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In this chapter we are going to discuss about power system in short and about A.P
TRANSCO and its role in maintaining power in state from buying and selling the power.
Electrical power is a little bit like the air one breathes. One doesn't really think
about it until it is missing. Power is just "there," meeting ones daily needs, constantly. It
is only during a power failure, when one walks into a dark room and instinctively hits the
useless light switch, that one realizes how important power is in our daily life. Without it,
Electric Energy is the most popular form of energy, because it can be transported
easily at high efficiency and reasonable cost. The power system of today is a complex
i. Generation.
iii. Distribution.
iv. Loads.
Power is generated at generating stations, usually located away from the actual
users. The generated voltage is then stepped up to a higher voltage for transmission,
as transmission losses are lower at higher voltages. The transmitted electric power is then
The modern distribution system begins as the primary circuit, leaves the sub-
station and ends as the secondary service enters the customer's meter socket. First, the
energy leaves the sub-station in a primary circuit, usually with all three phases.
configuration includes 3 phases and a neutral (represented by the center of the "Y".) The
neutral is grounded both at the substation and at every power pole. The primary and
secondary (low voltage) neutrals are bonded (connected) together to provide a path to
blow the primary fuse if any fault occurs that allows primary voltage to enter the
secondary lines. An example of this type of fault would be a primary phase falling across
the secondary lines. Another example would be some type of fault in the transformer
itself.
The other type of primary configuration is known as delta. This method is older
and less common. In delta there is only a single voltage, between two phases (phase to
phase), while in wye there are two voltages, between two phases and between a phase
and neutral (phase to neutral). Wye primary is safer because if one phase becomes
2
grounded, that is, makes connection to the ground through a person, tree, or other object,
it should trip out the fused cutout similar to a household circuit breaker tripping. In delta,
if a phase makes connection to ground it will continue to function normally. It takes two
or three phases to make connection to ground before the fused cutouts will open the
Transformers are sometimes used to step down from 7200 or 7600 volts to 4800
volts or to step up from 4800 volts to 7200 or 7600 volts. When the voltage is stepped up,
a neutral is created by bonding one leg of the 7200/7600 side to ground. This is
developments that are built in 4800 volt delta distribution areas. Step downs are used in
areas that have been upgraded to a 7200/12500Y or 7600/13200Y and the power
company chooses to leave a section as a 4800 volt setup. Sometimes power companies
choose to leave sections of a distribution grid as 4800 volts because this setup is less
likely to trip fuses or reclosers in heavily wooded areas where trees come into contact
with lines.
For power to be useful in a home or business, it comes off the transmission grid
and is stepped-down to the distribution grid. This may happen in several phases. The
ii. It has a "bus" that can split the distribution power off in multiple directions.
3
iii. It often has circuit breakers and switches so that the substation can be
It often has circuit breakers and switches so that the substation can be
disconnected from the transmission grid or separate distribution lines can be disconnected
from the substation when necessary. The primary distribution lines are usually in the
range of 4 to 34.5 KV and supply load in well defined geographical area. Some small
1.3 APTRANSCO
1998.As a sequel the APSEB was unbundled into Andhra Pradesh Power Generation
(DISCOMS).
a.)CURRENT ROLE
From Feb 1999 to June 2005 APTRANSCO remained as Single buyer in the state
with the terms and conditions of the individual PPAs at Bulk Supply Tariff (BST) rates.
4
APTRANSCO has ceased to do power trading and has retained with powers of
1.4 CONCLUSION
In this chapter we discussed about the power system and role of A.P TRANSCO
A.PTRANSCO.
5
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we are going to discuss about the salient feature of A.P
TRANSCO/A.PGENCO/DISCOMS.
The object of reform and restructure of power sector in the state is to create
conditions for sustainable development of the sector through promoting competition,
efficiency, transparency and attracting the much needed private finances into power
sector. The ultimate goal of the reform program is to ensure that power will be supplied
under the most efficient conditions in terms of cost and quantity to support the economic
development of the state and power sector ceases to be a burden on the States budget and
eventually becomes a net generator of resources.
A key element of the reform process is that the government will withdraw from
its earlier role as a regulator of the industry and will be limiting its role to one of policy
formulation and providing directions.
In accordance with Reform Policy, the Government of A.P entacted the A.P
Electricity Reforms Act 1998 and made effective from 1.2.1999. Transmission
Corporation of A.P Ltd (APTRANSCO and APGENCO) were incorporated under
Companies Act, 1956. The assets, liabilities and personnel were allocated to these
companies. Distribution companies have been incorporated under Companies Act as
subsidiaries to distribution to APTRANSCO and the assets, liabilities and personnel have
been allocated to distribution companies through notification of a second transfer scheme
by the Govt. on 31.3.2000.
