combination of resources.
A JPL system called "Unified S Band" or USB, was selected for Apollo communications. It
allowed tracking, ranging, telemetry, and voice to all use the same S band transmitter. Near-earth
tracking was provided by upgrading the same networks used for Mercury and Gemini. New large
antennas for the lunar phase were constructed explicitly for the MSFN, with DSN large antennas
used for backup and critical mission phases.
6.2 DSN Support during Apollo

Although normally tasked with tracking unmanned spacecraft, the Deep Space Network
(DSN) also contributed to the communication and tracking of Apollo missions to the Moon,
although primary responsibility remained with the MSFN. The DSN designed the MSFN stations
for lunar communication and provided a second antenna at each MSFN site (the MSFN sites
were near the DSN sites for just this reason). Two antennas at each site were needed since the
beam widths of the large antennas needed were too small to encompass both the lunar orbiter and
the lander at the same time. DSN also supplied some larger antennas as needed, in particular for
television broadcasts from the Moon, and emergency communications such as Apollo 13.
Another critical step in the evolution of the Apollo Network came in 1965 with the
advent of the DSN Wing concept. Originally, the participation of DSN 26-m antennas during an
Apollo Mission was to be limited to a backup role. This was one reason why the MSFN 26-m
sites were collocated with the DSN sites at Goldstone, Madrid, and Canberra. However, the
presence of two, well-separated spacecraft during lunar operations stimulated the rethinking of
the tracking and communication problem. One thought was to add a dual S-band RF system to
each of the three 26-m MSGN antennas, leaving the nearby DSN 26-m antennas still in a backup
role. Calculations showed, though, that a 26-m antenna pattern centered on the landed Lunar
Module would suffer a 9-to-12 db loss at the lunar horizon, making tracking and data acquisition
of the orbiting Command Service Module difficult, perhaps impossible. It made sense to use both
the MSFN and DSN antennas simultaneously during the all-important lunar operations. JPL was
naturally reluctant to compromise the objectives of its many unmanned spacecraft by turning
three of its DSN stations over to the MSFN for long periods. How the goals of both Apollo and
deep space exploration could be achieved without building a third 26-m antenna at each of the
three sites or undercutting planetary science missions?
The solution came in early 1965 at a meeting at NASA Headquarters, when Eberhardt
Rechtin suggested what is now known as the "wing concept". The wing approach involves
constructing a new section or "wing" to the main building at each of the three involved DSN
sites. The wing would include a MSFN control room and the necessary interface equipment to
accomplish the following:
1. Permit tracking and two-way data transfer with either spacecraft during lunar operations.
2. Permit tracking and two-way data transfer with the combined spacecraft during the flight to
the Moon

3. Provide backup for the collocated MSFN site passive track (spacecraft to ground RF links) of
the Apollo spacecraft during trans-lunar and trans-earth phases.
With this arrangement, the DSN station could be quickly switched from a deep-space
mission to Apollo and back again. GSFC personnel would operate the MSFN equipment
completely independently of DSN personnel. Deep space missions would not be compromised
nearly as much as if the entire station's equipment and personnel were turned over to Apollo for
several weeks.
7. INDIAN DEEP SPACE NETWORK (IDSN)
The Indian Deep Space Network consists of a 18-m and a 32-m antennae that are established at
the IDSN campus, Byalalu, Bangalore. The Network is augmented with a couple of stations in
the western hemisphere in addition to the 64-m antenna in Bearslake, Russia to improve the
visibility duration and to provide support from the antipodal point.
The existing ISTRAC (ISRO Telemetry Tracking and Command Network) S-Band
Network stations will be used to support the mission during Launch and Early Orbit Phase
(LEOP) that includes Earth Transfer Orbit (ETO) up to a range of about 1,00,000 km. Although
the 18-m antenna is tailored for Chandrayaan-1 mission, the 32-m antenna can also support other
planetary missions. The established IDSN is a state-of-the-art system, with its base band system
adhering to CCSDS (Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems) Standards, thus
facilitating cross-support among other TTC agencies. The supporting network stations will

