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Outline
Background
z Characteristics of Turbulent Flow
Scales
z Eliminating the small scales
Reynolds Averaging
Filtered Equations
Turbulence Modeling Theory
z RANS Turbulence Models in FLUENT
Turbulence Modeling Options in Fluent
z Near wall modeling, Large Eddy Simulation (LES)
Turbulent Flow Examples
z Comparison with Experiments and DNS
Turbulence Models
Near Wall Treatments
What is Turbulence?
Unsteady, irregular (aperiodic) motion in which transported quantities
(mass, momentum, scalar species) fluctuate in time and space
Fluid properties exhibit random variations
z statistical averaging results in accountable, turbulence related transport
mechanisms
Contains a wide range of eddy sizes (scales)
z typical identifiable swirling patterns
z large eddies ‘carry’ small eddies
Energy Cascade
Larger, higher-energy eddies, transfer energy to smaller eddies via
vortex stretching
z Larger eddies derive energy from mean flow
z Large eddy size and velocity on order of mean flow
Smallest eddies convert kinetic energy into thermal energy via viscous
dissipation
z Rate at which energy is dissipated is set by rate at which they receive
energy from the larger eddies at start of cascade
Vortex Stretching
Existence of eddies implies vorticity
Vorticity is concentrated along vortex lines or bundles
Vortex lines/bundles become distorted from the induced velocities of
the larger eddies
z As end points of a vortex line randomly move apart
vortex line increases in length but decreases in diameter
vorticity increases because angular momentum is nearly conserved
z Most of the vorticity is contained within the smallest eddies
Turbulence is a highly 3D phenomenon
l l l (k 3 / 2 / l )1/ 4 l
= 3 ≈ ≈ Re
3/ 4
>> 1
η (ν / ε )1/ 4 ν 3/ 4
T
η
Implication of Scales
Consider a mesh fine enough to resolve smallest eddies and large
enough to capture mean flow features
Example: 2D channel flow η
Ncells~(4l / η)3
or
l l
Ncells ~ (3Reτ)9/4 ≈
η (ν / ε )
3 1/ 4
where H
l
Reτ = uτH / 2ν
ReH = 30,800 → Reτ = 800 → Ncells = 4x107 !
Prediction Methods
l η = l/ReT3/4
u
u'i
Ui ui
time
r r r
ui ( x , t ) = U i ( x , t ) + ui′( x , t )
Φ ≡ φ ; φ ′ ≡ 0; φψ = ΦΨ + φ ′ψ ′; Φψ ′ = 0; φ ′ψ ′ ≠ 0, etc.
Mass-weighted (Favre) averaging used for compressible flows
RANS Equations
Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes equations:
∂U
ρ i + U k
∂U i
= −
∂p
+
∂ µ +
(
∂U i ∂ − ρ ui u j )
∂t ∂xk ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j
(prime notation dropped)
∂ ∂U i
Effectively a stress→ µ − ρ ui u j
∂x
V
∂x j j
These are the terms to be modeled
Modeling µt
Oh well, focus attention on modeling µt anyways
Basic approach made through dimensional arguments
z Units of νt = µt/ρ are [m2/s]
One-Equation Models
Traditionally, one-equation models were based on transport equation
for k (turbulent kinetic energy) to calculate velocity scale, v = k1/2
z Circumvents assumed relationship between v and turbulence length scale
(mixing)
z Use of transport equation allows ‘history effects’ to be accounted for
Length scale still specified algebraically based on the mean flow
z very dependent on problem type
z approach not suited to general purpose CFD
∂k ∂k ∂U i ∂ ∂k 1
ρ +U j = Rij − ρε + µ − ρ u i ui u j − p ' u j
∂t
∂x j ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j 2
unsteady & production molecular turbulent pressure
convective dissipation diffusion transport diffusion
