Wetlands Ecology and Management 10: 421–452, 2002.

© 2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. 421

Bioactivities, bioactive compounds and chemical constituents of mangrove

plants

W.M. Bandaranayake
Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB No. 3, Townsville, MC, Q, 4810, Australia,
E-mail: banda@aims.gov.au

Received 30 August 2001; accepted in revised form 18 March 2002

Key words: chemical classes, chemical structures, mangal associates, medicinal and traditional uses

Abstract
This review article presents the traditional and medicinal uses, and examines recent investigations on the biological
activities of extracts, and chemicals identified from mangroves and mangal associates. Metabolites identified from
mangrove plants are classified according to ‘chemical classes’, and some of their structures are illustrated. The
article also presents some of the functions of the chemicals present and attempt to emphasize and create an
awareness of the great of potential mangroves and mangal associates possess as a source of novel agrochemicals,
compounds of medicinal value, and a new source of many already known biologically active compounds.

Introduction than 80% of marine catches are directly or indirectly

Mangroves have long been a source of astonishment
for the layman and of interest for scientist. For many
people living in the Indo-West Pacific and Americas-
East Atlantic regions, the word mangrove will be a
familiar one. For a selected few, long standing famili-
arity is based, perhaps on vague and romantic mental
pictures of waterlogged woodlands in which tangled
aerial root systems foil the would-be explorer. How-
ever, majority sees them as swamps, which are ridden
with mosquitoes and sandflies, inhospitable, unhealthy
and dangerous. There is another category of the popu-
lation where their knowledge of mangroves is derived
from recent publicity given by concerned conserva-
tionists to preserve the ever-dwindling mangrove areas
of the world. Yet others living in these regions and rest
of the world have little or no concept of what it is that
constitutes the mangroves.
The collective noun mangrove designates a inter-
tidal wetland ecosystem formed by a very special
association of animals and plants which proliferate
luxuriantly in the coastal areas and river estuaries
through out the low lying tropical and sub-tropical
latitudes. These wetland ecosystems are among the
most productive and diverse in the world and more
dependent on mangrove and other coastal ecosystems
worldwide. They occupy large tracts along sheltered
coasts, estuaries and in deltas where they are in-
fluenced by tides and widely different conditions of
salinity and rainfall regimes. They are also found
around coastal lagoons, communicating with the sea
and where the effect of tides may be weak and the
salinity very low. The term mangrove is also used
to designate halophytic (salt loving) and salt resistant
marine tidal forests comprising of trees, shrubs, palms,
epiphytes, ground ferns and grasses, which are associ-
ated in stands or groves (166). Mangroves are usually
found only in tropical climates, as they need consist-
ently warm conditions for development and survival.
They occur approximately in 112 countries and ter-
ritories (94) and are largely confined to the regions
between 30’ north and south of the equator. Notably,
extension beyond this are to the north in Bermuda (32’
20’ N), Japan (31’ 22’ N), and to the south in Aus-
tralia (38’ 45’ S), New Zealand (38’ 03’ S) and on
the East Coast of South Africa (32’ 59’ S). Among re-
cent methods used to assess the quantity of mangrove
wealth in a country, remote sensing is now considered
the most practical technique for mangrove inventory.
Humans have been residents of mangrove wetlands for
422
centuries. As the coastal zone is home to approxim-
ately 65% of the global population, they are of great
importance to many people who live along tropical
shorelines. In countries such as Indonesia, mangroves
provided protection for people, a function often in-
valuable in a region long renowned for its piracy and
kidnapping forays. Mangroves have traditionally been
important habitat for certain maritime people in South-
east Asia, such as Orang Laut of Malaysia and western
Indonesia. Furthermore, mangroves typically border
streams and river mouths sites, which were particu-
larly favorable for settlement because of accessibility
and availability of fresh water.
Mangroves can be classified into three broad cat-
egories. True mangroves are mainly restricted to in-
tertidal areas between the high water levels of neap
and spring tides. Plant species from true mangroves
belong to at least 20 different families. About 80 spe-
cies of true mangrove trees/shrubs are recognized, of
which 50–60 species make a significant contribution
to the structure of mangrove forests. Minor species
of mangroves are distinguished by their inability to
form conspicuous elements of the vegetation and they
rarely form pure communities. The mangal associates,
are salinity tolerant plant species, which are not found
exclusively in the proximity of mangroves and may
occur only in transitional vegetation, landwards and
seawards. However, they do interact with true man-
groves (18, 207). Mangroves (mangroves, mangrove
minors and mangal associates) are highly productive
ecosystem with various important economic and envir-
onmental functions. The uses of mangroves are often
quoted in scientific and popular articles (18, 210) and
fall in two major categories: Firstly the indirect use
of the mangrove ecosystem are in the form of vital
ecological functions such as control of coastal erosion
and protection of coastal land, stabilization of sedi-
ment, natural purification of coastal water from pollu-
tion. Secondly, the economic benefits which are many
and varied. Apart from prawn fisheries, many other
species of economic importance are associated with
mangroves; these include crabs, shrimp, oysters, lob-
sters and fish. Traditionally, the mangroves have been
exploited for firewood and charcoal and their uses in-
clude construction of dwellings, furniture, boats and
fishing gear and production of tannins for dying and
leather production. Mangroves provide food and a
wide variety of traditional products and artifacts for
mangrove dwellers. The mangrove leaves are useful
contributors to the nutrient system of the mangrove
environment. It is known that mangrove leaves contain
sufficient amounts of minerals, vitamins and amino
acids, which are essential for the growth, and nour-
ishment of marine organisms and livestock. Mangrove
foliage plays an important role in the formation of de-
tritus, which is utilized by several estuarine and marine
detritovorous organisms, and mangrove leaves make
a superior fodder due to their high salt and iodine
content (18, 173, 210).
Two basic factors justify the study of the chemical
constituents of mangrove plants.
Firstly, mangroves are one of the easiest tropical
forest types to generate. They have the ability to grow
where no other vascular plants can. The mangroves
exist under stressful conditions such as violent envir-
onments, high concentration of moisture, high and low
tides of water, and abundant living microorganisms
and insects. They thrive in a very peculiar environment
and serve as a bridging ecosystem between freshwa-
ter and marine systems. These have imposed several
modifications in these plants. They possess an un-
usual morphology and physiognomy and the path of
photosynthesis in mangroves is different from other
glycophytes. They possess modifications to establish
water and salt economy. There are modifications or
alterations in other physiological processes such as
carbohydrate metabolism or polyphenol synthesis and
due to these reasons, they may have chemical com-
pounds, which protect them from these destructive
elements.
The second reason is that numerous mangrove
plants are been used in folklore medicine, and recently,
extracts from mangroves and mangrove-dependent
species have proven activity against human, animal
and plant pathogens but only limited investigations
have been carried out to identify the metabolites re-
sponsible for their bioactivities.
Chemical classes identified from mangrove plants
Metabolites, some with novel chemical structures, and
belonging to a diversity of ‘chemical classes’, have
been characterized from mangroves and mangal asso-
ciates. Aliphatic alcohols and acids, amino acids and
alkaloids, carbohydrates, carotenoids, hydrocarbons,
free fatty acids including polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFAs), lipids, pheromones, phorbol esters, phen-
olics, and related compounds, steroids, triterpenes,
and their glycosides, tannins, other terpenes and re-
lated compounds, are among these classes. Among
the latest additions are an array of substances from

gums and glues to alkaloids and saponins and other
substances of interest to modern industry and medi-
cine. Chemicals such as amino acids, carbohydrates
and proteins, are products of primary metabolism and
are vital for the maintenance of life processes, while
others like alkaloids, phenolics, steroids, terpenoids,
are products of secondary metabolism and have toxic-
ological, pharmacological and ecological importance.
Heterocyclic compounds
Heterocycles are those molecules having rings com-
posed of both carbon and one or more heteroatoms,
chiefly, nitrogen (i), oxygen (ii) and sulfur (iii). They
can be unsaturated or ‘aromatic’ heterocycles (i, ii) or
saturated heterocycles (iii, iv), and are usually be five
or six membered. They exist either as ‘independent’
rings or fused normally to benzene rings (i, v). Al-
kaloids, chromenes, coumarins, flavonoids, xanthones
etc. belong to this general class.
Alkaloids
Alkaloids are nitrogenous bases (usually heterocyc-
lic), and are structurally the most diverse class of
secondary metabolites (60). They range from simple
structures (i, iii, vi) to complex ones such as those of
many neurotoxins. In very rare instances they contain
sulfur (iii, vii, viii), as encountered in the diothiolanes
isolated from species of Brugeira. Their manifold
pharmacological activities have always excited man’s
interest, and selected plant products containing alkal-
oids have been used as poison for hunting, murder and
euthanasia, as euphoriants, psychedelics, stimulants
and medicine. Basic nitrogen compounds from higher
plants include many representatives that are potent in-
hibitors of various oxidative processes both in vivo and
in vitro.
Carbohydrates, lignins and polysaccharides
The carbohydrates or saccharides (‘hydrate of car-
bon’) of general formula Cn (H2 O)n are mostly sweet
compounds (hence the term sugar) are found abund-
antly in higher terrestrial plants, fungi, and seaweed
and consist of compounds such as sugars, starch, and
cellulose (60). The simple sugars or monosaccharides
of known molecular weight are either polyhydroxy
423
aldehydes or ketones. Glucose is by far the most com-
mon carbohydrate, and although it occurs free in a
variety fruit juices, honey etc., it is more commonly
encountered in polymers such as cellulose and starch
which are termed polysaccharides. Lignins (ix) are
non-carbohydrate polymers present in wood. The in-
soluble polysaccharide in plant is cellulose, while sol-
uble polysaccharides serve as carbohydrate food stor-
age: Starch in plants and glycogen in animals. Poly-
saccharides of plant origin have emerged as important
class of bioactive natural products. Those isolated
from fungi usually show anti-tumor activity, while
polysaccharides of higher plants possess immuno-
stimulatory, anti-complementary, anti-inflammatory,
hypoglycemic, and anti-viral activities and algal poly-
saccharides, which often contain sulfate anions, are
good anti-coagulants. Carbohydrates in general, are
essential constituents of all living organisms and are
associated with a variety of vital functions, which
sustain life.
Fatty acids and lipids
Fatty acids are long chain alkanoic acids and refer
principally to straight chain, saturated or unsaturated
monocarboxylic acids with an even number of carbon
atoms, usually 12 to 28 in number. The term also
includes Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA’s) and
such derived structures as unsaturated, hydroxylated,
branched acids. These fatty acids are ubiquitous in
nature. They are found only in trace amounts in liv-
ing cells in their free, unesterified form, and are of
greatest importance as components of lipids which,
upon alkaline hydrolysis, afford the alkali metal salts
of the fatty acids other components. These include the
acylglycerols, the waxes and other species.
Anthocyanins, flavonoids phenolics and quinones
The expression ‘phenolic compounds’ embraces a vast
range of organic substances, which are aromatic com-
pounds with hydroxyl substituents and some possess-
ing antibiotic properties. Most are polyphenolic and
flavonoids (ii) form the largest group, which occur
widely in the plant kingdom (60). However, phenolic
quinones, lignans, xanthones, coumarins and other
classes exist in considerable numbers. In addition to
monomeric and dimeric structures, there are three im-
portant groups of phenolic polymers- lignins, black
424