ensure the adequacy of the link margin for telemetry/dwell, tracking, telecommand payload data
reception. The IDSN station has the responsibility of receiving the spacecraft health data as well
as the payload data in real time. Later, conditioning of the data takes place, before onward
transmission of the same to Mission Operations Complex at Bangalore. The tracking data
comprising Range, Doppler and Angle data will be transferred to the control center for the
purpose of orbit determination. The payload data will be transmitted to the Indian Space Science
Data Center (ISSDC) as and when received by the payload data acquisition system, located at the
station.
The 18-m dish antenna is configured for Chandryaan-1 mission operations and payload
data collection. The antenna is established at the IDSN Campus, Byalalu, situated at the outskirts
of Bangalore with built in support facilities. A fibre optic/satellite link will provide the necessary
communication link between the IDSN Station and
Mission Operations Complex (MOX) / Indian Space
Science Data Centre (ISSDC). This antenna is
capable of S-Band uplink (2 kW) and both X-Band
and S-Band downlink. This system has provision to
receive two downlink carriers in S-Band and one
carrier in X-Band (RCP and LCP)
Figure 7.1: 18-m Antenna simultaneously, whereas, the uplink is either RCP or
LCP. The system will have a G/T of 30/39.5 dB/K (45º elevation, clear sky) for S/X-Band. The
base-band system will adhere to the CCSDS Standards. The station can be remotely operated
from ISTRAC Network Control Centre (NCC). The figure7.1 depicts the 18-m antenna.
The wheel and track 32-m antenna is a state-of-the-art system that will support the
Chandrayaan-1 mission operations and beyond.
This is co-located with 18-m antenna in the
IDSN site at Byalalu. A fibre optics / satellite
link will provide the necessary connectivity
between the IDSN site and Spacecraft Control
Centre / Network Control Centre. This antenna
Figure 7.2: 32-m Antenna

is designed to provide uplink in both S-Band (20/2 kW) and X-Band (2.5 kW),
either through RCP or LCP. The reception capability will be in both S-Band and X-Band
(simultaneous RCP & LCP). It can receive two carriers in S-Band and one carrier in X-Band,
simultaneously. The system will have a G/T of 37.5/51 dB/K (45° elevation, clear sky) for S/X-
Band. The base-band will adhere to CCSDS Standards facilitating cross-support among the space
agencies. The station is also equipped for remote control from the ISTRAC Network Control
Centre (NCC).
Existing S-Band ISTRAC Network Indian lower earth orbit satellites are controlled by
the ISRO Telemetry Tracking and Command (ISTRAC) Network stations. The Elevation over
Azimuth 10/11/12-m dish antennae at the existing ISTRAC network stations (Bangalore,
Lucknow, Mauritius, Bearslake, Biak, Brunei, Trivandrum and Port Blair) will be augmented to
serve the Chandrayaan-1 mission during Earth Transfer Orbits and Lunar Transfer Trajectory up
to a range of about 1,00,000 km. All these antennae are configured for two-carrier reception
(RCP&LCP) and uplink, in either RCP or LCP in S-Band. The G/T of the stations is 21/23 dB/K.
The base-band will adhere to CCSDS Standards, facilitating cross-support among the TTC
agencies. The stations are being equipped for remote control from the ISTRAC Network Control
Centre (INCC). These stations are linked to MOX by dedicated communication links.
External network stations APL, JPL (Goldstone, Canberra, Madrid), Hawaii, Brazil
(Alcantara, Cuiaba) are requisitioned in for the purpose of extended visibility of Launch and
Early Orbit Phase (LEOP) operations, as well as to gain the near continuous visibility during the
normal phase operations. All the external stations will ensure the required compatibility to
communicate with the spacecraft.
7.1 Chandrayaan-1
The Indian Deep Space Network has been built to track and support India's first lunar
mission Chandrayaan-1, an unmanned lunar exploration mission by the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO), India's national space agency. It was launched on 22 October 2008. The
IDSN will be used for tracking, orbit control and housekeeping operations of India's lunar
mission for its entire duration of two years. IDSN began to track Chandrayaan 17 minutes after
its launch from the Satish Dhawan Space Launch Centre at Sriharikota, when the satellite
separated from the launch vehicle.