6
2.2 SALIENT FEATURES OF A.P TRANSCO/A.PGENCO/DISCOMS
09) 10)
Energy generated (cumulative) MU - - -
1. Thermal MU - 23325.67 - 24180.38
2. Hydel MU - 7785 - 5510.46
3. Wind MU - - - -
Total MU - 31110.67 - 29690.84
Table 2.2 (b) load generation and sharing of A.P with other state
7
Parameter Units 2008-09 31.03.09 2009-10 31.03.10
(upto march09) (Provl) (upto march10) (Provl)
Installed Capacity
a) A.P.GENCO
b) Joint Sector
Thermal MW - - - -
Gas MW - - - -
Mini Hydel MW -
- - -
Wind MW
-
- - -
Co-generation & Bio mass MW
-
projects - - -
Others(IsoGasWells+Wast MW -
- - -
e heat +indl .Waste +
Muncipal waste )
TOTAL PRIVATE -
- - -
SECTOR MW
d) Share from Central
Sector
Ramagundam STPS MW - - -5.65 913.46
M.A.P.P (madras atomic MW - - -0.25 46.84
power plant)
- - -1.94 344.10
Neyveli Lignite MW
- -0.98 147.34
corporation
Kaiga nuclear power plant MW - 5.31 77.67
I &II - 1000
-
Kaiga nuclear power plant MW
3.77 437.07
III MW -
85.06 85.06
Simhadri TPS MW -
Talcher (ph -II) units
-
-3,4,5,6 MW - -
Unallocated power from -
- -
eastern region 8
TOTAL SHARE FROM MW 0.00 2963.22 85.22 3048.54
CENTRAL SECTOR
TOTAL(A.P GENCO MW 45.66 12427.25 2114.40 14541.65
+PRIVATE +CENTRAL )
2.3 CONCLUSION
In next chapter we are going to discuss about the need for compensation and types
of compensations used.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
distributed, and utilized as alternating current (AC). However, alternating current has
several distinct disadvantages. One of these is the necessity of reactive power that needs
to be supplied along with active power. Reactive power can be leading or lagging. While
it is the active power that contributes to the energy consumed, or transmitted, reactive
power does not contribute to the energy. Reactive power is an inherent part of the ‘‘total
9
power.’’ Reactive power is either generated or consumed in almost every component of
the system, generation, transmission, and distribution and eventually by the loads. The
contribute to reactive power in the circuit. Most of the loads are inductive, and must be
supplied with lagging reactive power. It is economical to supply this reactive power
Shunt and series reactive compensation using capacitors has been 3 widely
recognized and powerful methods to combat the problems of voltage drops, power losses,
schemes has gone up in recent years due to the increased awareness on energy
conservation and quality of supply on the part of the Power Utility as well as power
consumers. This amplifies on the advantages that accrue from using shunt and series
capacitor compensation. It also tries to answer the twin questions of how much to
Since most loads are inductive and consume lagging reactive power, the
compensation of reactive power can be employed either at load level, substation level, or
to the line.
Fig. 3.2(i) represents an A.C generator supplying a load through a line of series
impedance (R+jX) ohms, fig.3.2(ii) shows the phasor diagram when the line is delivering
a complex power of (P+jQ) VA and Fig. 3.2(iii) shows the phasor diagram when the line
is delivering a complex power of (P+jO) VA i.e. with the load fully compensated. A
thorough examination of these phasor diagrams will reveal the following facts which are
2
1
higher by a factor of compared to the minimum power loss attainable in the
Cos φ
system.
11
Figure 3.2 (i) represents an A.C generator supplying a load through a line of
series.
Figure.3.2 (ii) shows the phasor diagram when the line is delivering a complex
power of (P+jQ)
Figure. 3.2 (iii) shows the phasor diagram when the line is delivering a complex
power of (P+jQ)
The loading on generator, transformers, line etc is decided by the current flow.
i. The higher current flow in the case of uncompensated load necessitated by the
12
1
i.e. compensating the load to UPF will release a capacity of (load VA
Cosφ
higher in the case of uncompensated load. The line has bad regulation with
uncompensated load.
iii. The sending-end power factor is less in the case of an uncompensated one. This is
due to the higher reactive absorption taking place in the line reactance.
iv. The excitation requirements on the generator are severe in the case of
higher terminal voltage with a greater current flowing in the armature at a lower
lagging power factor compared to the situation with the same load fully
the maximum excitation current capacity of the machine and in that case further
voltage drop at receiving-end will take place due to the inability of the generator
to maintain the required sending-end voltage. It is also clear that the increased
system.
It is abundantly clear from the above that compensating a lagging load by using
i. Lesser power loss everywhere upto the location of capacitor and hence a more
efficient system.