Figures (i)–(xvi). (i) n-Methyflindersine, an alkaloid from X. granatum; (ii) Tricin; (iii) Brugine, an alkaloid from B. sexangula; (iv) Xylomollin,
a monoterpenoid from X. molluscensis; (v) Benzoxazolinone; (vi) Fagaronine, an alkaloid from F. zanthoxyloides; (vii) Gerradine; (viii)
Cassipourine; (ix) Basic unit of lignin; (x) A chalcone from P. pinnata; (xi) Cyanidin, an anthocyanidin; (xii) Rotenone; (xiii) Basic unit of
proanthocyanidin; (xiv) A phytoallexin, a naphthofuranone; (xv) Linalool, a monoterpene; (xvi) A diterpene from C. inerme.

melanin pigments of plants, and the tannins of woody
plants. Plant polyphenols are economically important
because they make major contributions to the taste
and flavor (tea, and beer), and color (red wine) of
our food and drink. In nature, phenolics protect plants
from herbivores, and act as chemical signals in the
flowering and pollination and in the process of plant
symbiosis and parasitism. It has been recognized for
some time that several classes of flavonoids play a
significant role in many physiological processes and
show antioxidant and fungicidal activity (110) and are
natural antihistamines. Flavonoid, and flavonol-lignan
derivatives inhibit lipid peroxidation and are potent
quenchers of triplet oxygen. A variety of modifica-
tions of the flavonoid skeleton lead to a large class
of compounds that includes isoflavones, isoflavonones
and chalcones, Some isoflavones are now been mar-
keted as therapeutic agents for menstrual disorders.
Polyhydroxylated chalcones (x), such as those found
in Pongamia pinnata, which are biosynthetic inter-
mediates between cinnamic acids and flavonoids also
show considerable antioxidant activity. Anthocyanins,
are pigments, which occur as glycosides (often gluc-
osides), hydrolysis of, which provides colored agly-
cones, known as anthocyanidins (xi). The isoflavone,
rotenone (xii), is a natural insecticide. The term ‘pro-
anthocyanidin’ (xiii) is not structurally explicit, but
is based solely upon the experimental observation
that these colorless compounds yield anthocyanidins
upon treatment with strong acids (177, 190). They
are astringent to the taste and have the ability to tan
leather. Indeed, the so called ‘condensed tannins’ be-
long to this class of substances. ‘Oxidized’ phenolic
compounds are commonly referred to as quinones.
Phytoalexins
A wide range of organic compounds, collectively
called phytoalexins, many of them fungitoxic or fungi-
static, appear in the sapwood of trees after wounding,
injury or fungal attack. A diverse range of chem-
ical classes including alcohols, alkaloids, flavonoids,
lignans, polyketides, polyacetylenes, quinones (xiv),
stilbene-derived compounds and terpenes have been
identified as phytoalexins.
Tannins
Tannins are polyphenolic substances widely distrib-
uted among higher plants. They differ from most other
425
natural phenolic compounds in their ability to pre-
cipitate proteins such as gelatin from solution. This
property, sometimes called astringency, is the reason
for their past and present use in the tanning of animal
skin. Tannins are distributed in two groups accord-
ing to their structures: Proanthocyanidins (condensed
tannins) and hydrolysable or water-soluble tannins
(Scalbert, 1991; Stafford, 1988). The class of natural
polymers variously referred to as condensed tannins,
flavotannins, proanthocyanidins or flavolans have the
general formula (xiii), with ‘n’ varying from 2 to
∼20. Upon heating with alcoholic hydrochloric acid,
they yield anthocyanidin pigments. Proanthocyanidins
are found in many food products such as tea, co-
coa, sorghum or carob pods. Hydrolysable tannins
are esters of phenolic acids (e.g. gallic acid and gal-
lotannins) and a polyol, which is usually glucose. The
leather tanning industry requires water-soluble tan-
nins. Although tannins probably evolved in plants as a
defense against microbial attack, they are also instru-
mental in regulating terrestrial herbivory from preda-
tion, either by increasing resistance against pathogens
or by protecting essential tissues such as wood against
decay. Increasing attention is also being paid to the
use of tannins as antimicrobial agents (e.g. wood pre-
servation) or prevention of dental caries. They impart
flavor to wines. Recently, evidence has been obtained
in support of their potential value as cytotoxic or anti-
neoplastic agents. In addition, tannins are now being
used in the manufacture of plastics, paints, ceramics
and water softening agents. Members of the families
Avicenniaceae, Rhizophoraceae, and Sonneratiaceae
are rich source of tannins (17).
Limonoids, terpenes, steroids and saponins
The diverse, widespread, and exceedingly numerous
family of natural products constructed from five car-
bon building-units (isoprenyl carbon skeleton) and so
comprising compounds with C5 , C10 , C15 , C20 , . . .,
C40 skeletons, are synonymously termed terpenoids,
terpenes, or isoprenoids, with the important subgroup
of steroids sometimes singled out as a class in its
own right. However, as more and more terpenoid
compounds were discovered, their structures departed
from, or ‘violated’ this ‘isoprene’ rule. These com-
pounds are typically found in all parts of higher plants
and also occur in mosses, liverworts, algae etc. Mem-
bers of the class, as components of oil or in extracts,
have been used since antiquity as ingredients of fla-
426

Figures (xvii)–(xxix). (xvii) β-Amyrin, a triterpene; (xviii) β-Carotene, a carotenoid; (xix) Stigmasterol; (xx) A steroidal saponin; (xxi) A
triterpenoidal saponin; (xxii) Xyloccensin, a limonoid from X. granatum; (xxiii) An anilide from A. donax; (xxiv) 1-Triacontanol, a long chain
aliphatic alcohol; (xxv) A substituted cyclobutane diimine from A. donax; (xxvi) Rocaglamide, a benzofuran derivative from A. odorata; (xxvii)
Brugierol, a 1,2-dithiolane from B. cylindrica; (xxviii) Hygroline; (xxix) Vallapin, a sesquiterpenoid piscicide from H. littoralis.

