WIRELESS LAN OVER MICROWAVE
Thomas J. Kotsch
Southwest Microwave, Inc.
Microwave Communications Division
2922 S. Roosevelt Street
Tempe, Arizona 85282
Today’s local area networks (LANs) are
expanding at an incredible rate. Numbers of
users on a network have grown from 20-30 to
as many as 100-200 in the past decade. As
the growth increases, so does the demand for
better network efficiency and throughput. In
response to the demand, many network
vendors have placed products on the market
to provide the demanded speed and
efficiency. We are now observing products
offering various means of handling LAN traffic,
such as full duplex ethemet switches, to
higher speed network devices such as the
newer 100 Mbps components. This kind of
growth in network use actually supports the
migration to higher bandwidth solutions.
As the growth of network users increases, so
does the need for interconnecting
geographically separate sites. Until recently,
most remote site interconnections were
addressed with relatively slow speed
solutions. Most solutions came in the form of
dedicated leased lines from the local
telephone company. The data rates through
these circuits typically ran at 56 Kbps to 1,544
Mbps and were ( and still are) rather
expensive considering their monthly charges
and initial equipment costs.
Today’s remote site interconnections can be
considered as an extended LAN and as such
requires higher bandwidth (as much as 10
Mbps, the native Ethemet LAN speed)
solutions to handle the immense traffic
transported between separate locations.
There are a growing number of solutions to
interconnect remote sites such as fiber optic
cabling, spread spectrum radios, laser, and
ISBN# 0-7803-3277-6
microwave. All have their respective
advantages and disadvantages.
Of the many solutions available to connect
remote sites, microwave can be considered for
most applications. Microwave systems can
connect remote distances up to 20 miles or
more, but most applications fall under 4 miles.
Microwave provides a solution that offers full
bandwidth LAN connectivity (native ethemet
speeds of 10 Mbps), high reliability, and
reasonable payback periods from six months
to 2 years when compared with traditional
wired solutions. Microwave links are
absolutely transparent, acting as an extension
of the Ethemet backbone or segment.
Because it is fully compatible with the IEEE
802.3 Ethemet standard, microwave supports
all Ethemet functionality and applications.
WHAT IS MICROWAVE?
The word microwave is derived from the Greek
word micro which means “very small”. The
radio waves used in short haul microwave
transmission are indeed very small and range
in size from approximately 1/2 to 2/3 inches in
length. In contrast, sound waves are long.
The wavelength of a soprano (18,000 Hz) is
almost 10 miles long.
Microwave communications is based on the
transmission of a microwave radio signal
through the atmosphere. Although it has
gained much current interest, microwave
technology is not new. The first microwave
communication systems were developed in
the 1930’s. Thanks to a spurt of wartime
development, by the 1960’smicrowave radio
was caving 40% of the telephone circuits
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between major cities which until then had
been carried by copper wire. Today, digital
microwave carries a large portion of the long
distance traffic in the United States.
THE NATURE OF MICROWAVES
To understand microwave communications, it
is necessary to understand the nature of
electromagnetic waves. All electromagnetic
waves travel at the speed of light and have a
characteristic wavelength and frequency. The
velocity, wavelength, and frequency of the
wave are related by the formula c = hf
where:
c = speed of light (3 X 10 * 8 meters/second)
h = wavelength (in meters)
f = frequency (in cycles per second of Hertz)
The frequency and wavelength of
electromagnetic waves are inversely
proportional to each other. In other words, as
the frequency increases, the wavelength
decreases.
Some of the more familiar forms of
electromagnetic waves are television and
radio signals. AM radio has a frequency in the
1 MHz range, TV has a frequency in the 10
MHz range, and FM radio has a frequency in
the 100 MHz range. The frequency range
defined as microwave is from 1 GHz to 100
GHZ.
Within the range of microwave frequencies,
the frequency most commonly used for short
haul microwave LAN is 23 GHz. Frequencies
below 18 GHz are predominantly used for long
haul communications and frequencies above
40 GHz are reserved for military radar
applications and some limited commercial
applications. In general, the higher the
frequency, the shorter the maximum
transmission distance, the lesser the FCC
operating restrictions, the simpler and less
expensive the equipment needed.