13
ii. Releasing of tied-up capacity in all the system equipments thereby enabling a
date.
v. Less strain on the excitation system of generators and lesser excitation losses.
vi. Increase in the ability of the generators to meet the system peak demand thanks to
across the load. And employing compensation in HT & LT distribution network is the
closest one can get to the load in a power network. However, various considerations like
EHV stations etc will tend to shift a portion of shunt compensation to EHV & HV
substations. Power utilities in most countries employ about 60% capacitors on feeders,
30% capacitors on the substation buses and the remaining 10% on the transmission
system. Application of capacitors on the LT side is not usually resorted to by the utilities.
losses, lesser capacity utilization, and reduced stability margin in the generators. The
reduced stability margin makes a leading power factor operation of the system much
more undesirable than the lagging p.f operation. This fact has to be given due to
14
consideration in designing shunt compensation in view of changing reactive load levels in
a power network.
problems in the network under steady load conditions. But the voltage dips produced by
DOL starting of large motors, motors driving sharply fluctuating or periodically varying
loads, arc furnaces, welding units etc can not be improved by shunt capacitors since it
would require a rapidly varying compensation level. The voltage dips, especially in the
case of a low short circuit capacity system can result in annoying lamp-flicker, dropping
out of motor contactors due to U/V pick up, stalling of loaded motors etc. and fixed or
switched shunt capacitors are powerless against these voltage dips. But thyristor
controlled Static VAR compensators with a fast response will be able to alleviate the
Shunt capacitors are employed at substation level for the following reasons:
i. Voltage regulation: The main reason that shunt capacitors are installed at
substations is to control the voltage within required levels. Load varies over the
day, with very low load from midnight to early morning and peak values
occurring in the evening between 4 PM and 7 PM. Shape of the load curve also
varies from weekday to weekend, with weekend load typically low. As the load
varies, voltage at the substation bus and at the load bus varies. Since the load
power factor is always lagging, a shunt connected capacitor bank at the substation
15
can raise voltage when the load is high. The shunt capacitor banks can be
ii. Reducing power losses: Compensating the load lagging power factor with the
bus connected shunt capacitor bank improves the power factor and reduces
current flow through the transmission lines, transformers, generators, etc. This
reduces KVA loading of lines, transformers, and generators, which means with
compensation they can be used for delivering more power without overloading
the equipment.
Shunt compensation can be installed near the load, in a distribution substation, along the
the distribution substation, and along the distribution feeder, compensation is usually
16
The capacitor installation types and types of control for switched capacitor are
best understood by considering a long feeder supplying a concentrated load at feeder end.
This is usually a valid approximation for some of the city feeders, which emanate from
Absolute minimum power loss in this case will result when the concentrated load
is compensated to up by locating capacitors across the load or nearby on the feeder. But
the optimum value of compensation can be arrived at only by considering a cost benefit
analysis.
It is evident from fig. 3.2 (v) that it will require a continuously variable capacitor
to keep the compensation at economically optimum level throughout the day. However,
17
this can only be approximated by switched capacitor banks. Usually one fixed capacitor
and two or three switched units will be employed to match the compensation to the
reactive demand of the load over a day. The value of fixed capacitor is decided by
Automatic control of switching is required for capacitors located at the load end
controlled switch as shown in Fig 3.2(v). The time switch is used to switch on the
capacitor bank required to meet the day time reactive load and another capacitor bank
switched on by a low voltage signal during evening peak along with the other two banks
18
Shunt compensation essentially reduces the current flow everywhere upto the
point where capacitors are located and all other advantages follow from this fact. But
series compensation acts directly on the series reactance of the line. It reduces the transfer
reactance between supply point and the load and thereby reduces the voltage drop. Series
19
Economic factors along with the possible occurrence of sub-synchronous
Series capacitors, with their inherent ability to add a voltage proportional to load
current, will be the ideal solution for handling the voltage dip problem brought about by
motor starting, arc furnaces, welders etc. And, usually the application of series
required for the capacitors and the consequent high cost. Also, some problems like self-
motors etc discourages wide spread use of series compensation in distribution systems.
the system power factor reaches close to unity. This fact prompts an economic analysis to
arrive at the optimum compensation level. Different economic criteria can be used for
this purpose. The annual financial benefit obtained by using capacitors can be compared
against the annual equivalent of the total cost involved in the capacitor installation. The
decision also can be based on the number of years it will take to recover the cost involved
in the Capacitor installation. A more sophisticated method would be able to calculate the
present value of future benefits and compare it against the present cost of capacitor
installation.