vors, preservatives, perfumes, medicines, narcotics,
soaps and pigments. The number of isoprene units
they contain in their structures subdivides terpenes
into monoterpenes (C10 compounds) (xv) sesquiter-
penes (C15 ) diterpenes (C20 ) (xvi), and triterpenes
(C30 ). Triterpenes are the most common terpenes in
plants, usually with pentacyclic structures like those
of amyrin (xvii). The most common example of tet-
raterpenes (C40 ) are the carotenoids (xviii), which are
pigments whose principal recognized role is to act
as photoreceptive ‘antenna pigments’ for photosyn-
thesis. Some of them also have a protective function
against oxidative damage. Some of the terpenes were
known from antiquity and were employed as medi-
cines. Steroids (xix) are merely modified triterpenes
and are widespread in both animal and plant king-
doms and many microorganisms. The saponins have
attracted much attention in recent years because of
their varied biological properties, some of which are
deleterious, but many of which are beneficial to human
health (120). They are plant glycosides, which have
the property of forming a soapy lather when shaken
with water. They are used in traditional and modern
medicine and in food and agriculture and are classi-
fied as steroidal (xx) or triterpenoidal (xxi) saponins
depending upon the nature of the aglycone: The sapo-
genin. A third groups of saponins, which are called
basic steroid saponins, contain nitrogen analogues of
steroid sapogenins as aglycones. The primitive people
knew the use of saponins as natural detergents and the
leaves containing them are used as natural soaps. Most
molluscicides of plant origin are saponins and these
compounds are toxic to fish. Triterpenoidal sapon-
ins exhibit divergent antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory,
antibiotic, hemolytic analgesic, hypoglycemic, an-
thelmintic and cytotoxic activities. The use of plant
saponins in a liposomal drug delivery system has
been demonstrated. The interesting pharmacological
properties associated with the Chinese drug ‘ginseng’,
which is considered a panacea and a drug for longev-
ity, is attributed to the various saponins present in
it. Steroidal saponins are commercially sought after
as starting materials for the synthesis of steroidal
hormones. Limonoids (xxii) are modified triterpenes.
They are the most distinctive secondary metabolites of
the plant order Rutales. In particular, they character-
ize members of the family Meliaceae, where they are
diverse and abundant and to a limited extent, in the
family Rutaceae. Recently limonoids have attracted
much attention because of the marked insect antifeed-
ant, insecticidal, antifungal, bactericidal, and antiviral
427
activity, growth regulating properties, and a variety of
medicinal effects in animals and humans (33). The bit-
terness of fresh citrus juice is due to flavonones. The
bitter taste gradually increases after expression and the
causative factor was found to be due to limonoids.
Medicinal uses, bioactivity of extracts, and
metabolites characterised from selected
mangroves and mangal associates
Acanthus illicifolius, a plant useful in the treatment
of paralysis, asthma, rheumatic pains and possess-
ing analgesic, anti-inflammatory and, leishmanicidal
activities, is a rich source of long chain alcohols,
triterpenes, steroids and triterpenoidal saponins. Stig-
masterol (xix), a common plant steroid, abundantly
present in A. illicifolius and many other mangrove
plants, has been shown to have hypercholesterolemic
effects. 2-Benzoxazoline (v), a synthetic compound
used extensively as a central nervous system depress-
ant, also exhibiting antipyretic, hypnotic, and muscle
relaxant activity has been isolated from the plant.
Benzoxazoline also showed resistance to fungi. Fur-
thermore, the ribose derivatives of this compound are
active as anticancer and anti-viral agents (88, 101,
140). Jongsuvat (1981) found that the extracts of
the plant were not toxic to experimental mice but
displayed significant anti-leukemic activity. A novel
alkaloid, acanthicifolin, has been isolated from the
plant (103). Benzoquinones have been identified from
Aegicers corniculatum and Kandelia candel. Decoc-
tions made from the rhizome of the reed grass Arundo
donax has been used as emollients and diuretics and
are said to stimulate menstrual discharge and dimin-
ish secretion of milk. Triterpenes, sterols, alkaloids,
and the novel compound, N-(4’-bromophenyl)-2,2-
diphenylacetanilide (xxiii), hitherto known only as
a synthetic compound, has been isolated from dif-
ferent parts of this plant. Bioassays indicated that
while sterols showed limited anti-feedant activity,
significant activity was shown by the isolates tricon-
tanol (xxiv), tricin (ii), and tetramethyl-N, N-bis
(2,6-dimethylphenyl) cyclobutane-1, 3-diimine (xxv)
(138). Tricin (ii), a flavonoid, is the metabolite com-
mon to most mangroves showing anti-feedant activity.
Known triterpenes, steroids, and a novel triterpenoid
ester have been isolated from Acrostichum aureum and
Rhizophora apiculata, a mangrove fern and tree re-
spectively, The extracts of these plants are being used
in folklore medicine (102, 103, 193). Rocaglamide
428
(xxvi), a substituted benzofuran, along with its con-
geners, has been identified as the active insecticidal
constituent of the Chinese rice flower bush Aglaia
odorata. Clopentabenzofuran, and aglaiastatin, two
protein synthesis inhibitors, have also been identified
(78, 80, 148, 175). Anti-plasmodial and cytotoxic
activities of Alstonia macrophylla are due to an ar-
ray of alkaloids present in the extracts. Avicennia
alba is a rich source of naphthoquinones. Injection
of the tissues of A.marina by a fungus belonging to
the genus Phytophthora produced three chemically
related phytoalexins (xiv). Naphthoquinone derivat-
ives occurring in the Diospyros species have potent
anti-tumor promoting activity. Novel sesquiterpenoid
quinones and related compounds have been character-
ized from the mangal associates. Tannin from species
of Diospyros has anti-hemorrhages (snakebite) effects.
Plants of the family Rhizophoraceae may be gener-
ally divided into mangrove species and inland species.
Either group of the plants contains organic sulfur
containing compounds. The alkaloids brugine (iii)
and gerradine (vii) are 1,2-dithiolane (sulfur contain-
ing) compounds, have been isolated from Bruguiera
sexangula (mangrove species) and Cassipourea ger-
rardii (mangal associate) respectively. Extracts of
B.sexangula bark were active against two tumors, Sar-
coma 180 and Lewis Lung Carcinoma. The activity
was partly associated with tannins and partly with
tannin-free aqueous residue containing the alkaloid
brugine (iii) as well as tropine and its acetic acid es-
ter. The alkaloids were found to be toxic (118, 219).
Kato and coworkers (96, 97) identified 1,2-dithiolane
compounds, brugierol (xxvii), isobrugierol, and 4-
hydroxy-1, 2-dithiolane-1-oxide, from the mangrove
species B. conjugata. Brugierol and several of its
synthetic derivatives such as the carbamates, phos-
phates, and N, N-dialkylates of dithiolane or trithiane
showed antibacterial and insecticidal activities. Kato
and Hashimoto (97) established to a certain extent,
the relationship between insecticidal activity and the
chemical structures of the natural metabolites and
their synthetic analogues. The bark of Gymnotroches
axillaris has yielded hygroline (xxviii).
Metabolites belonging to different ‘chemical
classes’ have been identified as antifungal agents and
in chemical narcosing of fish. Antifungal metabolites
include alkaloids, flavonoids and related compounds,
modified fatty acids, oxygen heterocyclics, proantho-
cyanidins, quinones, stilbenes, terpenoids and triter-
penoid saponins. The extracts of the bark and root of
the mollucidal and piscicidal plant Balanites aegyp-
tiaca, are also used for the treatment of abdominal
pains, as a purgative, and as an anthelmintic, while
the bark is employed as a detergent, fish poison, and
also as a remedy for malaria and syphilis (129). The
leaf is edible and has been once regarded as an effect-
ive medicine for sleeping sickness. The effects of oral
administration of crude saponin extract of the plant
caused myositis or peritonitis among chicks. The pis-
cicidal effect of B. aegyptaica to the Nile Tilapia and
the molluscicidal activity is due the metabolites balan-
itin, 1,2, and 3 (116, 208). The saponins are the main
constituent responsible for the piscicidal activity of
Aegiceras majus, Derris trifoliata, D. elliptica, and D.
urucu. Rotenone (xii), a well-known fish poison and a
natural insecticide (141), is found among tropical plant
species such as, Derris, Lonchocarpus, and Tephro-
sia. The sesquiterpenes heritianin, heritol, heritonin,
vallapin (xxix) and vallapianin are the ichthyotoxins
isolated from the mangrove plant Heritiera littoralis.
Vallapin and vallapianin also showed activity against
Boll Weevils (137). A triterpene ester isolated from
H. littoralis showed significant anti-fungal and Boll
Weevil anti-feedant activities (103). The piscicidal
activity of the extracts of Aegiceras corniculatum is
due the benzoquinones embelin (xxx) and 5-O-methyl
embelin (xxxi). 5-O-Methyl embelin also inhibited
the growth of the fungi Pythium ultimum. Fagaron-
ine (2-hydroxy-3, 8, 9-trimethoxy-5-methylbenzo(c)
phenanthridine) (vi), an antileukemic alkaloid, has
been isolated from Fagara zanthoxyloides. The al-
kaloid was found to be bactericidal but not muta-
genic. Caesalpinia bonducella, extensively used in
Jamaican folk medicine is a rich source of furanod-
iterpenes collectively referred to as caesalpins (xxxii)
(155). The oleoresin from the bark of Callophyl-
lum inophyllum (Guttiferae) is used as a cicatrisant,
whereas an infusion or decoction of the leaves has
been traditionally used for the treatment of eye dis-
eases and as an ingredient in aromatic powders and
liniments. Anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, and pha-
gocytosis stimulant activities have been reported for
this plant. Guttiferaceous species are a rich source of
xanthones (xxxiii), biflavonoids, benzophenones, neo-
flavonoids, and coumarin derivatives (156). Recently,
various bioactivities such as cytotoxic, and antitu-
mour, anti-inflammatory, antifungal, enhancement of
choline acetyltransferase activity, and inhibition of
lipid peroxidase due to xanthones have been revealed.
Two new xanthones, calaxanthones A (xxxiii) and
B have been isolated from the root bark of C. in-
ophyllum. The giant African snail, Achatina fulica,
 429

Figures (xxx)–(xlv). (xxx) Embelin; (xxxi) 5-O-Methyl embelin; (xxxii) A caesalpin from C. bonducella; (xxxiii) Calaxanthone A, a xanthone
from C. inophyllum; (xxxiv) Callophillolide, a coumarin derivative from C. inophyllum; (xxxv) A neolignan from C. inerme; (xxxvi) Cleroin-
ermin, a diterpenoid from C. inerme; (xxxvii) Ellagic acid; (xxxviii) A phorbol from H. mancinella; (xxxix) Excoecariatoxin, a piscicidal
constituent of E. agallocha; (xl) A hibiscone from H. tiliaceus; (xli) Lapachol, a quinone from H. tileaceus; (xlii) β-Damascenone from I.
pes-caprae; (xliii) Phytol; (xliv) A stilbene from M. leucadendron; (xlv) A eudesmane from P. indica.
430
feeds on the leaves of C. inophyllum. Fractionation
of the extracts of the animal yielded inophyllums and
calophyllolides (xxxiv) previously isolated from C.
inophyllum. A xanthone derivative, subelliptenone,
and related compounds showed intensively inhibit-
ory effect against topoisomerases 1 and 11, in in
vitro experiments. These xanthones are claimed to
be prospective lead compounds for anticancer drugs
and some compounds and their derivatives were act-
ive against HIV-1 in cell culture (62, 77, 156). The
relationship between structures of the metabolites and
activity has been investigated. Earlier phytochemical
studies had revealed that C. inophyllum to be a rich
source of benzopyrans, coumarins, steroids, triter-
penes, and xanthones. Plants of the genus Cleroden-
dron are well known for their pesticidal properties
(119). They are used as armyworm antifeedants and
to arrest bleeding from cuts and other wounds, as
well as for stopping post-partum hemorrhage. Clero-
dendron inerme, a mangal associate, is a recognized
medicinal plant having febrifugal properties as well
as exhibiting larvicidal, antiviral and uterine stimu-
lant activity. Extracts of C. inerme were effective as
surface protectants for cowpea seeds against pulse
beetle infestation. The anti-viral resistance-inducing
protein isolated from the plant is a polyncleotide (51,
149). A number of flavonoids, a neolignan (xxxv),
and novel complex iridoids, phenyl propanoids, ster-
ols and known terpenes, a new diterpene acid have
been characterized from the plant. The aerial parts of
the plant yielded the diterpenoid cleroinermin (xxxvi),
and the flavonoid, apigenin, while the seeds yielded
two new neolignans, novel sterols and phenols (4, 9,
31). Cyprus rotundus is among the useful plants used
in traditional control of insect pests. Novel sesquiter-
pene alkaloids were found to be the compounds with
insecticidal properties (3, 45, 81, 168). Triterpenes,
steroids, long chain aliphatic carboxylic acids are re-
sponsible for the antifeedant activity of Eleocharis
dulcis (139). Hippomane mancinella has enjoyed the
reputation of being one of the most toxic and ill-famed
plants in tropical America. The sap causes a reaction
characteristic of a burn and contact with eye, pro-
duce severe conjunctivitis which, if complicated by
secondary infection, could result in loss of sight (65).
Surprisingly, the poisonous latex has been used as an
ingredient in many native preparations. It is a very
rich source of various metabolites. 2-Hydroxy-2, 6-
dimethoxyacetophenone, mono, di and trimethyl eth-
ers of ellagic acid (xxxvii), and a novel alkaloid have
been isolated from various parts of the plant. Fraction-
ation of extracts of leaves and twigs, based on toxicity
to mice, yielded ‘crystalline tannins.’ Hippomanin A
and B were the toxic principles of the extracts. The
irritant factor was assigned to esters of deoxyphor-
bol (xxxviii), resiniferonol, and 13-hexadeca-2, 4,
6-trienoic acid. Some aspects on structure- activity
relations have been deduced (7). Apart from its folk
medicinal utilization, Excoecaria agallocha contains
toxic principles injurious particularly to the skin. The
latex is well known for its biocidal effects on mar-
ine organisms and phytoplankton, causes metabolic
depression of the rice field crab, Oziotelphusa senex
and is used as an uterotonic, fish poison, dart poison,
and contains novel chalcones and piperidine alkaloids.
The latex showed no activity against bacteria and yeast
but some activity against fungi. Soil bacteria and yeast
actively degrade the latex, which probably helps in
the detoxification of the latex in nature. The infusion
of leaves posses antioxidant and anti-tumor promot-
ing properties. Bioassay guided isolation led to the
characterization of excoecarin, an irritant and a tumor
promoter and excoecariatoxin (xxxix), the metabol-
ite responsible for the piscicidal activity, and whose
activity was very comparable with natural rotenone.
The activity was associated with the aliphatic side
chain in the molecule. A novel phorbol ester was
isolated as the anti-HIV principle of the leaves and
stems (55, 105, 106, 130, 169, 217). Sesquiterpen-
oid quinones, the hibiscones (xl), hibiscoquinones and
benzoquinones (xli) are the major constituents of Hi-
biscus tileaceous. Ipomoea pes-caprae is a traditional
medicinal plant used in the treatment of headache
and various types of inflammation including jellyfish
sting dermatitis. The extracts from the leaves exhibits
anti-inflammatory activity, reduce prostaglandin syn-
thesis in vitro, and inhibit smooth muscle contraction.
Bio-assay-guided fractionation of the extracts led to
the isolation of 2-Hydroxy-4, 4, 7-trimethyl-1 (4H)-
naphthalenone, mellein, eugenol, and 4-vinylguaicol,
which inhibited prostaglandin synthesis. The isopren-
oids β-damasscenone (xlii) and E-phytol (xliii) were
responsible for the antispasmodic and antinociceptive
activities (108, 159, 174). Melaleuca leucadendron
exists in three chemotypoes, the volatile leaf oil of
two of which are characterized by very high content
of phenylpropanoids. In addition to small amounts of
known mono-, di-, sesqui-, and tri- terpenes, stilbene
glycosides, novel triterpenoid esters, and hydrolysable
tannins, have been isolated from the plant, whose ex-
tracts posses antifungal properties. The leaves were a
rich source of a different class of terpenoids and along

