Music and Emotion 1

Running Head: PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS OF MUSIC ON EMOTION

The Physiologic Mechanisms and Effects of Music on Human Emotion

Alyssa Smudzin

University of Rochester
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Abstract

This article reviews four recent studies that examine different aspects of the emotional

perception of music. A study by Schellenberg and Peretz (2008) examining preference

between happy and sad music in focused and unfocused conditions found happy was

preferred in focused conditions, and in unfocused conditions, no significant difference in

liking was found. Although this experiment failed to shed light on reasons for preference

in music, a study by Gerra et al in 1998 provided evidence that different types of music

have different mood effects. To supplement these findings, a 2001 experiment by Blood

and Zatorre that examined the nervous system effects of chill inducing music was

reviewed, showing that pleasurable music activated reward system circuitry in the brain.

These results were compared to a 2009 study by Nakahara et al that evaluated the

physiological effects of music performance, and similar brain activation was found,

indicating that music listening and performance serve similar functions, and may be a

method of empathetic communication.

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Music can be found in almost every facet of daily human life. From movie sound

tracks, to the invention of the iPod, to tribal chants and religious rituals, music is a staple

of human culture throughout the world. Although styles change, and individual tastes

differ, almost everyone appreciates or responds to music in some way. Some spend their

careers creating it, and others spend their careers listening to it. If music were to

disappear, the world as we know it would change drastically. But what if music didn’t

induce an emotional response? Would its influence in the human culture be the same?

Current research suggests that the emotional influence of music may in fact be one of its

most important impacts. Research regarding the physiologic mechanisms behind

emotional influence is growing. This research consists of evaluating performance effects,

examining brain activation during music listening, and exploring passive and active

listening effects on biological responses, and could increase our understanding of the

importance of music in society.

There are many different music genres, and millions of songs suited to a wide

variety of musical tastes. Trying to pin down the exact causes for different musical tastes

is a difficult task. It seems that in many cases, people will be more inclined to enjoy

music they are familiar with, such as the music their parents listened to, the music

commonly played on the radio, and new music from favorite artists. Overall trends seem

to indicate that individuals will prefer happy music (major key, faster tempo) to sad

music (minor key, slower tempo) (Schellenberg and Peretz, 2008). If happy music is

preferred, what is the purpose of sad music?

A study by Schellenberg and Peretz (2008) focused on response patterns for

happy and sad sounding music as an effect of attention. The design was between subjects,
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with half the subjects assigned to a “focused” listening task and the other half to an

“incidental” listening task in which they were distracted with a tedious word counting

task with a book on tape. For each group, 18 excerpts were played across three trials, 9

happy excerpts and 9 sad. Overall, results were as expected in that the happy excerpts had

higher liking ratings. However, the liking ratings of the subjects in the incidental group

did not differ significantly between happy and sad music. Analysis of recognition ratings

revealed that the incidental group recognized happy-sounding songs less often than sad-

sounding ones. It seems clear that when paying attention, listeners prefer happy music

over sad. However, when the music exposure is incidental, the listeners seem to like both

equally. Due to lack of certain controls in this study, no conclusion can be drawn from

the results. The sad music may have been liked more in the incidental trial because it fit

in better with the storyline of the book they were listening to, described as “somewhat

disjointed and eerie in tone” by Schellenberg and Peretz, although it was assumed that the

book’s semantic content would not be considered due to the demanding task (counting

the number of times words were spoken) subjects were to perform while listening.

Whether or not the tone of the story was perceived by the subjects is unknown. An

alternate explanation brought up by Schellenberg and Peretz was that the sad music was

liked because it had soothing affects on the listeners, who may have become agitated by

the boring task they were asked to perform. The congruency theory proposed by

Schellenberg and Peretz suggests that there is a higher appeal of sad music to listeners in

a negative mood. The fact that the recognition ratings were greater for the incidental

listening task seems to support either of these theories, due to the fact that recognition

was much higher in the incidental condition for sad music, which could mean that sad
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music had a greater impact on the listeners, and due to the diminished preference for

happy music in this condition The merit of these proposals is something that can be

determined with further research, further evaluating the effect of mood on music

preference (Schellenberg and Peretz 2008).