∂ui ∂ui
z where ε =ν (incompressible form)
∂xk ∂xk
~ ~ 1 ∂
2
Dν~ ∂ν~
∂ν~ ~ 2
ν
(µ + ρν )
~
ρ = ρ cb1S ν + + cb 2 ρ − cw1 ρ f w
Dt σ ν~ ∂x j ∂x j ∂x j d
χ3 ν~
µ t ≡ ρν~f v1 , f v1 = , χ≡
χ + cv1
3 3
ν
~ ν~ χ
S ≡ S + 2 2 fv2 , f v2 = 1 −
κ d 1 + χf v1
damping functions
1/ 6
1+ 6 ν~
f w = g 6 cw63 ,
distance from wall
(
g = r + cw 2 r − r , 6
) r≡ ~ 2 2
g + cw3 Sκ d
Spalart-Allmaras Model
Spalart-Allmaras model developed for unstructured codes in aerospace
industry
z Increasingly popular for turbomachinery applications
z “Low-Re” formulation by default
can be integrated through log layer and viscous sublayer to wall
Fluent’s implementation can also use law-of-the-wall
z Economical and accurate for:
wall-bounded flows
flows with mild separation and recirculation
z Weak for:
massively separated flows
free shear flows
simple decaying turbulence
Two-Equation Models
Two transport equations are solved, giving two independent scales
for calculating µt
z Virtually all use the transport equation for the turbulent kinetic
energy, k
z Several transport variables have been proposed, based on
dimensional arguments, and used for second equation
Kolmogorov, ω: µt ∝ ρk / ω, l ∝ k1/2 / ω, k ∝ ε / ω
V ω is specific dissipation rate
V defined in terms of large eddy scales that define supply rate of k
Chou, ε: µt ∝ ρk2 / ε, l ∝ k3/2 / ε
Rotta, l: µt ∝ ρk1/2l, ε ∝ k3/2 / l
z Boussinesq relation still used for Reynolds Stresses
Dk ∂ µt ∂k 2
ρ = µ + + µt S − ρε ; S = 2 Sij Sij
Dt ∂x j σk ∂x j
production dissipation
ε-transport equation
ρ
Dε
=
∂
Dt ∂x j
µ +
µt
σε
∂ε ε
( 2
+ C1ε µ t S − ρC2ε ε )
∂x j k
inverse time scale
coefficients
turbulent viscosity k2
µ t = ρ Cµ
ε
29 / 65 © Fluent Inc. 6/7/2005
Fluent User Services Center Advanced Fluent Training
Turbulence Apr 2005
www.fluentusers.com
Closure Coefficients
Simple flows render simpler model equations
z Coefficients can be isolated and compared with experiment
z e.g.,
Uniform flow past grid
V Standard k-ε equations reduce to just convection and dissipation terms
dk dε ε2
U = −ε ; U = −C2ε
dx dx k
Homogeneous Shear Flow
Near-Wall (Log layer) Flow
Dk ∂ µt ∂k 2 µt ∂ρ k
ρ = µ + + µ t S − ρε − g i − ρε 2
Dt ∂x j σk ∂x
j ρ Prt ∂xi γRT
Buoyancy Dilatation
production Dissipation
ρ
Dε
=
∂
(α µ
ε eff
Dt ∂x j
) ∂ε ε
∂x j k
( 2 *
)
+ C1ε µt S − ρC2ε ε where η=S
ε
k
η0 , β are coefficients
µ eff = µ + µ t
u α2 ≥ 0
z Schwarz’s inequality of shear stresses
(uα u β ) 2
≤ uα u β
2 2
Normal component:
2 k 2 ∂U
u = k − 2Cµ
2
3 ε ∂x
Normal stress will be negative if:
k ∂U 1
> ≈ 3.7
ε ∂x 3Cµ
Cµ along
bottom-wall
Dω ω ∂U i ∂ µt ∂ω
ρ = α τ ij − ρ β fβ ω 2 + µ +
Dt k ∂x j ∂x j σω ∂x
j
Wilcox’ original k-ω is a subset of the Wilcox 1998 model, and can be
recovered by deactivating some of the options and changing some of the
model constants
0 M t ≤ M t0
β * = β i* [1 + ζ * F (M t )] F (M t ) = 2
M t − M t20 M t > M t 0
4 15 + (Re T Rβ )
4
β i* = β ∞* , Rβ = 8 2k 1
1 + (Re T Rβ ) M t2 = 2 , M t 0 = , a = γRT
4
a 4
σ k = 2.0, ζ * = 1.5, β ∞* = 0.09
1 χk ≤ 0
1 ∂ k ∂ω
f β * = 1 + 680 χ k2 , χk = 3
1 + 400 χ 2 χ k > 0 144 ω ∂xj ∂xj
2443
k
cross- diffusion parameter
α ∞ α 0 + Re T Rω 13 1
α= , α∞ = , α 0 = , Rω = 2.95 , σ ω = 2.0
α 1 + Re T Rω
*
25 9
β i* * 1 + 70 χ ω Ω ij Ω jk S ki
β = β i 1 + ζ ∞ F (M t ), f β = , χω = , ζ *
= 1 .5
β i 1 + 80 χ ω (β ∞ω )
* 3 ∞
1 ∂U i ∂U j
, Ω ij = 1 ∂U i −
∂U j
S ij = +
2 ∂x j ∂xi
2 ∂ x j ∂ xi
4 ∂u k′ ∂u ′