with stilbenes (xliv), inhibited histamine release from
rat mast cells and were active against Bacillus and
Staphylococcus (46). Known glycosides, fatty acid es-
ters, and a novel trisaccharide have been characterized
from ripe fruits of Morinda citrifolia, which is toxic
to nematodes and Drosophila. Octanoic acid, toxic to
many insect species, along with hexanoic and other
carboxylic acids, are the main toxic compounds isol-
ated from the extracts (214). Hirazuma and Furusawa
(72) reported the presence of a ‘polysaccharide-rich
substance’ with antitumor activity in the fruit juice of
M. citrifolia, which also showed anticancer and an-
algesic activity. A polysaccharide extracted from the
leaves of B. cylindrica, E. agallocha, R. apiculata,
R. mucronata, Salicornia brachiata, Sesuvium por-
tulacastrum, Sueda maritima and S. monica showed
positive activity against human immunodeficiency vir-
uses (151, 162).
Antioxidative activity of extractives of Pandanus
odoratissimus has been demonstrated as due to phen-
olic and lignan type compounds, and a benzofuran
derivative (83). A number of Pluchea species are noted
for their ethnomedical properties, of which the reputed
viper venom neutralization activities of P.odorata and
P. indica are probably the best known. Neuropharma-
cological actions (including viper venom neutraliza-
tion) of the shrub P indica has been investigated (10,
179, 206). The leaves and roots of the shrub have been
reported to possess anti-inflammatory and anti-ulcer,
astringent and antipyretic properties and are used as
a diaphoretic in fevers. Fresh leaves are used in the
form of poultices against atonic and gangrenous ulcers
and chemicals with novel structures have been isol-
ated from the leaves (xlv). Cigarettes prepared from
the chopped stem bark are smoked to relieve the pain
of sinusitis, and in Indo-China, the leaves and young
shoots are crushed, mixed with alcohol, and applied
in the back, in cases of lumbago and are also used to
relieve rheumatic pains and in baths to treat scabies. A
number of known compounds and a new eudesmane
derivative (xlvi) have been identified from the leaves
(143).
(Z)-5-Tetradecenyl acetate and tetradecyl acetate
were identified as sex pheromone components of
an unnamed Planotortrix leaf roller moth species
found in Avicennia resinifera. All parts of the plant
Pongamia pinnata, used as a crude drug for the treat-
ment of tumors, piles, skin diseases, wounds, ulcers,
is a rich source of flavonoid and related compounds
(197, 198). Extracts of the plant showed positive activ-
ity against human and Simian immunodeficiency vir-
431
uses (54, 164, 165). Porteresia coarctata and Carapa
obovata are rich sources of steroids.
The alkaloid rhizophorine (xlvi) is a major con-
stituent of the leaves of Rhizophora mucronata and a
novel type of natural water soluble polymer has been
isolated from the leaves of R. stylosa (103). Triterpen-
oids from R. mangle possess insecticidal properties
and has clinical use in the control of diabetes. Warm
aqueous extract of the bark of R. apiculata is used
as an astringent for diarrhoea, nausea, and vomit-
ing, and as an antiseptic. The extract is also used to
stop bleeding in fresh wounds and for the treatment
of chronic typhoid fever. The plant also has uses in
the textile industry (102, 103). Using a new method
of purification which involves high-speed centrifugal
liquid chromatography followed by adsorption and
partition chromatography, a nitrogen containing phor-
bol ester, sapintoxin A (xlvii), a piscicidal agent, has
been isolated from the poisonous plant Sapium in-
dicum. This is the first nitrogen containing phorbol
derivative to be isolated and its biological activity has
been demonstrated in vivo using an erythema skin
test. Sapinine, a diterpine ester (a phorbol derivative),
and a non-biologically active metabolite was isol-
ated using traditional purification techniques (199).
Skin irritant and tumor promoting diterpene ester,
12-deoxyphorbol, has been identified from Sapium se-
biferum (178). Sesuvium portulacastrum, a salt marsh
halophyte, is a rich source of an array of amino acids
(85). An unusual secondary metabolite, 2-nitro-4- (2’-
nitroethenyl) phenol (xlviii) has been isolated from the
fruits of Sonneratia acida. The fruits are used as poult-
ice in swelling and sprains. Fermented juice of the fruit
is useful for arresting hemorrhage. The wood has yiel-
ded three anthraquinones and the leaves contain plant
growth regulators, the diterpenoid gibberellins (xlix)
(25). Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Rhizophora mucranata
and Sonneratia apetala were also found to contain
gibberellins (58, 123).
Terminalia catappa is used in folk medicine for
preventing hepatoma and treating hepatitis and is a
rich source of tannins. Antioxidant and hepatopro-
tective activity, anti-sickling potential, and the effects
of the major tannin components, punicalagin and
punicalin of T. catappa on carrageenan-induced in-
flammation in rats, bleomycin-induced genotoxicity
in rabbits, have been evaluated (37, 115, 130). Anti-
bacterial activity of the leaves of Thespesia populnea
is due to the known triterpene lupeol, and gossypol
was the active ingredient in the flowers, which ac-
counted for its antifertility activity (64). Naturally oc-
432
CO2H
N H 3C
H OH
xlvi
O OH
OC CH3
HO
COOH
CH3
xlix
Figures (xlvi)–(l). (xlvi) Rhizophorine; (xlvii) Sapintoxin A, a nitrogen containing phorbol ester from S. indicum; (xlviii) A nitrophenol
derivative from S. acida; (xlix) A gibberllin from S. apetala; (l) A flavonoid sulphate.
curring quinones, the mansonones, extracted from the
heartwood of T. populnea showed cytotoxicity, anti-
bacterial and anti-steroidogenic activities (70, 135).
The limonoid ester, xyloccensins (xxii), the esters
of alcohols, isobutyrates and alpha-methylbutyrates,
methyl angolensate, gedunin, phragmalin were the
novel constituents of X. moluccenis (43, 144). In
Fiji, the bark pressings are used to treat fever in-
cluding those caused by malaria. Alvi et al. (13)
characterized two new liminoids, xyloccensin 1 and
2 from the Fijian species of X. granatum and X.
moluccensis. These two compounds failed to show
any positive biological activity. The fruit of X. mol-
luscensis is used in folk medicine in East Africa. The
fruits are used as aphrodisiacs and the young fruits
tasted bitter. The bitter principle tested positive as
an antifeedant and strongly inhibited the respiratory
reactions of mitochondria from rat liver. The meta-
bolite responsible for these activities were identified
as xylomollin (iv), an unusual monoterpenoid hav-
ing a nonglycosidic hemiactal function (109). Insect
antifeedant bioassays employing African armyworms
and Mexican bean beetle has led to the isolation and
characterization of N-methylflindersine (i) and several
benz [C] phenanthridone alkaloids from the extracts of
X. granatum, The former metabolite has been identi-
fied as the principle responsible for insect antifeedant
activity (40).
Submerged magrove roots, trunks and branches
are islands of habitat that attract rich epifaunal com-
munities. The epifauna include a diverse array of
invertebratate groups including anemones, bivalves,
OH
OR1 H3C
NO2
H 3C CH3
O
OR2
H
H
R1 = N-Methylaminobenzoyl
R2 = Acetyl CH2OH
NO2
xlvii
OSO 3
- xlviii
-
O3SO O
OH O
barnacles, bryozoans, hydroids, mollusks, polychaetes
and sponges. Epifaunal species that do occur in other
habitats show distinctly different growth forms when
they are attached to mangrove substrates and these
organisms play important roles in the structure and
function of mangal. ‘Reef’ sponges, for example,
have anti-predatory defenses including siliceous or
calcareous spicules and noxious or toxic chemicals.
However, mangrove species are generally not as well
defended chemically as sponges from reef habitats.
Species here rely on faster growth or greater repro-
ductive output to compensate for predation losses.
Mangrove sponges are also limited in allelochemicals
that protect them from overgrowth by other species
in space-limited coral environments. In contrast to
the sponges, some of the mangrove ascidians have
unusual chemicals that are potent feeding deterrents.
Despite a seeming lower level of anti-predatory and
anti-competitor chemicals in mangal than in coral reef
communities, epifaunal invertebrates inhabiting the
mangroves and salt marshes are sources of metabolites
with useful biologicall activities. Ecteinascidia turbin-
ate, for instance, is a colonial ascidian that grows in
the submerged prop roots of Rhizophora mangle in
many areas of the Caribbean. E. turbinate produces
compounds that show strong activity against a variety
of carcinomas, melanomas, and lymphomas. Anti-
fungal and cytotoxic effects of the methanol extracts
of three mangrove dwelling mollusks have been evalu-
ated. Sea stars are dominant predators in many marine
habitats, and spongivory by sea stars has been doc-
umented from polar seas to the tropics. The extracts