(generators, transformers, transmission and distribution lines, switch gear and protective
equipment etc) has to be increased in size accordingly. Capacitors reduce losses and
loading in all these equipments, thereby effecting savings through powerless reduction
20
and increase in generator, line and substation capacity for additional load. Depending on
the initial power factor, capacitor installations can release at least 30% additional
capacity in generators, lines and transformers. Also they can increase the distribution
feeder load capability by about 30% in the case of feeders which were limited by voltage
drop considerations earlier. Improvement in system voltage profile will usually result in
increased power consumption thereby enhancing the revenue from energy sales.
compensation requirements.
capacities. But when individual distribution feeder compensation is in question, the value
nature of the system, the exact benefit due to capacity release in these areas is quite
21
hence are left out from the economic analysis of capacitor application in distribution
systems.
equal to
1/ 2
Q2
c Cos2φ QcSin φ
∆S c = 1 − + − 1 Sc
S2 S2
c c
S
In general and ∆Sc ≈ QcSin φ when QC < C
10
power factor
SC = Station Capacity
22
Annual energy losses are reduced as a result of decreasing copper loss due to
installation nature of feeder loading etc. are needed to calculate.. The calculation can
proceed as follows.
Let a current I1 + jI 2 flow through a resistance R. The power loss is (Ij2+ I22)R-
The power loss due to reactive component is I22 R. Compensating the feeder will result in
a change only in I2. Hence the new power loss will be (I22+(I2-IC) 2) R where Ic is the
compensating current. Hence the decrease in power loss due to compensating part of
Now, if I2 is varying (it will be varying according to reactive demand curve) the
average decrease in power loss over a period of T hours will be equal to (2 I 2Ic FR-Ic2) R
where I2 stands for peak reactive current during T hours through the feeder section of
resistance R, Ic is compensation current flowing through the same section for the same
period and FR is reactive load factor for T hours in the same section. Thus total energy
One day can be divided in to many such periods depending on the number of
fixed and switched capacitors and the sequence of operation of switched capacitors. Also,
the feeder can be modeled by uniformly distributed load or discrete loading and total
energy savings can be found out for each period over the entire period by mathematical
integration or discrete summation. The daily and hence the annual energy savings for the
23
Let ∆ E this value if total energy savings per year. Annual benefits due to
than thermal limits. Shunt compensation improves voltage regulation and there by
QC x
∆S F = where Qc is compensation (MVAR)employed, X and R are
XSin θ + rCosθ
feeder reactance & resistance respectively and Cos θ is the P.F before compensation.
The annual benefits due to this will be ∆ SF X C x i where C is the cost of the installed
feeder per MVA and / is the annual fixed charge rate applicable.
increased consumption can be worked out from a knowledge of elasticity of loads of the
concerned feeders with respect to voltage, Let it be ∆ EC. Annual revenue increase due to
24
This will be equal to Qc*C*i where Qc is total capacitive MVAR to be installed,
C is cost of capacitors per MVAR and i is the annual fixed charge applicable.
The total annual benefits should be compared against the annual equivalent of
3.4 CONCULSION
transmission systems and the types of compensations of which shunt and series are the
In next chapter we are going to discuss about the different types of capacitor
4.1 INTRODUCTION:
25
In this chapter we are going to discus about the different types of capacitor banks
charge. These two plates are conductive and are separated by an insulator or dielectric.
The charge is stored at the surface of the plates, at the boundary with the dielectric.
Because each plate stores an equal but opposite charge, the total charge in the capacitor is
always zero.
When electric charge accumulates on the plates, an electric field is created in the
region between the plates that is proportional to the amount of accumulated charge. This
electric field creates a potential difference V = E·d between the plates of this simple
parallel-plate capacitor.
26
Figure.4.1 (b) showing polarized molecules
The electrons in the molecules move or rotate the molecule toward the positively
charged left plate. This process creates an opposing electric field that partially annuls the
field created by the plates. (The air gap is shown for clarity; in a real capacitor, the
a.) CAPACITANCE:
The capacitor's capacitance (C) is a measure of the amount of charge (Q) stored
on each plate for a given potential difference or voltage (V) which appears between the
plates:
In SI units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one farad when one coulomb of charge
causes a potential difference of one volt across the plates. Since the farad is a very large
27
unit, values of capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads (µF), nano farads (n F) or
The capacitance is proportional to the surface area of the conducting plate and
inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. It is also proportional to the
permittivity of the dielectric (that is, non-conducting) substance that separates the plates.
of charge, a voltage develops across the capacitor owing to the electric field of these
charges. Ever increasing work must be done against this ever increasing electric field as
more charge is separated. The energy (measured in joules, in SI) stored in a capacitor is
equal to the amount of work required to establish the voltage across the capacitor, and
reliability. The capacitor consists of thin dielectric polypropylene film wound together
28
A bio-degradable hydrocarbon compound with excellent electrical properties is
used as the impregnation fluid. The container is of surface-treated high-quality steel and
the bushings and terminals are of the highest quality and reliability.