There has also been evidence that different genres of music can affect mood and

preference. An experiment done by Gerra et al in 1998 compared emotional reactions to

techno and classical music. Gerra et al note that the enjoyment of techno music is

especially high for the subset of individuals that enjoy raves and parties. This is a similar

correlation to the congruency theory mentioned by Schulenburg and Peretz, as fast paced,

loud music mirrors the mood of the people dancing. To test the effects of techno music

verses classical music, Italian high schoolers with stable home situations, no drug or

alcohol addictions and no history of exposure to raves were tested. The personality types

of the subjects were assessed using the Three-Dimensional Personality Questionnaire,

and then all subjects were exposed to two listening trials: a 30 minute segment of

classical music, and a 30 minute segment of techno-music. After each trial, the change in

mood of each subject was assessed. According to the von Zerssen Test, moods worsened

after the techno-music trial, and improved after the classical music trial. While listening

to techno music, “subjects experienced tension, anxiety, a sense of ‘urgency’, trouble and

anguish (Gerra et al 1998).” While listening to the classical music excerpt, subjects

reported feeling calm, serene and relaxed (Gerra et al 1998).

It is unclear whether music that impacts mood negatively is actually disliked. If

this were true, it seems unlikely that such music would exist. So why is there such a

difference in response between music portraying different emotions? It seems to depend

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largely on the context in which the musical stimulus is given. Is sad music liked less just

because listeners dislike being sad? A potential key to the understanding of the interplay

between music and human emotion is the physiologic effect that music has on the brain

and body.

At the heart of human emotion lies the brain. This is where the true mysteries of

the emotional importance of music are hidden. How does music alter our emotions? The

study by Gerra et al also measured neuroendocrine responses to techno and classical

music in their 1998 study. The concentration changes of norepinephrine (NE),

epinephrine (EPI), growth hormone (GH), prolactin (PRL), adrenocorticotropic hormone

(ACTH), cortisol (CORT), and β-endorphin (β-EP) were measured after each trial (Gerra

et al 1998). These neuro-chemicals have varied effects on the central nervous system, and

also tie into emotion. In addition, heart rate and blood pressure were measured

throughout the experiment (Gerra et al 1998).

Heart rate did not change significantly during the classical musical trial, but there

was a significant increase in heart rate after the techno music trial. Systolic blood

pressure increased during the techno music trial, but there were no blood pressure effects

during the classical music trial. Levels of β-EP, NE, GH, ACTH, and CORT were all

higher after the techno music trial, but not after the classical music trial. There were no

significant changes in EPI or PRL levels. These responses show that that the

noradrenergic system was activated by techno music. These are the same effects seen in

psychological stress reactions. However, an interesting effect of personality type was

seen in this study. In the past, studies have shown that sensation-seeking subjects prefer

fast, loud music (Gerra et al, 1998). The same effect was shown in this study. Individuals
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with a “novelty seeking temperament” had less of a change in neurotransmitters, and

reported a less stressful experience. This supports the emotional congruency theory, in

that it seems listeners who identify with the mood of the music are more likely to like it

(Gerra et al, 1998).

In addition to the production of these brain chemicals, what more is going on

inside the brain while music is played? There is a well-known physical phenomenon

called frisson, or chills, that often occurs with the climax of emotion perceived in music.

A 2001 experiment by Blood and Zatorre explored mechanisms for these chills and

emotional responses to music. Subjects in this study selected music that gave them

consistent frisson responses. During a listening trial, PET scans were taken, and

measurements of heart rate, respiration depth, electodermal response (used to detect

emotional arousal), electromyogram activity (a monitor of skeletal muscle activity) and

skin temperature were taken. This study found that heart rate, respiration depth, and

electromyogram activity all increased during chills. Brain structures in the midbrain,

amygdala, and hippocampus were activated, which are all important components of the

reward pathway of the brain. These findings show that music has similar effects to other

pleasurable stimuli, such as sex, drugs and food. Because music has yet been seen to

carry any survival benefit, the reasons for such responses are still a mystery (Blood and

Zatorre, 2001).