from the same sponges but from different habitats re-
sponded differently to the predation by the same sea
star.
Epiphytic red algae of the order Ceramiales from
mangrove and salt marshes produces varying levels of
different UV-absorbing compounds, the mycosporine-
like amino acids, which are considered to be bio-
chemical photoprotectants against exposure to UV-
radiation (18). Mangals are home to a group of fungi
called ‘manglicolous fungi’ which are vitally import-
ant to nutrient cylcing in these habitats and many of
the species produce interesting compounds. For ex-
ample, most of the soil fungi produce lignocellulose-
modifying exoenzymes like lactase. Preussia aur-
antiaca synthesizes two new depsidones (Auranticins
A and B) that display antimicrobial activity. Cirrenalia
pygmea produces melanin pigments that appear to
protect the hyphae from sudden changes in osmotic
pressure; when melanin synthesis in cultures is inhib-
ited with tricyclazole, the fungus becomes sensitive
to osmotic shock. High salinities also increase the
number and types of amino acids this species pro-
duces. The ethyl acetate extract of a mangrove en-
dophytic fungus from the South China Sea Shows
inhibition effect on yeast and mold. The studies on
the secondary metabolites of the fungus revealed that
the fungus could produce a series of antibiotics, in-
cluding griseofulvin, which was originally found in
Penicillium griseofulvum.
Plants growing in or near the sea or in salt water
marshes are subjected to influx of other ions besides
sodium and chloride and it is conceivable that ad-
aptation to other inorganic salts present in brackish
waters may be necessary for survival of plants in such
habitats. One such ion present in sea-water in some
quantity is inorganic sulfate; one possible route for
inactivation or storage is through conjugation with
naturally occurring phenolic compounds, and partic-
ularly with flavonoids and remarkably enough, such
compound occur principally in plants which are sub-
ject to water stress, and especially in halophytes.
Flavonoid sulfates (l) have been identified in land halo-
phytes such as Armeria maritima, Halophila ovalis,
Limonium vulgare, Nypa frutican, Suaeda maritima
and species of Atriplex, Frankenia and Tamarix. They
also occur abundantly in sea-grasses such as Thalas-
sia, Zannichellia and Zostera. Arsenic is accumulated
in the leaves of some mangroves (68). Monocoty-
ledonous salt marsh plants accumulated potassium,
the amino acid proline, glycinebetaine and dimethyl-
sulphoniopropionate (68, 132).
433
Cations such as Na+ K+ , Ca++ , Mg++ , and
NH4 + and anions Cl − , Br − , NO2 − , NO3 − , SO4 −−
etc. have been found in various parts of species of
Avecennia Bruguiera and Rhizophora, K. candel, H.
litoralis, E. agallocha and A. corniculatum. Organic
acids such as citric, malic, oxalic and tartaric and car-
bohydrates such as glucose and sucrose is abundant in
the roots and seeds of many mangrove plants.
Most mangrove species directly regulate salts.
They may also accumulate or synthesize other solutes
to regulate and maintain osmotic balance. For ex-
ample, Aegiceras corniculatum, Aegialitis annulata
and Laguncularia racemosa and the halophytes As-
ter tripolium and Armeria maritima accumulate man-
nitol and two nitrogen compounds, the protein im-
ino acid proline and the quaternary nitrogen com-
pound glycine betaine. Avicennia marina accumu-
lates glycine, betaine, asparagine and Sonneratia alba
synthesizes purine nucleotides (68). It is proposed
that the high levels of proline actually provide the
basis of resistance to salt accumulation. Evidence
that the accumulation of aliphatic quaternary am-
monium compounds provide with relief from NaCl
stress has been obtained. Most attention has been
given to choline Me3 N+ CH2 CH2 OH and the related
acid betaine Me3 N+ CH2 CO2 − both of which are wide
spread. It is believed that the concentration of acid
betaine increases with salt stress (68, 94).
Conclusion
Drugs of ‘natural’ origin, either the ‘original’ nat-
ural product, products derived ‘Semi-synthetically’
from natural products or synthetic products based on
natural products models, play an invaluable role in
the drug discovery process. Marine organisms and
plants produce novel metabolites unique to the envir-
onment. Mangroves and mangal associates living in
yet another different environment to that of marine
and terrestrial plants, can produce metabolites, which
may in turn, are unique to these plants and are of
interest to the ‘curious’ chemist. Although the chem-
istry of the natural products of mangrove plants is
little known, there have been some examples in recent
years to support the need to study the chemistry of
the mangroves. This belief is well supported by the il-
lustrated examples. The chemistry of mangrove plants
tends to establish that they may be a source of novel
compounds along with providing a new source for
many already known biologically active compounds.
434

They may have great potential as a source of novel natural products in drug discovery, there is a compel-
agrochemical compounds (Table 1). They are also a ling argument for expanding the exploration of nature
rich source of toxic compounds. Rotenoids, alkaloids, as source of novel active agents.
terpenoids are among the classes of natural products
which provide numerous toxins. Toxin in plants often
has the role of feeding repellents. A remarkable num- Acknowledgements
ber of insecticidal plants seem to have been recognized
first as fish poisons. Knowledge of the toxins in higher My thanks are due Wendy and Stan Sparkes for as-
plants has led to a variety of useful drugs. Metabolites sistance in formulating the Table in the text and Ms
though toxic, are still used clinically for the treatment Mary Anne Tenby and Helen Crosby for assistance
of diseases. The physiological activity of an alkaloid with the Bibliography. Assistance from Dr B. Bowden
manifests in an extreme toxicity; yet many alkaloids and Mr J. Doyle in editing and critical comments
have therapeutically useful pharmacological proper- and suggestions from Dr E. Wolanski is gratefully
ties at sublethal dosage and have become established acknowledged.
as valuable drugs in general medicine. A typical ex-
ample is that of the toxic drug sodium stiboggluconate
and pentamidine, used in the treatment of leishmania
donovani infection (88). Though numerous mangroves
and mangal associates are recommended in traditional
medicine as active against various diseases (Table 1),
very little attempts have been made to investigate the
veracity of these assertions in controlled experiments.
Few workers have investigated the reputation of such
plants by performing in vitro and in vivo experiments
in order to demonstrate whether there are any protect-
ive effects, using drugs or mixtures of drugs prepared
using traditional formulae. Different methods have
been employed to test these effects: 1. Extracts were
administered to mice, insect larvae, worms, fish, etc.
2. Bioassays were carried to test their capacity to
inhibit enzyme activities. 3. Effects on various vir-
uses and bacteria, and 4. Evaluation of physiological
and biochemical properties (such as effects on uterine
tone or protection of mitichondrial membranes). Even
though there are few recent investigations of the chem-
ical constituents describing several novel compounds,
very little research has been carried out to identify the
chemical or chemicals directly responsible for the spe-
cific biological activity. A knowledge of the chemical
constituents of these plants is desirable, not only for
the discovery of new therapeutic agents, but because
such information may be of further value to those in-
terested in ‘deciphering" the actual value of folklore
remedies.
The world of plants, and indeed all-natural sources,
represents a virtually untapped reservoir of novel
drugs awaiting imaginative and progressive organiza-
tions. Further more, infectious diseases are potentially
the largest threat to human security. Coupled with con-
tinuing threat to biodiversity through the destruction of
terrestrial and marine ecosystems and proven record of
 435

Table 1. Traditional uses, chemical constituents and activities of mangroves and mangal associates.

Botanical name Traditional Tested for Chemical constituents References

uses/Properties

Acanthus as an antiseptic, blood
ebracteatus∗∗ purifier, diuretic, cure for
colds, diabetes, gangren-
ous wounds, rheumatism,
skin allergies, snake bites,
(B, Fr, L).
Acanthus as an aphrodisiac, blood
ilicifolius∗∗∗ purifier, diuretic, treat-
ment of asthma, diabetes,
dyspepsia, hepatitis, lep-
rosy, neuralgia, paralysis,
ringworms, rheumatism,
skin diseases, snake bites,
stomach pains, leukemia,
(B, Fr, L, R)
Acrostichum to treat wounds boils
aureum∗∗ andrheumatism, (L,
Rhizome).
Acrostichum
speciosum∗∗
Aegialitis
annulata∗∗∗
Aegiceras cure for asthma, diabetes,
corniculatum∗∗∗ rheumatism, and as a fish
poison, (B, L, S)
Aegiceras treatment of haemataria,
majus∗∗∗ leprosy, ulcers, and as a
fish poison, (B, L)
Aglaia cucullata∗
Aglaia odorata∗ insecticide, (L)
Alstonia
macrophylla∗
Ardesia elliptica∗∗
analgesic, antiviral activ-
ity, (B,L)
analgesic, anti-
inflammatory,
leishmanicidal and
antiviral activity, activ-
ity towards leukemia virus
and erythroleukemic
Swiss mice, biotoxicity on
fingerlings of fish, and
mosquito larvae, (B, Fr, L,
S, Fl, W, R)
biotoxicity on fingerlings
of fish, (Fr, L, S, Sd, R)
antiviral activity, toxicity
to fish and influence on
the growth of fungi, (B,
Fr, Fl, L, S, R, W)
inhibition of larval growth
and protein synthesis, in-
secticidal effects, (L, B,
S)
cytotoxic activity towards
human lung cancer cells,
antiplasmodial and anti-
neoplastic activity, (L, St)
alkaloids, carbohydrates, 42, 73, 121, 151,
flavonoids, fatty acids, hy- 152, 163, 164,
drocarbons, lipids, 165, 166, 173, 176
polysaccharides, proteins,
saponins, steroids,
tannins, (L,W)
alkaloids, long chain 19, 61, 84, 88,
alcohols, steroids and 101, 103, 119, 140
triterpenes, triterpenoidal
saponins, and sulphur,
(S8 ), (B, L, R, S)
amino acids, condensed 16, 119, 193, 196
and hydrolysable tannins,
diterpenes, flavonoids,
hydrocarbons, sesquit-
erpene, steroids, sugars,
triterpenes, (B, L, P, R, S)
inorganic salts, sugars, (L) 160, 161
aminoacids, inorganic 160
salts, sugars, (L)
aminoacids, 16, 20, 63, 69,
benzoquinones, car- 160, 161, 212
bohydrates, carotenoids,
chlorophyll a, b, a + b,
condensed and
hydrolysable tannins,
coumarins, flavonoids,
minerals; polyphenols,
proteins, sugars, saponins,
triterpenes, triterpenes
glycosides, (B,L,R,S)
alkaloids, benzofurans, 74, 78, 176, 212
flavonoids, saponins,
tannins, triterpenes,
(B, Fr, W)
chlorophyll a, b, a + 20
b, carotenoids, proteins,
polyphenols, tannins, (L)
benzofurans, nitrogen het- 78, 80, 148, 175
erocycles, triterpenes, (L)
carotenoids, chlorophyll 1, 20, 98
a, b, a+b, alkaloids, poly-
phenols, proteins, tannins,
(B, L, R, S, W)
quinones, (B) 40, 41
436
Table 1. Continued.
Botanical name Traditional
uses/Properties
Arundo donax∗ as an emollients and diur-
etic, stimulation of men-
strual discharge; dimin-
ishes secretion of milk,
(W)
Atriplex treatment of leukemia,
vesicaria∗ (B).
Avicennia cure for cancer, gangren-
africana∗∗∗ ous wounds, lice, mange,
ring worms, skin para-
sites, thrush, tumors, ul-
cers, (B)
Avicennia alba∗∗∗ treatment of antifertililty,
skin diseases, tumors, ul-
cers, (Resin)
Avicennia as a blood purifier, treat-
ebracteatus∗∗∗ ment of boils, snake bites,
(Fr).
Avicennia treatment of rheumatism,
germinans∗∗∗ throat pains, ulcers of the
mouth, (B, L).
Avicennia treatment of rheumatism,
marina∗∗∗ small pox, ulcers, fodder
for livestock; (S)
Avicennia marina
(fungus phytoph-
thora)
Avicennia cure for thrush, tumors,
nitida∗∗∗ ulcers, (B, L, Resin, Sd)
Avicennia as an aphrodisiac, diur-
officinalis∗∗∗ etic, cure for hepatitis,
leprosy, (B, Fr, L).
Avicennia treatment of rheumatism,
tomentosa∗∗∗ (B,S).
Bacopa as a nerve tonic, (L).
monniera∗∗∗
Balanites to reduce abdominal pain,
aegyptiaca∗ as an anthelmintic, deter-
gent, as a purgative, treat-
ment of malaria, intestinal
disorders, sleeping sick-
ness, syphilis, as a fish
poison, (B,L,R).
Barringtonia
racemosa∗∗
Batis maritima∗∗
Tested for
antifeedant and agro-
chemical activity, (W)
analgesic and antiviral
activity, (B, Fl, Fr, L, R,
S,W)
antiviral activity, biotox-
icity on fingerlings of fish,
(B, Fl, Fr, L, R, S, Sd, W)
rat poison, (L)
molluscicidal and poison-
ous activity, fish poison,
(B, Fr, L, R, St)
Chemical constituents References
aliphatic amines and 138
anilides, aromatic
anilides, flavonoids,
steroids, (W)
173
naphthoquinones, (St, B) 79
lipids, hydrocarbons, 79
naphthoquinones,
phytoallexins (Naph-
thofurans), triterpenoids,
(B,L,S)
173
glycosides, (B,L) 56, 173, 183
alcohols, amino acids, 21, 73, 12, 151,
carbohydrates, fatty acids, 152, 194
hydrocarbons, inorganic
salts, minerals, phytoalex-
ins, carboxylic acids, ster-
oids, tannins, triterpenes,
vitamins, (B, L, R, S, Sd)
phytoalexins, (B) 194
119, 183
alkaloids, arsenic, car- 16, 20, 56, 61,
bohydrates, carotenoids, 119, 176, 183
chlorophyll a, b, a +
b, flavonoids, glycosides,
lipids, polyphenols, pro-
teins, saponins, tannins
triterpenoids, (B, L, S, W)
triterpenoids, (B,L,S) 123
185
balanitins, saponins, (B, 116, 173, 208
Fr, L, R, St)
tannins, (B) 16
flavonoids, (B, L) 87
 437