a.) RATINGS:
The ratings of the capacitor depends upon the power to be delivered, voltage
Standard Non-standard
Max. Power 300 kvar 500 kvar 500 kvar
Voltage 2.4, 4.16, 4.8 kV 4.8 - 13.8 kV up to 20 kV
Frequency 50, 60 Hz 50, 60 Hz 50, 60 Hz
Max. current 75A 75A 180 A
Internal connection Delta, but limited star
available
Application Power factorPower factorPower factor
29
ii. Direct stud-mounted current limiting fuses (1⁄2" UNC); 1 per phase
v. Indoor or Outdoor
The table below shows the values for typical power factors in accordance with the above
formula
30
0.7;0.75;0.8;0.85;0.9;0.92;0.94;0.96;0.98;1
--------------------------------------------------------
0.45--- 0.96;1.1;1.23;1.36;1.5;1.56;1.62;1.69;1.78;1.98
0.55--- 0.5; 0.64; 0.77; 0.9; 1.03; 1.09; 1.16; 1.23; 1.32; 1.52
0.60--- 0.31; 0.45; 0.58; 0.71; 0.85; 0.91; 0.97; 1.04; 1.13; 1.33
0.65--- 0.15; 0.29; 0.42; 0.55; 0.68; 0.74; 0.81; 0.88; 0.97; 1.17
0.70--- 0; 0.14; 0.27; 0.4; 0.54; 0.59; 0.66; 0.73; 0.82; 1.02
select the factor (matching point of actual and target power factor) k
Qc = k * P
Example:
actual power factor = 0.70, target power factor = 0.96, real power = P = 500kW,
In the case of induction motors, power factor is low and it is the responsibility of
industrial and agricultural consumers to improve the power factor to the prescribed limit.
The table below shows the capacity of capacitors required for various loads.
31
Table 4.3(a) shows the capacity of capacitors required for various loads
SLNO Rating of KVAR rating of LT capacitors for various RPM
motor(HP)
750RPM 1000RPM 15000RPM 3000RPM
1 3 1 1 1 1
2 5 2 2 2 2
3 7.5 3 3 3 3
4 10 4 4 4 3
5 15 6 5 5 4
6 20 8 7 6 5
7 25 9 8 7 6
8 30 10 9 8 7
9 40 13 11 9 9
10 50 15 15 10 10
11 60 20 20 12 14
12 75 24 23 16 16
13 100 30 30 19 20
14 125 39 38 24 26
15 150 45 45 31 30
16 200 60 60 48 40
Power factors of some of the common types of loads are given below.
The table 4.3(b) shows the Power factors of some of the common types of loads.
Incandescent lamps 1
Arc lamps used in cinemas 0.3to0.7
Neon lamps used for advertisements 0.4 to 0.5
Fluorescent lamps 0.6 to0.8
Fans 0.9
Electrical drills 1
Resistance heaters 0.85
32
Arc furnaces 0.85
Induction furnaces 0.6
Arc welders 0.3to0.4
Resistance welders 0.65
Induction motors 0.4 to 0.8
The table 4.3(c) shows Capacity of Capacitors required for welding transformers.
SLNO Name of the rating in KVA of individual welding Capacity of the capacitor in
transformer KVAR
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
4 4 3
5 5 4
6 6 5
7 7 6
8 8 6
9 9 7
10 10 8
11 11 9
12 12 9
13 13 10
14 14 11
15 15 12
16 16 12
17 17 13
18 18 14
19 19 15
20 20 15
21 21 16
22 22 17
23 23 18
24 24 19
25 25 19
26 26 20
27 27 21
28 28 22
29 29 22
30 30 23
31 31 24
33
32 32 25
33 33 25
34 34 26
35 35 27
installation and load, the location of capacitor banks is divided into three types. They are,
a. Central compensation
b. Group compensation
c. Individual compensation
a) CENTRAL COMPENSATION:
When the main purpose is to reduce reactive power purchase due to power
plant are not affected if compensation is made on the high voltage side. When made on
the low voltage side, the transformer is relieved. Cost of installation on the high voltage
and low voltage sides respectively determine where to install the capacitor.
b) GROUP COMPENSATION:
on cables is reduced and losses decrease. Reduced losses often make group compensation
protective devices for the machine to be compensated can also be utilized for switching
and protection of capacitors. The costs are there by limited solely to purchasing the
and out with the load. However this signifies that individual compensation is solely
motivated for apparatus and machines which have a very good load factor.