In order for music to exist, it must be created. How do the physiological effects of

performing music compare to listening to it? Is there any effect of expression on the

performers? An experiment by Nakahara et al. in 2009 examined the physiologic effects

that the level of expression with which a pianist plays have on their own body. The
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subjects in this study were given a piece to memorize, and then evaluated in four trials:

one in which they were free to incorporate body movements normally used in expression

during performance, one in which they were to play the piece expressively but remain

stationary, one in which they were to play the music attempting to suppress any

expression of emotion, and one in which they were to sit for 3 minutes motionless with

their hands on the keys. Heart rate, sweating rate, parasympathetic nerve activity, body

movement, and emotional arousal were measured. During expressive conditions, the

performers reported experiencing pleasure, and lower arousal ratings were measured,

indicating happiness and calmness. In non-expressive conditions, more negative

emotional reactions were reported in addition to slightly higher arousal levels. In

expressive conditions, the highest heart rate corresponded to the portion of the piece with

the greatest emotional response. Parasympathetic nerve activity decreased in both

conditions, but more for the expressive conditions. Sweat rate was greater during the

expressive trial, and peaked during the greatest emotional response, similar to heart rate,

indicating increased activity in the sympathetic nervous system. However, respiratory

rate was lower in the expressive conditions (Nakahara et al. 2009). Because both

expressive conditions had similar arousal and emotional responses, it may be that the

movements incorporated into expression are not necessary for eliciting emotion in the

performer (Nakahara et al. 2009).

These findings provide an explanation of what is occurring in the human body

during music performance. The autonomic nervous system activation is similar to that

seen in listeners of music in the Blood and Zatorre study, as well as the pleasurable

emotional effects. This is an interesting commonality, which could better explain the
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performer-audience relationship further. If the performer experiences similar emotions to

the listener, perhaps music serves as a form of emotional communication. Coupled with

the presence of ancillary body movements seen in freely expressing pianists, this

communication relationship may be some evidence to support the presence of “mirror

neurons” in humans. Mirror neurons are thought to “contribute to empathy by mapping

the bodily feelings of others onto the internal bodily state of the observer” (Nakahara et

al. 2009). Music may indeed be a form of empathetic communication.

Although the purpose of music is still shrouded in mystery, recent research has

brought many interesting theories to light. Some of the findings of these studies provide

evidence that music can be a communication tool, and is used to share emotions.

Preference may stem from what the listener is seeking to feel, or already feeling. The

emotional congruency theory may also have some merit here. In the same way

individuals may seek out others to empathize with their emotions, they may seek out

music that embodies what they are feeling as a form of comfort and pleasure. Performers

of music may have the same goal. Many structures in the brain seem to be responsible for

processing music, and no single music processing area has been discovered. Further

research may reveal these how music is processed and perhaps explain why music is so

popular across the human species.

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References

Blood, A. J., & Zatorre, R. J. (2001). Intensely pleasurable responses to music correlate

with activity in brain regions implicated in reward and emotion. Proceedings of

the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98.

Nakahara, H., Furuya, S., Francis, P. R., & Kinoshita, H. (2010). Psycho-physiological

responses to expressive piano performance. International Journal of

Psychophysiology, 75(3), 268-276.

Schellenberg, E. G., Peretz, I., & Vieillard, S. (2008). Liking for happy- and sad-

sounding music: Effects of exposure. Cognition & Emotion, 22(2), 218-237.

Gerra, G., Zaimovic, A., Franchini, D., Palladino, M., Giucastro N., Reali, N., …

Brambilla, F. (1998). Neuroendocrine responses of healthy volunteers to ‘techno-

music’: relationships with personality traits and emotional state. International

Journal of Psychophysiology, 28, 99–111.