Table 1. Continued.

Botanical name Traditional Tested for Chemical constituents References

uses/Properties

Bruguiera treatment of ulcers, (B, L) 15, 150, 173

caryophylloides∗∗∗
Bruguiera sulphur containing alkal- 96, 97, 119, 150,
conjugata∗∗∗ oids, (B,S) 151, 162, 184, 204
Bruguiera treatment of hepatitis, (Fr, antiviral and larvicidal minerals, ( Ca, Na, Mg, 89, 96, 119, 150,
cylindrica∗∗∗ L, R). activity, biotoxicity on K ), sulphur containing al- 151, 173
tobacco mosaic virus and kaloids, tannins, (B, S)
fingerlings of fish, (B, Fr,
L, W)
Bruguiera as an antitumor agent, (B). alkaloids, inositols, (B, L, 118, 172, 173
exaristata∗∗∗ S)
Bruguiera treatment of eye diseases, growth hormone tests on anthocyanins, carbo- 6, 16, 58, 61, 73,
gymnorrhiza∗∗∗ (Fr). plants, (B, R) hydrates, carotenoids, 171, 173, 180, 184
catechins, condensed
and hydrolysable
tannins, diterpenes,
gibberellins, fatty acids,
hydrocarbons, inorganic
salts, lipids, flavans and
flavan polymers, minerals,
phenolic compounds,
procyanidins, proteins,
steroids, carboxylic acids,
triterpenes, (B, Fr, L, R, S)
Bruguiera as an antitumor agent, (B). carbohydrates, caroten- 20, 23, 173, 180,
parviflora∗∗∗ oids, chlorophyll a, b, a + 184
b, lipids, minerals, phen-
olic compounds,
procyanidins, proteins,
tannins, (B, L, S)
Bruguiera treatment of diabetes, (B, 173
rumphii∗∗∗ L).
Bruguiera as an antitumor agent, (B) anthocyanins, carbo- 20, 73, 96, 118,
sexangula∗∗∗ hydrates, carotenoids, 173
chlorophyll a, b, a + b,
fatty acids, hydrocarbons,
lipids, minerals, phenolic
compounds, procyanidins,
proteins, steroids, alkal-
oids, tannins, triterpenes,
(B, L, S)
Caesalpinia as an antitumor agent, diterpenes, fatty acids, 59, 155, 173
bonducella, cure for rheumatism, (B, isoflavones, lipids, phen-
(bonduc)∗∗ L). olic compounds, (B, L)
Calophyllum as a cicatrisant, anticancer anticancer, antitumour, flavonoids, inophyllums, 62, 77, 156, 170,
inophyllum∗ agent, disinfectant, treat- antifungal, transferase and lipids, proanthocyanidin 173, 202
ment of bone fracture, and lipid peroxidase activity, polymers, xanthones, (R,
eye diseases, (B, Fr, L). cytotoxicity, inhibitory S)
effect against DNA, (B, L)
438

Table 1. Continued.

Botanical name Traditional Tested for Chemical constituents References

uses/Properties

Calophyllum antibacterial, anti- benzopyrans, coumarins, 156, 170

inophyllum inflammatory, antiviral steroids, triterpenes,
(African snail and phagocytosis xanthones (B, L, S)
Achatina fulica) stimulant activity,
inhibitors of HIV-1
reverse transcriptase, (B,
L, S)
Camposperma alkaloids, saponins, ster- 32
auriculata∗ oids, triterpenes, (L, Fl, S,
W)
Carapa steroids, triterpenes, (B) 122
guianensis∗∗
Carapa treatment of diarrhoea, 173
moluccensis∗∗ and as a febrifuge, (Fr)
Carapa obovata∗∗ treatment of diarrhoea, steroids, triterpenes, (B) 61, 122, 173
and as a febrifuge, (Fr)
Carapa procera∗ antibacterial activity (W) 61, 122
Cassia fistula∗ antiviral activity, toxicity alkaloids, gibberellic acid, 122, 186
to fish organic acids; steroids,
triterpenes, (B, Fl, L, R,
W)
Cassipourea carbohydrates, organic 16, 44, 53, 82, 97,
gerradii∗∗ acids; alkaloids (B, L, S) 219
Cassipourea carbohydrates, minerals, 44, 160, 161, 219
gummiflua∗∗ organic acids; alkaloids
(L, S)
Casuarina activity towards soil arth- triterpenes glucosides 29, 195, 218
equisetifolia∗∗ ropods, immunochemical
properties, agrochemical
trials (B, L)
Cerbera as a purgative, treatment cardenolides glycosides, 173, 220
manghas∗∗ of rheumatism, (B, Fr, Sd) (L)
Cerbera odollam∗ cardenolide glycosides, 220
(L)
Ceriops cure for diabetes, (B) anthocyanidins, procyan- 160, 161, 173, 181
candolleana∗∗ idins, tannins (B)
Ceriops cure for hepatitis, ulcers, antiviral activity, (B, Fl, carotenoids, flavonoids, 20, 61, 91, 122,
decandra∗∗∗ (B, Fr, L) Fr, L, R, S, W) chlorophyll a, b, a + 162, 163, 173
b, lipids and waxes,
polyphenols, proteins,
steroids, tannins,
triterpenes, (L)
Ceriops alkaloids, anthocyanins, 35, 122, 176, 180,
roxburghiana∗∗∗ flavonoids, gibberellins, 181, 213
minerals, procyanidins,
saponins, steroids tannins,
trace metals; triterpenes,
(B, W)

Table 1. Continued.
Botanical name Traditional
uses/Properties
Ceriops tagal∗∗∗ treatment of
haemorrhages, (B).
Clerodendron as a febrifugal and uter-
inerme∗ ine stimulant, a pest con-
trol agent and antiseptic,
to arrest bleeding, treat-
ment of asthma, hepatitis,
ringworm, stomach pains,
(B, L, S)
Cocos nucifera∗ as a pest control, (Husk)
Concocarpus treatment of catarrh, go-
erecta (erectus)∗∗ norrhoea, malaria, to stop
bleeding, as a febrifuge,
(B, L, R)
Cynometra
iripa∗∗∗
Cyprus rotundus∗ to control insect pests
Dalbergia
ecastophyllum∗∗∗
Derris
araripensis∗
Derris elliptica∗ fish poison, (L, B)
Derris
heterophylla∗∗
Derris nicou∗
Derris sericeae∗
Derris as a stimulant, spasmodic
trifoliata∗∗∗ and counter irritant, laxat-
ive, fish poison, pesticide
(L, R, T, W)
Derris as an antispasmodic and
uliginosa∗∗∗ stimulant, to arrest haem-
orrhages, (B, Fr)
Tested for
surface protectants of
seeds against insects,
biotoxicity on fingerlings
of fish, toxicity against
mosquito larvae, antiviral
activity, (Fr, L, S, Sd, R,
W)
pheromones
fungitoxicity, effect
on spore germination,
cytoprotective effects,
insecticidal properties,
(Rhizome, L)
toxicity to fish, (B)
piscicidal activity, (B, Fr)
toxicity against mosquito
larvae (L)
toxicity to fish, (B, L)
toxicity to fish, (B, L)
toxicity to fish, (B, L, Fr)
439
Chemical constituents References
condensed and hydrolys- 16, 20, 73, 160,
able tannins, fatty acids, 161, 172, 173, 184
hydrocarbons, inorganic
salts, inositols, aliphatic
carboxylic acids, steroids,
carotenoids, chlorophyll
a, b, a+b, indole alkal-
oids, polyphenols, pro-
teins, tannins, (B, L, R,
Sd)
carboxylic acids, diter- 4, 9, 31, 51, 119,
penes, flavonoids, hydro- 149, 173
carbons, iridoid bigylcos-
ide, neolignans, phenols,
protein, steroids, trigly-
cerols, triterpenes, (L, S,
Sd)
aliphatic long chain hy- 66
drocarbons and acids, aro-
matic aldehydes, ketones,
phenols, (B)
173
carotenoids, chlorophyll 20
a, b, a + b, polyphenols,
proteins, tannins, (L)
phytotoxins, ses- 3, 45, 75, 81,
quiterpene alkaloids, 86, 147, 168, 173,
sesquiterpenes, starch, 209, 222
(Rhizome)
chalcones, flavonoids and 2, 52, 131
isoflavonoids, steroids,
(B)
rotenones (isoflavonoids), 128
(B, St)
173
alkaloids, saponins, ster- 32, 51
oids, triterpenes, (L, Fl, S,
W)
rotenones (isoflavonoids) 128
(B, L)
rotenones (isoflavonoids) 128
(B, L)
alkaloids, carbohydrates, 61, 141, 173, 221
flavonoids and flavonol
glycosides, lipids,
polysaccharides, proteins,
rotenone, steroids and
triterpenes, (L, R)
alkaloids, long chain n- 133, 173
alkanes, (hydrocarbons),
lipids, (L)
440
Table 1. Continued.