Usually, in a long feeder, receiving end voltage bucks considerably due to drop
capacitor nearer to the receiving end of the feeder where the load concentration is more.
consumers who are connected after the tapping point of switched capacitor in the system.
However prior to the installation of the switched capacitor at set location, the power
factor, the peak demand and off peak demand load current should be noted carefully.
4.5 CONCLUSION
In this chapter we discussed about the different types of capacitor banks and their
ratings.
35
.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we are going study about latest technology involved in reactive
power compensation.
devices; vary the reactive power output by controlling or switching the reactive
following equipment:
36
i. Thyristor controlled reactors (TCR) with fixed capacitors (FC)
switched capacitors
i. Voltage regulation
ii. Reduce voltage flicker caused by varying loads like arc furnace, etc.
37
Figure 5.1 View of static VAR compensator (SVC) installation.
Figure5.2 shows three basic versions of SVC. Figure 5.2a shows configuration of
TCR with fixed capacitor banks. The main components of a SVC are thyristor valves,
38
As the load varies in a distribution system, a variable voltage drop will occur in
the system impedance, which is mainly reactive. Assuming the generator voltage remains
constant, the voltage at the load bus will vary. The voltage drop is a function of the
reactive component of the load current, and system and transformer reactance. When the
loads change very rapidly, or fluctuate frequently, it may cause ‘‘voltage flicker’’ at the
customers’ loads. Voltage flicker can be annoying and irritating to customers because of
the ‘‘lamp flicker’’ it causes. Some loads can also be sensitive to these rapid voltage
fluctuations.
An SVC can compensate voltage drop for load variations and maintain constant
voltage by controlling the duration of current flow in each cycle through the reactor.
Current flow in the reactor can be controlled by controlling the gating of thyristors that
control the conduction period of the thyristor in each cycle, from zero conduction (gate
signal off) to full-cycle conduction. In Fig. 2a, for example, assume the MVA of the fixed
capacitor bank is equal to the MVA of the reactor when the reactor branch is conducting
for full cycle. Hence, when the reactor branch is conducting full cycle, the net reactive
power drawn by the SVC (combination of capacitor bank and thyristor controlled reactor)
will be zero. When the load reactive power (which is usually inductive) varies, the SVC
reactive power will be varied to match the load reactive power by controlling the duration
of the conduction of current in the thyristor controlled reactive power branch. Figure.3
shows current waveforms for three conduction levels, 60, 120 and 1808. It is possible to
vary the net reactive power of the SVC from 0 to the full capacitive VAR only. This is
sufficient for most applications of voltage regulation, as in most cases only capacitive
39
VARs are required to compensate the inductive VARs of the load. If the capacitor can be
switched on and off, the MVAR can be varied from full inductive to full capacitive,up to
40
Figure 5.2 Three versions of SVC.
5.5 CONCLUSION:
compensation.
41
In next chapter we are going to study about the technical specifications of
designs.
6.1 INTRODUCTION:
In this chapter we are going to study about the various types of capacitor and
42
6.2 TECHNICAL PARTICULARS FOR CAPACITOR BANK UNIT:
43
Item . Description
NO
2 b) Reference
36KV SERIES
standards REACTORS FOR CAPACITORS
IS :13925/1988(PART-I)
3 Rated voltage for each capacitor units KV 21.9 11.24 7.32 7.3 7.32 193.5 6.93 11 10.4
10.44
5 KVAR(at rated voltage and frequency of each 400 400 26606 200 200 200.5 166 150 125 11
unit)
8 Maximum permissible over voltage and duration 110%brass rated voltage for 12 hrs in a day
45
ITEM DESCRIPTION 14.4 KVAR
NO
7 Rated frequency 50 HZ
10 Maximum temperatures rise of coil over ambient specified for 105 Deg C
which reactor is designed
i) Incoming 2 * 24 KV
a)Harmonics
46
b)Inrush current
ITEM DESCRIPTION
NO
2 Reference IS:2705/1992
Core- 2:-15VA
d) Accuracy class 5P 5P
8 Short time thermal current and its duration kA.Secs OCF 100 for 3 secs
11 Creepage distance
47
12 Insulation level 170 KV (Peak)
20 Whether all ferrous parts are hot dip galvanized No, not hot dip galvanized. All
ferrous parts exposed to
atmosphere are duly painted.
ITEM DESCRIPTION
NO
a)Primary 33 KV
48
4 Rated current (Amps)
a)Primary ---
b)Secondary ---
9 Accuracy class
a)Protection winding 3P
b)Metering winding 1
10 Burden
11 Frequency 50 HZ
12 Insulation level
49
13 Creepage distance
a)Total 900 mm
b)Protected 450 mm
14 Fuses
b)Rating 2 Amps
21 Whether all ferrous parts are hot dip galvanized No, not hot dip
galvanized. All ferrous
parts exposed to
atmosphere are duly
painted
There are several manufacturing companies that designed the capacitors with
specific dimensions which are approximate. These dimensions indicated are designed in
such a way that due to design improvements they do not effect the functional parameters.