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PROPAGATION
How a microwave signal gets from one point
to another is called propagation. The
propagation characteristics of waves are a
function of frequency. At lower frequencies,
waves can travel long distances and bounce
around and over objects. Microwaves, on the
other hand, travel relatively short distances in
a vertical straight line and can be blocked by
obstacles such as trees, hills, and buildings.
Although microwaves travel in a straight line, it
is not a pencil-thin line. Like all waves, a
microwave signal expands and becomes
weaker as it travels away from the transmitter.
A wave spreading out from its source expands
into three dimensions like a balloon being
blown up. Just as the rubber skin of a balloon
becomes thinner as it expands, a microwave
signal spreads out until its initial power is
dispersed so thinly it can no longer be
detected.
This loss of signal power as the microwave
signal travels is known as free space loss. But
this is not the only loss the signal will
encounter. Microwave signals can also be
attenuated by atmospheric and terrain
conditions which may cause:
Diffraction - If the signal is blocked or partially
blocked by physical obstructions such as
trees, hills, buildings, or water towers, part of
the signal will be diffracted away from the
receiver. For this reason, short haul
microwave systems need. an unobstructed
path commonly known as line-of-sight.
-
Refraction Variation in air density along the
path will refract part of the signal away from
the receiver. The degree of the refraction
vanes with atmospheric conditions.
Reflection - Smooth surfaces such a s lakes,
building walls, streets, or glass windows can
reflect the signal causing distortion and
attenuation by canceling out the intended
signal.
Absorption - Minute particles in the
atmosphere such as oxygen and water vapor
will absorb a small part of the signal energy.
Rain will absorb much of the signal energy
particularly as the size of the drops
approaches the wavelength of the microwave
signal.
Scatter - particles in the atmosphere can also
scatter the microwave signal and divert the
energy into many different directions.
TYPICAL MICROWAVE EQUIPMENT
A typical microwave system can consist of
three major components: an indoor data
interface unit to connect to the network, a
radio unit and a parabolic antenna. The
indoor data interface unit will most often offer
an IEEE 802.3 interface to the local area
network. The indoor data interface unit
generally operates as an Ethemet LAN
transceiver interface, but may sometimes offer
bridging or routing functions. The radio unit is
most often placed out of doors near the
antenna. The radio unit modulates the
information from the indoor data interface unit
to a higher microwave frequency. The
parabolic antenna functions primarily as a
component that focuses the microwave signal
into a narrow beam that radiates towards the
opposite receiving antenna.
The combination of these three components is
known as a terminal. Two terminals are
needed to establish a complete microwave link
commonly known as a “hop”. Each terminal
transmits and receives information to and from
the opposite terminal . Most terminals use a
single antenna at each end for transmitting
and receiving, an operation known as full
duplex, rather than separate antennas for
each.
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ANTENNA
Figure 1. Typical Microwave Equipment
Modem- The modem unit is the interface
between the microwave equipment and the
telephone or computer network equipment
being attached. The input is typically a
standard DS-1, DS-2, or DS-3 digital signal, or
a data signal such as Ethernet. The modem
may transmit the signal at baseband or at an
intermediate frequency of approximately 70
MHz to the RF unit. Baseband or an
intermediate frequency is used by the modem
because high frequencies have greater
attenuation in cable than low frequency and
for optimum system performance you cannot
afford to lose any signal strength. Using an
intermediate frequency also allows the
modem to be separated from the RF unit by
up to 500 feet in many cases, and lower cost
cable can be used to connect the two units
than if a high microwave frequency were used
directly.
RF Unit- The RF unit contains the electronic
circuitry which boosts the signal from the
modem’s intermediate frequency to the proper
high frequency in the GHz range and then
amplifies the signal for transmission. The RF
unit is often mounted directly to the back of
the antenna and is connected with a short
piece of waveguide. If the RF unit is
separated form the antenna, they are usually
connected with special low loss coaxial cable.