Botanical name Traditional Tested for Chemical constituents References

uses/Properties

Derris urucu∗ fish poison insecticide (B, activity against fly larvae, alkaloids, rotenones 128, 154, 173
R) toxicity to fish, (R) (isoflavonoids), saponins,
triterpenes, (B)
Diospyros piscicidal and antifungal alkaloids, flavonoids, 176, 203
cordifolia∗ activity, (Fr) naphthoquinones, sapon-
ins, tannins, (W)
Diospyros alkaloids, flavonoids, 32, 203
lancifolia∗ naphthoquinones, sapon-
ins, steroids,
triterpenes, (L, Fl, S, W)
Diospyros triterpenes, (B) 126
melanoxylon∗
Eleocharis dulcis∗ antifeedant activity, (W) long chain acids, steroids, 139
triterpenes, (W)
Excoecaria as an uterotonic, purgat- antiviral, antioxidant, an- alkaloids, carotenoids, 14, 20, 32, 55, 90,
agallocha∗∗∗ ive, treatment of epilepsy, algesic, piscicidal activ- chalcones, chlorophyll a, 92, 93, 94, 105,
conjunctivitis, dermatitis, ity, antimicrobial activity b, a + b, cyclitol, diter- 106, 107, 119,
haematuria, leprosy, against bacteria, yeast and penes, excoecariatoxins, 130, 150, 151,
toothache, as a piscicide, fungi, activity against tu- fluratoxin, glycerides 160, 161, 162,
dart poison, and a skin ir- mour growth, human im- of fatty acids, lipids 163, 169, 173, 217
ritant, (B, Fr, Fl, L, Lt, S, monodeficiency, biotox- and waxes; phorbol
Sd, R, W) icity towards fish, and esters, polyphenols,
field crabs, pest control, polysaccharides, proteins,
(B, L, Lt, S, W) saponins, steroids, sugars,
tannins, triterpenes, (B,
Fl, L, Lt, S, W)
Excoecaria as an uterotonic, skin irrit- piscicidal and tumour pro- phorbol esters, excoecari- 173, 217
bicolor∗∗ ant, toxic, (L, Lt) moting activity, (L) atoxin, (B, L, S)
Excoecaria skin irritant (L, Lt) 173, 217
oppositifolia∗∗
Fagara in dental hygiene, (S) bactericidal and antileuk- alkaloids, (R) 158, 173
zanthoxyloides∗ emic activity, (R, W)
Ficus lipids, waxes, fatty acids, 15
bengalensis∗ (L)
Ficus microcarpa∗ monoterpenes, iso- 38, 112
flavones, phenols,
triterpenes, (B, R, S)
Gymnotroches alkaloids, (B) 82
axillaris∗
Halophila ovalis∗∗ Toxicity to mosquito lar- sulphated flavonoids, (L) 51, 132
vae (L)
Heritiera formes∗∗ carotenoids, chlorophyll 20
a, b, a + b, polyphenols,
proteins, tannins, (L)
Heritiera control mosquitos and ichthytoxicity to fish, an- alkaloids, aminoacida, 15, 16, 20, 49,
littoralis∗∗∗ diarrhoea, as a fish tifungal, antifeedant activ- carbohydrates, caroten- 59, 103, 136, 137,
toxicant, (S) ity, (B, Fr, L) oids, chlorophyll a, 160, 161, 173, 176
b, a & b, condensed
and hydrolysable
tannins, fatty acids;
flavonoids, lipids and
waxes; polyphenols,
polysaccharides, proteins,
saponins, sesquiterpenes,
aliphatic carboxylic acids,
sugars (gum), (B, L, R,
W)
 441
Table 1. Continued.

Botanical name Traditional Tested for Chemical constituents References

uses/Properties

Heritiera carotenoids, chlorophyll 20

macrophylla∗∗∗ a, b, a & b, polyphenols,
proteins, tannins, (L)
Heritiera alkaloids, flavonoids, 176
minor∗∗∗ saponins, steroids,
tannins, triterpenes (L, W)
Hibiscus cure for ear infections, alkaloids, amino acids, 12, 16, 32, 160,
tiliaceus∗∗ (Fl). carbohydrates, organic 161, 173
acids, fatty acids, sapon-
ins, sesquiterpenes and
sesquiterpenoid quinones,
steroids, triterpenes, (Fl,
L, S, W)
Hippomane causes dermatitis, severe poisonous constituents, alcohols alkaloids, aro- 7, 65, 142, 173
mancinella∗ conjunctivitis and blind- skin irritant activity, matic ketones, carotenoid
ness, to poison arrows, cocarcinogenicity and like substances, diterpene
toxic poison, irritant to the cryptic cocarcinogenicity long chain hydrocarbons,
skin, (Fr, L, Lt) (L, Sap) hippomanins, long chain
(C29 -C35 ) hydrocarbons,
nitrogen and sulphur
containing compounds
and their oxygen analogs,
phorbols, sesquiterpenes,
sugars, tannins, (Fr, L,
Sap)
Inocarpus fagifer Lipids (B, L) 188
(fagiferus)∗∗
Intsia bijuga∗∗∗ dye leucocyanidins, polyphen- 71, 173
ols; stilbenes, polysac-
charides, water soluble
polymers, (B)
Intsia dye leucocyanidins, polyphen- 71, 173
palembanica∗∗ ols; stilbenes, polysac-
charides, water soluble
polymers (B)
Ipomoea treat headache, jelly fish anti-inflammatory, antis- alkaloids, aminoacids, 5, 32, 50, 108,
pes-caprae∗ sting, causes dermatitis pasmodic, analgesic activ- monoterpenes, quinones, 159, 173, 174,
(L) ity, antinociceptive action, saponins, steroids, 211, 215
inhibition of platelet ag- triterpenes, (Fl, L, S, W)
grgation (L, S)
Juncus glucosides, glycosides, 34
roemerianus∗ steroids,
(B, L)
Kandelia alkaloids, benzoquinones, 20, 63, 113, 160,
candel∗∗∗ carbohydrates, caroten- 161, 176
oids, chlorophyll a, b, a
& b, flavonoids, inorganic
salts, polyphenols,
proteins, tannins,
saponins, short chain
aliphatic carboxylic acids,
sugars, (Gum, L, R, S, Sd,
W)
Kandelia treatment of diabetes, (B, anthocyanins, steroids and 122, 173
rheedii∗∗∗ Fr, L) triterpenes
442
Table 1. Continued.

Botanical name Traditional Tested for Chemical constituents References

uses/Properties

Laguncularia Herbicide, (B) antihypertensive, amino acds; polysacchar- 111, 173

racemosa∗∗ herbicide toxicity, (B) ides, sugars; tannins triter-
penes, (B)
Lumnitzera treatment of thrush, (L) sugars, (L) 160, 173
coccinea∗∗
Lumnitzera sugars, (L) 160
littorea∗∗
Lumnitzera antifertility, treatment of antiviral activity, (B, Fr, cyclitols, sugars, tannins, 16, 114, 125, 160,
racemosa∗∗ asthma, diabetes, snake Fl, L, S, R, W) (B, L) 162, 173
bite, (Fr)
Melaleuca fungicide (L) antifungal, anti HSV-1, hydrolysable tannins, 27, 48, 173
leucadendron∗ herpes simplex virus mono- and di- terpenes,
activity, antigenic and sesquiterpenes, poly-
allergenic cross-reactivity, phenols, proteins,
inhibitors of induced triterpenoids, stilbenes
histamine release, activity and stilbene glycosides,
towards microorganisms, (B, Fr, L, Oil, Pollens)
(Fr, L)
Millettia flavones and isoflavones, 167, 191
auriculata∗ (W)
Morinda treatment of chronic renal anti-tumour, anticancer, aliphatic long chain 72, 173, 189, 214
citrifolia∗ diseases, (Fr,R) analgesic, antineoplastic, carboxylic acids, anthra-
and antinematodal quinones, carotenoids,
activity, toxicity to fatty acid esters, glycos-
mosquito larvae, (Fr, R) ides, mineral potassium,
polysaccharides, steroids,
trisaccharides, vitamins,
(Fr)
Murrayella antibiotic, (B) 173
periclados∗
Nypa treatment of asthma, dia- acetic acid, ethanol, sug- 153, 173
fruiticans∗∗∗ betes, leprosy, rheumat- ars, (W)
ism, snake bite, and as a
beverage, (Fr, L)
Oncosperma added to rice as seasoning, organic acids, sterols, (Fr) 173, 210
tigillarium∗∗∗ (Fl)
Osbornia amino acids, carbo- 28, 160, 161
octodonta hydrates, essential oils,
organic acids, (L)
Pandanus anti-oxidant activity benzofurans, lignans, 83
odoratissimus∗ phenolic compounds, (R)
Pandanus causes post-harvest rot of phytotoxic metabolites 83, 173
odoratissimus vegetables
(Botryo-diplodia
parasite)
Pandanus alkaloids, saponins, ster- 32
recurvatus∗ oids, triterpenes, (L, Fl, S,
W)
Pandanus spiralis∗ Food, (Fr) Vitamins, (Fr) 157, 173
Pemphis acidula∗∗ purposes relating to hu- oestrogenic and spasmo- 26, 173
man reproduction, (W) lytic activity, (W)
Phoenix carotenoids, triterpenes 124
dactylifera∗ and steroids, (W)
Phoenix Food (Fr) alcohol, carotenoids, fatty 76, 124, 173
paludosa∗ acids, flavonoids, steroids,
triterpenes, (W)