8. INTRODUCTION TO SETI
Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence (SETI) is the collective name for a number of
activities to detect intelligent extraterrestrial life. The general approach of SETI projects is to
survey the sky to detect the existence of transmissions from a civilization on a distant planet – an
approach widely viewed by the scientific community as hard science. The United States
Government contributed to SETI early on, but recent work has been primarily funded by private
sources.
There are great challenges in searching across the sky for a first transmission that could
be characterized as intelligent, since its direction, spectrum and method of communication are all
unknown beforehand. SETI projects necessarily make assumptions to narrow the search, and
thus no exhaustive search has so far been conducted.
The first 360 feet (110 m) wide, 500 feet (150 m) long, and 70 feet (21 m) high Kraus-
style radio telescope was powered up in 1963. In the March 1955 issue of Scientific American,
Dr. John Kraus, Professor Emeritus and McDougal Professor of Electrical Engineering and
Astronomy at the Ohio State University, described a concept to scan the cosmos for natural radio
signals using a flat-plane radio telescope equipped with a parabolic reflector. Within two years,
his concept was approved for construction by the Ohio State University. With $71,000 total in
grants from the National Science Foundation, construction began on a 20-acre plot in Delaware,
Ohio. This Ohio State University radio telescope was called Big Ear. Later, it began the world's
first continuous SETI program, called the Ohio State University SETI program.

9. FUTURE OF DEEP SPACE COMMUNICATION
There's a good chance that humans will travel to Mars before we see the beginning of a
new century. How will we communicate with these distant travelers? Scientists, engineers and
programmers are already working to develop an interplanetary Internet that will connect us to
probes and human space travelers, and allow more information to be sent back to Earth.
9.1 Interplanetary Internet

You can talk to almost anyone, in any corner of the world, almost instantly because of the
Internet and other advances in electronic communication. Scientists and space explorers now are
looking for a way to communicate almost instantly beyond Earth. The next phase of the Internet
will take us to far reaches of our solar system, and lay the groundwork for a communications
system for a manned mission to Mars and planets beyond. If we ever want to find out more about
other planets, we will need a better communication system for future space missions. Today,
communication in space moves at a snail's pace compared to communication on Earth. There are
several reasons for this:
• Distance -- On Earth, we are only a fraction of a light second apart, making Earth
communication nearly instantaneous over the Internet. As you move farther out into
space, however, there is a delay of minutes or hours because light has to travel millions of
miles, instead of thousands of miles, between transmitter and receiver.
• Line of sight obstruction -- Anything that blocks the space between the signal transmitter
and receiver can interrupt communication.
• Weight -- High-powered antennas that would improve communication with deep space
probes are often too heavy to send on a space mission, because the payload must be light
and efficiently used.
Take a look at the 1997 Mars Pathfinder rover mission and you will understand space
explorers need an interplanetary Internet for deep space communications. Data from the
Pathfinder trickled back at an average rate of about 300 bits per second during its mission. Most
likely, your computer can transfer data at least 200 times faster than that. An Internet between

Mars and Earth would likely yield a data transfer rate of 11,000 bits per second. That is still
much slower than your computer's transfer rate, but it would be enough to send back more
detailed images of the Mars surface. Mars Network researchers think that the transfer rate could
eventually go to about 1 Megabyte (8,288,608 bits) per second and allow anyone to take a virtual
trip to Mars.
An interplanetary Internet is like the Earth's Internet on a grand scale and with some
improvements. Here are the three basic components of the proposed interplanetary Internet:
• NASA's Deep Space Network (DSN).
• A six-satellite constellation around Mars.
• A new protocol for transferring data.
The DSN is the international network of antennas used by NASA to track data and control
navigation of interplanetary spacecraft. It is designed to allow for continuous radio
communication with the spacecraft. In an interplanetary Internet, the DSN will be the Earth's
gateway or portal to that Internet. In a paper published by the MITRE Corp., a company that is
financing the Interplanetary Internet Study, researchers suggest that the DSN's antennas could be
pointed at Mars to connect Earth and Mars for at least 12 hours each day. Satellites orbiting Mars
should provide a full-time connection between the two planets. A Martian rover, probe or human
colony will provide a Mars portal to the interplanetary Internet. Under the Mars Network plan,
the DSN will interact with a constellation of six microsatellites and one large Marsat satellite
placed in low Mars orbit. These six microsats are relay satellites for spacecraft on or near the
surface of the planet, and they will allow more data to come back from Mars missions. The
Marsat will collect data from each of the smaller satellites and beam it to Earth. It will also keep
Earth and distant spacecraft connected continuously and allow for high-bandwidth data and
video of the planet, according to Mars Network officials. NASA could launch a microsat as early
as 2003, with the six-microsat constellation orbiting Mars by 2009. In 2007, the Marsat is
scheduled to be placed in a slightly higher orbit than the constellation. All of these dates are still
very tentative.
Programmers are developing an Internet file transfer protocol to transmit the messages and
overcome delays and interruptions. This protocol will act as the backbone of the entire system