The designs of different manufacturing companies are shown below and the different
companies are,
50
i. Asia Type vi. CGL Type
51
Figure 6.1(a) showing external fuse capacitor of Asia type .
52
Figure 6.1( b) showing internal fuse capacitor of Shreem manufacturer .
53
Figure 6.1( c) showing external fuse capacitor of CPS type .
54
Figure 6.1( d) showing external fuse capacitor of CGL type .
55
Figure 6.1(e) showing external fuse capacitor of COOPER type .
56
Figure 6.1(f) showing external fuse capacitor of MEHAR type .
57
Figure 6.1(g) showing external fuse capacitor of SHAKTI type .
58
Figure 6.1(h) showing external fuse capacitor of NGF type .
59
Figure 6.1(i) showing external fuse capacitor of ABB type .
60
Figure 6.1(j) showing internal fuse capacitor of BHEL type .
61
6.2 CONCLUSION:
of capacitor bank units and design of capacitors of different manufacturers and capacitors
installed in APTRANSCO.
In the next chapter we are going to discuss about the various case studies at different
substations.
62
7.1 CASE STUDY - 1
a.) INTRODUCTION:
Most of the electrical equipments connected to a power supply not only require
active power but also certain amount of reactive power. Magnetic fields in Motors and
system, the feeder lines cater considerable amount of reactive power in addition to the
active power carried by them. Shunt capacitors are employed to compensate the reactive
power generated in the system to alleviate the ill effects of reactive components and will
b.) IMPLEMENTATION:
capacitors, 19 of which are rural feeders, one industrial feeder and one feeder catering to
combined urban as well as rural loads. Work was carried out through turnkey contract at
a total cost of 146.16 lakhs which is 6.32% below the DPR cost. The work was
completed in 3 months time Single pole mounted Capacitor Bank at project site Close up
63
Three feeders were selected for conducting the sample study. The feeders are DF 2
and DF 6 of D Cross sub-station and KF 8 of KIADB sub-station. The data of the feeders
for nine months was obtained. The period covers three months prior to the installation of
The three feeders DF2, DF6 and KF8 at Doddaballapur of different lengths with
different usage of conductors are mentioned below and the current and power (MW) are
noted down in the morning peak and in the evening peak.The corresponding power
factors that is average power factor for the taken readings is calculated and tabulated as
shown below. From these readings, we calculate the average peak load for certain
durations and further we calculate the reduction in peak current which can be used for
64
Feeder: DF 2
Conductor: Rabbit
Feeder: DF 6
65
Feeder Length: 6.48 Kms
Conductor: Rabbit
Feeder: KF 8
A sample study was also conducted on the above three feeders by taking the
instantaneous readings. The individual readings were taken with the capacitors ON &
OFF the circuit. These instantaneous readings are considered for calculation of cost
benefits as they reflect the correct savings of energy, whereas average values provided
67
above will have many other factors viz., seasonal fluctuations, temporary change over of
capacitor
2 Line current(in amps) with 114 118 154
capacitor
3 Difference in current(in amps) 15 17 22
4 Percentages savings 12% 13% 13%
demand. This has also resulted in improvement of tail end voltages by 2 to 3%.
The benefit from installation of capacitors will be in the form of reduction in loading
losses. The pay back period has been worked out by considering the savings in terms
power purchase cost to Bescom, which works out to 8.5 months. The benefits available
from the transmission system are not considered as the same are in the KPTCL preview.
capacitor
68
2 Line current with capacitor 114 118 154
3 Difference in current 15 17 22
4 Power factor with out 0.65 0.73 0.84
capacitor
5 Power factor with out 0.87 0.96 0.90
capacitor
6 Demand(in KVA)with out 2458 2572 3353
capacitor bank
7 Demand(in KVA)with 2171 2248 2934
capacitor bank
8 Reduction in demand in 287 324 419
KVA
9 % Reduction in demand 11.7% 12.6% 12.5%
10 Feeder loss reduction on 133.59 290.32 490.02
banks
14 Pay back period 14 months ----- -----
69
c) Capacitor bank is assumed to work our 5 hours in a day.
Since this is a simple devise and does not require any special skill or effort for
execution and requires only a minimum shutdown of lines, the APTRANSCO can reap
feeders, the subdivision is benefited in terms of reduction losses and improved quality of
power supply.