ρ ε = ρ εs + ρ εd , ρ εd = ρ
3 ∂x k ∂x k
z Available with ideal-gas option only and is turned on by
default
z Improve high-Mach number free shear and boundary
layer flow predictions - reduces spreading rates
Outer layer
k-ω model transformed
(wake and
from std. k-3ε model
outward)
k 2
ε=
Inner layer lε
Modified Wilcox k-ω model
(sublayer,
Wilcox’ original k-ω model
log-layer)
Wall
Dk ∂U i ∂ µ t ∂k
ρ = τ ij − β *kρω + µ +
Dt ∂x j ∂x j σ k1 ∂x
j
Dω γ 1 ∂U i ∂ µ t ∂ω
ρ = τ ij − β1 ρω 2 + µ +
Dt ν t ∂x j ∂x j σ ω1 ∂x j
β 1 = 0.075 , σ k1 = 1.176 , σ ω 1 = 2.0
β * = 0.09 , γ 1 = β 1 β * − κ 2 ( β σ ),
*
ω1 κ = 0.41
a1 k
µt = ρ
max(a 1 ω , ΩF2 )
2 k 500ν
( )
F2 = tanh arg 22 , arg 2 = max
ω
, 2
0. 09 y y ω
Dk ∂U i ∂ µ t ∂k
ρ = τ ij − β *kρω + µ +
Dt ∂x j ∂x j σ k2 ∂x j
Dω γ 2 ∂U i ∂ µ t ∂ω
ρ = τ ij − β 2 ρω 2 +
µ +
Dt ν t ∂x j ∂x j σ ω2 ∂x j
1 ∂k ∂ω
+ 2 ρσ ω 2
ω ∂x j ∂x j
ω
50 / 65 © Fluent Inc. 6/7/2005
Fluent User Services Center Advanced Fluent Training
Turbulence Apr 2005
www.fluentusers.com
Wall
Wall
µ t Ω ≤ ρ a1 k
a1 k k ak
µt = ρ = ρ min , 1
max(a 1ω , ΩF2 ) ω ΩF2
2 k 500ν
F2 = tanh (arg ) ,
2
arg 2 = max , 2
0.09ω y y ω
2
Ω ≡ 2Ω ij Ω ij (vorticity magnitude)
Remarks
z F2 is equal to 1 inside boundary layer and goes to zero far from the wall
and free shear layers
z The name SST (shear-stress transport) is a big word for this simple trick
z Note that the vorticity magnitude is used (strain-rate magnitude could also
be used)
Pressure-Strain ∂ui ∂u j
Redistribution Φ ij ≡ − p
′ + (modeled)
∂x
j ∂xi
∂u i ∂u j
Dissipation ε ij ≡ 2 µ (related to ε)
∂x k ∂x k
Turbulent ∂
J ijk ≡ p′uiδ jk + p′u jδ ik + ρ ui u j uk − µ (ui u j ) (modeled)
Diffusion 1442443 1 424 3 ∂xk
142 43
Pressure/velocity Turbulent Molecular
fluctuations transport transport
Dissipation Modeling
Dissipation rate is predominantly associated with small scale eddy
motions
z Large scale eddies affected by mean shear
z Vortex stretching process breaks eddies down into continually smaller
scales
The directional bias imprinted on turbulence by mean flow is gradually
lost
Small scale eddies assumed to be locally isotropic
2
ε ij = δ ij ε
3
ε is calculated with its own (or related) transport equation
Compressibility and near-wall anisotropy effects can be accounted for
Turbulent Diffusion
Pressure-Strain Modeling
∂ui ∂u j
Pressure-strain term of same order as production Φij ≡ − p′ +
∂x ∂x
Pressure-strain term acts to drive turbulence towards j i
Characteristics of RSM
Effects of curvature, swirl, and rotation are directly accounted for in
the transport equations for the Reynolds stresses.
z When anisotropy of turbulence significantly affects the mean flow,
consider RSM
More cpu resources (vs. k-ε models) is needed
z 50-60% more cpu time per iteration and 15-20% additional memory
Strong coupling between Reynolds stresses and the mean flow
z number of iterations required for convergence may increase
Heat Transfer
The Reynolds averaging process produces an additional term in the
energy equation: uiθ
z Analogous to the Reynolds stresses, this is termed the turbulent heat flux
It is possible to model a transport equation for the heat flux, but this is not
common practice
Instead, a turbulent thermal diffusivity is defined proportional to the
turbulent viscosity
V The constant of proportionality is called the turbulent Prandtl number
V Generally assumed that Prt ~ 0.85-0.9
Applicable to other scalar transport equations