much as the Internet protocol (IP) and transmission control protocol (TCP) operate on Earth. IP
and TCP, co-developed in the 1970s by Dr. Vinton Cerf, are the messenger service for our Earth-
based Internet. These two protocols break up transmitted messages into packets of small data
units and route them to a specified destination.
Cerf is part of the team of scientists who are developing a new protocol to enable reliable file
transfer over the long distances between planets and spacecraft. This new space protocol must
keep the Internet running even if some packets of data are lost during transmission. It must also
block out noise picked up while crossing millions of miles. One idea for the space protocol is
called the parcel transfer protocol (PTP), which will store and forward data at the gateway of
each planet. The protocol would process an information request sent to a gateway and forward it
to a final destination. The gateway would then check, process and forward information back
down the path it came.
9.2 Astronomical Challenges

An interplanetary Internet will make data move drastically faster between Earth and the
probes and other spacecraft that are millions of miles away. Engineers need to overcome several
challenges before we plan our virtual journey to Mars through cyberspace. These challenges are:
• The speed-of-light delay.
• Satellite maintenance.
• The possibility of hacker break-ins.
On Earth, two computers connected to the Internet are only a few thousand miles away at
the most. Because light travels at 186,000 miles per second, it takes only a few fractions of a
second to send a packet of data from one computer to another. In contrast, distances between a
station on Earth and one on Mars can be between 38 million miles (56 million km) and 248
million miles (400 million km). At these distances, it can take several minutes or hours for a
radio signal to reach a receiving station. An interplanetary Internet will not be able to duplicate
the real-time immediacy of the Internet that you use. The store-and-forward method will allow
information to be sent in bundles and overcome the concern of data being lost due to delays.
The satellites of the Mars Network will be tens or hundreds of millions of miles from
Earth and that means that it will be hard to get up there to fix things when they go wrong. The
components of these satellites would have to be much more reliable than those circling Earth.

Hackers pose the biggest threat to an interplanetary Internet. Break-ins and corruption of
navigation or communication systems could be disastrous for space missions, and even cause
deaths in manned-spacecraft missions. Developers are taking every precaution to design a system
that will be able to control access. The protocol selected will have to be impenetrable to hackers,
something that has not been possible on Earth. Developers may look at the Secure Sockets Layer
(SSL) protocol used for financial transactions as a model for securing the interplanetary Internet.
The interplanetary Internet will possibly wire us to Mars within the decade and to other
planets in the decades to follow. It will no longer be necessary to go into space to experience
space travel. Instead, space will be brought right to your desktop. With enhancements made to
boost data rate transfers, you and I might soon be able to take a virtual space trip to the
mountains of Mars, the rings of Saturn or the giant spot on Jupiter.
10. CONCLUSION
Since all these spacecraft are controlled by the DSN. There are a number of limitations to the
current DSN, and a number of challenges going forward.
• There is only one DSN site in the Southern Hemisphere, Canberra. There are no DSN
network dishes in South America or Southern Africa, so the DSN coverage of the
Southern Hemisphere is limited.
• The need to support "legacy" missions that have remained operational beyond their
original lifetimes but are still returning scientific data. Programs such as Voyager have
been operating long past their original mission termination date. They also need some of
the largest antennas.