Table 1. Continued.
Botanical name Traditional
uses/Properties
Planotortaix ex- bait to catch moths
cessana (leafroller
moth found
on Avicennia
resinifera)
Pluchea indica∗∗ cure for rheumatism, sca-
bies, sinusitis, used as a
antipyretic, diaphoretic in
fevers, as an astringent, to
treat ulcers, (L, R, B, S)
Pongamia in febrile and inflammat-
pinnata∗∗ ory diseases, treatment of
tumours, piles, skin dis-
eases, wounds, ulcers,
fever, piles, rheumatism,
scabies, sinus, stomach
pain and intestinal dis-
orders, causes clinical le-
sions of skin and genitalia,
(B, L, S, W)
Porteresia animal food, (L)
coarctata∗
Preussia antibacterial
aurantiaca
(fungus)
Raphia sp∗∗ Beverage (Fr)
Rhizophora astringent for diarrhoea,
apiculata∗∗∗ treatment of nausea,
vomiting, typhoid,
hepatitis, an antiseptic,
insecticide, (B, Fl, Fr, L).
Rhizophora
conjugata∗∗∗
Rhizophora
gymnorrhiza∗∗∗
Rhizophora hepatitis, (Fl, L).
lamarckii∗∗∗
Tested for
sex pheromone
neutralisation of snake
venom (neurophar-
macological action),
hepatoprotective,
locomotory activity,
anti-inflammatory, anti-
ulcer, abortifacient
and enimenagogue,
and anti-implantation,
uterine relaxation activity,
inhibitor of gastric
damage, (L, R)
antibacterial, anti-
inflammatory, antiviral
activity against
herpes simplex virus,
fungitoxicity, (L, S, Sd)
alcohol, sugar and vitamin
contents, (Fr)
antiviral, larvicidal,
antifungal, antifeedant,
antimicrobial activity,
antiviral properties
against human immun-
odeficiency, (B, Fr, Fl, L,
S, R, W)
antiviral activity (B, Fr, Fl,
L, S, R, W)
443
Chemical constituents References
long chain fatty acid esters 57, 173
sesquiterpenes, (L) 10, 36, 143, 173,
179, 206
amino acids, chalcones 8, 16, 54, 99, 100,
and chromones, fatty 168, 173, 187, 192
acids; flavones and
flavone glycosides,
indole-3-acetic acid,
lipids, monoglycerides,
phenyl propanoids,
proteins, sugars, tannins,
(B, R)
fatty acids, hydrocarbons, 173
steroids and sterol es-
ter, triacylglycerols, triter-
penes, waxes, (B, W)
173
alcohol, fatty acids, lip- 39, 173
ids, polysaccharides, ster-
ols, sugars, vitamins, (Fr)
aliphatic alcohols 16, 95, 104, 164,
aldehydes, and carboxylic 173, 184, 204, 205
acids, carotenoids,
condensed and hy-
drolysable tannins,
benzoquinones, lipids,
n-alkanes, minerals,
phenolic compounds,
polysaccharides, steroids,
triterpenes, (B, L, R, S)
Anthocyanins and, procy- 122, 181
anidins, steroids, tannins,
triterpenes, (B)
anthocyanins and antho- 122
cyanidins, procyanidins,
steroids, tannins,
triterpenes, (B)
122, 173
444

Table 1. Continued.

Botanical name Traditional Tested for Chemical constituents References

uses/Properties

Rhizophora activity against variety of Sulphur containing nitro- 219

mangle (ascidian, cancer cells (carcinimas, genous compounds, (B)
Ecteinascidia melanomas, and lympho-
turbinata) mas), (B)
Rhizophora treatment of diabetes, anti-hyperglycemic 11, 173, 216
mangle∗∗∗ angina, boils, minor effects, (W)
bruises, and fungal
infections, diarrhoea,
dysentery, elephantiasis,
fever, malaria, leprosy,
plaster for fractured
bones, tuberculosis,
antiseptic, (B, L)
Rhizophora treatment of elephantiasis, Antiviral, anti-HIV activ- alkaloids, anthocyanidins, 16, 20, 58, 61,
mucronata∗∗∗ haematoma, hepatitis, ul- ity, growth hormone tests carbohydrates, caroten- 82, 119, 151, 172,
cers, and a febrifuge, ((B, on plants, biotoxicity on oids, chlorophyll a, b, 173, 176, 181, 184
Fl, Fr, L, R) fingerlings of fish, (B, Fr, a & b, condensed and hy-
L, S, Fl, W, R) drolysable tannins,
gibberellins, flavonoids,
inositols, lipids, minerals,
polysaccharides, poly-
phenols, procyanidins,
proteins, saponins,
steroid, triterpenes, (B, L,
R, S)
Rhizophora to stop bleeding, (Fl, L). 151, 173
racemosa∗∗∗
Rhizophora sp∗∗∗ aminoacids, carbo- 160, 161
hydrates, polysaccharides,
polyphenols, sugars,
tannins, triterpenes,
waxes (gum, L)
Rhizophora aliphatic carboxylic acids, 73, 146, 171, 172
stylosa∗∗∗ fatty acids, flavoglycans,
hydrocarbons, inorganic
salts, inositols,
steroids, (L,R, Sd)
Salicornia treat hepatitis, (L, S). antiviral activity, (B, L) 151, 173
brachiata∗∗∗
Salvadora toxicity against mosquito 51
persica∗∗ larvae, (L)
Sapium indicum∗ as a piscicidal agent toxic, poisonous constituents, diterpenes, nitrogen 127, 134, 173,
irritant, (B) (B) containing phorbol esters, 199, 200
phorbol, (B, Fr, L)
Sapium relieve stress, (B). skin irritant and tumour diterpenes, nitrogen 75, 173, 178
sebiferum∗ promoting activity, (B) containing phorbol esters,
phorbol, (Sd)
Scaevola sericea Treat coughs, diabetes, anti- 173, 188
(plumieri)∗ eye infections, gastro- inflammatory, activity,
intestinal disorders, (B, L)
headache, stings and
bites, antiseptic, (B, L)
Scyphiphora cyclitol, polyol, sucrose, 160
hydrophylacea∗∗ glucose, fructose, (L)
 445

Table 1. Continued.

Botanical name Traditional Tested for Chemical constituents References

uses/Properties

Serjania lethalis∗ fish poison, (L) ichthyocid activity, (L) 173, 201
Sesuvium treat hepatitis, (L). antiviral activity, (B, Fl, alkaloids, aminoacids, 32, 85, 151, 162,
portulacastrum∗ Fr, L, S, R, W) minerals, saponins, 173
steroids, triterpenes, (L,
Fl, S, W)
Sonneratia as poultice in swellings plant-growth regulators, anthraquinones, car- 15, 25, 173
acida∗∗∗ and sprains, to arrest (B,L) bohydrates, carboxylic
haemorrhage, treat acids and lactones,
asthma, febrifuge, ulcers, gibberellins, lipids and
(B,L) waxes, phenols, proteins,
steroids, triterpenes, (B,
L, S)
Sonneratia poultice in swellings and cyclitol, polyol, sucrose, 16, 160, 161, 173,
alba∗∗∗ sprains, (Fr) glucose, fructose, con- 184
densed and hydrolysable
tannins, minerals, nucle-
otides (B, L, R, S)
Sonneratia treat hepatitis, (L) plant growth regulators, anthroquinoids, triter- 58, 162, 173, 199
apetala∗∗∗ growth hormone tests on penes and steroids,
plants, antiviral activity, gibberellins, carboxylic
(B, Fl, Fr, L, S, R, W) acids and lactones,
polyphenols, (B, L, S)
Sonneratia stop bleeding, check toxicity against mosquito fatty acids, hydrocarbons, 51, 73, 173
caseolaris∗∗∗ hemorrhages, treatment larvae, (Fr) steroids, (L)
of piles, sprain poultices,
(Fr)
Sonneratia checks hemorrhages, 24, 173
ovata∗∗∗ (juice)
Spinifex reduce internal pains, as 173
longifolius∗ an antiseptic, (W)
Sueda fruticosa∗ hypercholesterolaemic 22
activity
Sueda maritima∗ cure hepatitis, (L) antiviral activity, (B, Fl, Steroid, triterpenes, (L) 61, 151, 162, 173,
Fr, L, S, R, W) 192
Tamarix gallica∗∗ condensed and hydrolys- 16
able tannins, (B, L, R)
Terminalia treatment of hepatitis and antioxidant and hep- lipids, sterols, tannins to- 37, 115, 117, 130,
catappa∗ prevent hepatoma, food, atoprotective activity, copherols, fats and fatty 173, 188
(Fr) genotoxicity, activity acids, proteins, (Fr)
against inflammation,
anti-sickling potential, (L)
Terminalia poisonous to cattle, (L) toxicity to mice condensed tannins 188
oblongata∗
Thespesia antifertility agent, causes antibacterial, anti- amino acids, carbo- 16, 47, 60, 64, 67,
populnea dermatitis, (B, S) steroidogenic, cytotoxic, hydrates, glycerides and 70, 135, 145, 173,
(populneoides)∗∗∗ antifertility activity, (B, glycosides, gossypol, 182
Fl, S, W) fatty acids, mansonones,
phenolic sesquiterpenes,
phytolectins, organic
acids, triterpenes,
quinones, sterols, (B,
S)
Tillandsia antidiabetic activity, (W) cycloartane derivatives, 30
usneoides∗ (W)
446
Table 1. Continued.

Botanical name Traditional Tested for Chemical constituents References

uses/Properties

Xylocarpus treat fevers, malaria, chol- antifungal activity, insect alkaloids, amino acids; 13, 20, 40, 43,
granatum∗∗∗ era, (B) antifeedant activity carbohydrates; caroten- 73, 109, 122, 160,
oids, chlorophyll a,b, a & 161, 173, 176,
b, fatty acids, flavonoids, 184, 200
hydrocarbons; limonoids,
minerals, organic acids;
polyphenols, proteins,
tannins, triterpenes,
saponins, steroids, sugars,
(B, Fr, L, R, S, W)
Xylocarpus treat fevers, malaria, as a antifeedant activity and limonoids and limonoid 43, 109, 173, 192,
moluccensis∗∗∗ naphrodisiac, (B, Fr). inhibition of respiratory esters, monoterpenoids; 200
reactions, (B) xyloccensins, limonoids,
(Fr, S, St)
∗∗∗ mangroves; ∗∗ mangrove minors; ∗ mangrove associates.
B = bark; L = leaves; Fr = fruits; R = roots; St = stems; Fl = flower; Sd = seed; W = whole plant; Lt = latex.

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