The case studies regarding Shahpurnagar and Kalyan nagar substations are
discussed below. The corresponding results and conclusions before and after the
BEFORE COMPENSATION
SENDING
Sending Node
Real Reactiv
Injecting Receivin
B.No.
AFTER COMPENSATION
SENDING
71
Receiving Node
Sending Node Injecting
Injecting
Receivin
Real Reactiv
B.No.
72
9 7
req=0.11229p.u xeq=0.14530p.u
BEFORE COMPENSATION
SENDING
Sending Node
Real Reactiv
Receivin
B.No.
AFTER COMPENSATION
SENDING
Sending Node
Real Reacti
Injecting Receivi Power
B.No.
Injecting Power ve
Reactive ng end Facto
Real Power Losses Losses
Power Q Voltage r
P (Pu) (Kw) (KVAR)
(Pu)
req=0.11229p.u xeq=0.14530p.u
74
Table no.7.2 (e) Readings of Voltage comparison
Voltage Voltage
before compensation after compensation
1 1
0.99584 0.9968
0.98846 0.98848
0.98055 0.98077
0.9695 0.97057
0.95363 0.95698
0.94837 0.95261
0.9381 0.9455
0.98605 0.98607
0.98446 0.98468
0.9818 0.98625
Voltage Voltage
before compensation after compensation
1 1
0.99484 0.99523
0.97006 0.97257
0.95547 0.95959
0.94115 0.94694
0.90603 0.91656
0.89259 0.90706
0.85335 0.87735
0.83187 0.86221
0.81227 0.84939
0.81007 0.84777
0.80608 0.84488
0.77953 0.82938
0.76486 0.82198
0.75438 0.81692
0.744 0.812
0.71326 0.80022
0.70392 0.79661
0.99387 0.99426
0.98632 0.98732
0.98429 0.9857
0.981 0.98358
76
0.9652 0.96778
0.95561 0.95863
0.94863 0.95309
0.90356 0.91412
0.90054 0.91119
0.88801 0.89946
0.87908 0.89134
0.87502 0.88773
0.86568 0.88054
0.86326 0.87919
The power factor of a power system is the major of its economy. So, the design
Engineers always attempts to make this power factor as close as to unity. Power factor
decreases due to the increased usage of inductive loads .Therefore the power distribution
consumers. In our state the mandatory power factor is 0.9 described by the Andhra
Pradesh Transmission Corporation. The decrease in power factor below this reference
is compensated by the consumer based on their maximum demand and the no. of units
consumed.
Hence, to compensate for this decrease in power factor shunt capacitor method
can be used as its advantages are already described in Chapter 3. Proper analysis design
and implementation of this capacitor banks with appropriate mounting and protecting
devices will not only reduce the bill charges but also make the profit on long term.
78
The electricity consumption depends upon the infrastructure, instruments and
different loads. Hyderabad area is going to consume more loads in future with increase in
further cost-benefit analysis which in turns depends on the costs of capacitor bank and
energy saving.
5. B.R. GUPTA “Power System Analysis & Design” 3rd Edition, wheeler
Publishers.
Limited,Publishers-1998
KPTCL buys power from power generating companies like Karnataka Power
Corporation Limited (KPCL) and other IPPs (Independent Power Producers) like GMR,
Jindal, etc., and sell them to their respective ESCOMS.The electric generating power
stations previously under the control of K.E.B has now transferred to a separate company
called Visweshraiah Vidyut Nigama Limited or VVNL.
The KPTCL is further divided into Zones and Circles are also known as Electric
Supply Companies popularly known as ESCOM's. Each of these zones look after
distribution of electricity in a particular region of Karnataka consisting of few districts of
80
the state. Whereas KPTCL looks after transmission. The KPTCL has five zones at
present, names of which is as below.
APPENDIX - II
• Average load: Average of the load occurring on the power station in a given
period is known as average load.
• Capacity factor: It is the ratio of actual energy produced to maximum possible
energy that could have been produced during a given period.
• Connected load: It is the sum of continuous rating of all the equipment connected
to supply system.
• Demand factor: It is the ratio of maximum demand on power station to its
connected load.
• Depreciation: The decrease in the value of the power plant equipment and
building due to constant use is known as depreciation.
• Diversity factor: The ratio of sum of individual maximum demands to the
maximum demand on power station.
• Fixed cost: It is the cost which is independent of maximum demand and unit
generated.
• Interest: The cost of use of money is known as interest.
• Load curve: The curve showing the variation of the load on the power station
with reference to time is known as load curve.
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• Load factor: The ratio of average load to maximum demand during a given
period.
• Maximum demand: It is the greatest demand of load on power station during a
given period.
• Payback period: The time between which capital cost is compensated from the
day of installation is known as payback period.
• Running cost: It is the cost which depends only upon the number of unit
generated.
82