• The DSN's deferred maintenance of its 70m antennas. This causes problems where they
are out of service for months at a time. Furthermore, they are reaching the end of their
lives. At some point they will need to be replaced. The leading candidate is an array of
smaller dishes.
• By 2020, the DSN will be required to support twice the number of missions it was
supporting in 2005.
Also the new development in Interplanetary Internet and optical communication networks
it is possible for the DSN efficiency to increase.
By 2015 NASA is planning for a second Moon mission and by end of 2030 a manned
mission to Mars. These all require a powerful Earth communication Network.
11. REFERENCE
[1] Xiao Song, Li Yunsong, Bai Baoming, ZhouYouxi, “The Key Technologies of Deep Space
Communications” ISN National Key Lab, Xidian University, China 2006
[2] Forest Fisher, Russell Knight, Barbara Engelhardt, Steve Chien,Niko Alejandre, “Monitor
and Control of Deep Space Communications through AI Planning.” Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
California Institute of Technology,4800 Oak Grove Drive, M/S 126-347,Pasadena, California.
[3] How Spacecraft Will Communicate “on the Fly”, NASA CICT Program Office Ames
Research Center. www.cict.nasa.gov/infusion
[4] William J. Hurd, Polly Estabrook, Caroline S. Racho, Edgar H. Satorius , “Critical
Spacecraft-to-Earth Communications for Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Entry, Descent and
Landing” Jet Propulsion Laboratory ,4800 Oak Grove Drive ,Pasadena, California.
[5] "NASA Tests First Deep-Space Internet." PHYSorg.com. 18 Nov 2008.

www.physorg.com/news146245446.html

[6] http://deepspace.jpl.nasa.gov/dsn/
[7] http://www.space.com/searchforlife/
[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_spaceflight

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Seminar 2009 Deep Space Communication

Dept of ECE 1 College of Engineering Munnar

Dept of ECE 2 College of Engineering Munnar

2.1 Low Gain Antenna

• Track me when you can

• Track before a certain time

• Help! Red alert!

2.2 High Gain Antenna

3. DEEP SPACE NETWORK

Dept of ECE 3 College of Engineering Munnar

3.1 History of Deep Space Network

Dept of ECE 4 College of Engineering Munnar

3.2 Present Condition

• The Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex outside of Barstow, California,

Each facility is situated in semi-mountainous, bowl-shaped terrain to shield against radio

NASA's scientific investigation of

Dept of ECE 5 College of Engineering Munnar

The antennas and data delivery systems make it possible to:

• Acquire telemetry data from spacecraft.

• Transmit commands to spacecraft.

• Track spacecraft position and velocity.

• Perform Very Long Baseline Interferometry observations.

• Measure variations in radio waves for radio science experiments.

• Gather science data.

• Monitor and control the performance of the network.

3.3 Antennas in DSN

• One 34-meter (111-ft) diameter High Efficiency antenna.

• One 26-meter (85 ft) antenna.

• One 70-meter (230 ft) antenna.

Dept of ECE 6 College of Engineering Munnar

Antenna arraying combines the signals received by multiple antennas at different

Dept of ECE 7 College of Engineering Munnar

some of the functions of DSN are shown below

4.2 Spacecraft Command

Dept of ECE 8 College of Engineering Munnar

4.3 Radiometric Tracking

4.4 Very Long Baseline Interferometry

means of directly measuring plane-of-the-sky angular positions of radio sources (natural or

4.5 Radio Science

4.6 Monitor and Control

Dept of ECE 9 College of Engineering Munnar

5.1 The theory and challenges of deep space communications

Dept of ECE 10 College of Engineering Munnar

5.2 Frequency used by DSN

S-Band 1.55 – 5.2 GHz (2.3 GHz)

X-Band 5.2 – 10.9 GHz (8.4 GHz)

Ka-Band 20 – 40 GHz (32 GHz)

Dept of ECE 11 College of Engineering Munnar

5.3 Coding used in DSN

5.4 Bandwidth Efficient Modulation (DSN)

Dept of ECE 12 College of Engineering Munnar

5.5 Multiple Spacecraft Per Antenna (MSPA)

Dept of ECE 13 College of Engineering Munnar

5.7 Critical Event Communications

5.8 Unmanned Spacecraft Tracking

Dept of ECE 14 College of Engineering Munnar

5.8.1 Mars Exploration Rovers

5.8.2 EDL sequence

Dept of ECE 15 College of Engineering Munnar

Figure 5.1 steps of EDL sequence of MER.

5.8.3 Communications Links

Dept of ECE 16 College of Engineering Munnar

5.9 Spacecraft Emergencies

Dept of ECE 17 College of Engineering Munnar