The trade-off of back-mount vs. Separated RF
units is that back mounted RF units will lose
less signal from cable attenuation but may be
harder to maintain if the repairman has to
climb to an inaccessible antenna.
Antenna- The antenna is used to radiate
transmit signals and to capture receive
signals. Antennas used for short haul
microwave communications are parabolic in
shape and are often referred to as a "dish".
Parabolic antennas operate by focusing the
incoming signal to one point known as the
focal point of "feed" where the signal is
gathered and sent to the RF unit for
amplification. Antennas are typically mounted
outdoors on a rooftop or tower but under
certain circumstances antennas can be
located indoors behind a clear glass window.
Antennas are connected to the RF unit via
waveguide or low loss coaxial cable.
SPECIFICAT1O NS
Frequency Range - The range of frequencies
over which the system can be made to
operate. Some microwave systems are
designed to be field tunable through the entire
18 or 23 GHz frequency band while other
systems are set at the factory and cannot be
easily changed.
-
Bandwidth The channel bandwidth used by
a microwave system is a key factor in how
much information the system can caw. 23
GHz has only one channel bandwidth which is
50 MHz.
Interface - most 23 GHz microwave systems
transporting LAN traffic offer the standard
IEEE 802.3 interfaces. The most common
interface is a 15 pin male D-connector AUI
port, Some standard microwave systems
offer DS1 and DS2 telecom rates with either
twisted pair wire or coaxial interfaces.
Modulation - Modulation is the process that
microwave equipment uses to impose the
information to be carried upon the microwave
signal. Some systems use a process of
altering the frequency of the modulation which
is known as frequency modulation (FM).
Other systems use a technique which modifies
the amplitude and is known as amplitude
modulation (AM).
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TRANSMITTER SPECIFICATIONS
Power Output - Power is generally expressed
in Watts or dBm which is a logarithmic
measure relative to 1mW output.
Frequency Tolerance - The FCC mandates
that transmitters will maintain their frequency
within a certain tolerance. This is to reduce
the possibility that you system could interfere
with other systems having an adjacent
frequency. Tolerance is expressed as W- a
certain percentage.
RECEIVER SPECIFICATIONS
Type - Receivers come in two types: single
conversion and dual conversion.
Conversion refers to the process the receiver
uses to reduce the signal frequency fro the
microwave range to the range used by the
modem. Single conversion receivers drop the
signal frequency directly from the high
frequency to the lower frequency. Dual
conversion first drops the high frequency to an
intermediate frequency and then makes a
second conversion to the lower frequency. In
applications where there is only one receiver,
single conversion is perfectly adequate but in
applications where there may be more than
one receiver in a room such as a hubbing
arrangement, single conversion receivers may
interferewith each other.
Sensitivity - Receiver sensitivity is an
indication of the ability of the microwave
receiver to detect the proper signal. Receiver
sensitivity is typically expressed as a negative
dBm value which indicates that the receiver
can distinguish a signal that is less than 1 mW
in strength. Unlike transmitter power, the
more negative the receiver sensitivity value in
dBm, the better the receiver's performance.
Sensitivity is commonly specified for a 1 X IO3
IX BER and a 1 X I W BER. The industry
standard is to use the receiver sensitivity at 1
X Io" BER for comparing systems since it will
provide the most conservative results. Some
technical data sheets also refer to an unfaded
BER. Unfaded BER refers to the BER during
normal system operation and should be on the
order of 1 X Io" BER of less.
-
System Gain System gain is the bottom line
number for system performance. System gain
figures provided by manufacturers sometimes
include gain provided by antennas but to get a
tme indication of the system's performance,
system gain and antenna gain should be
quoted separately.
ANTENNA SPECIFICATIONS
Gain - Antenna gain is a function of both its
diameter and the microwave frequency it is
reflecting. The gain of a parabolic antenna is
calculated as:
Gain = 10 log K (zD/A)*
where:
K= 0.65 efficiency variable
z= 3.1415
D= Diameter of antenna (in feet)
A= Wavelength in feet (0.201 ft for 23
GHz)
Beamwidth - Beamwidth is a measure of the
area in which the microwave energy is spread
as it leaves the antenna. Beamwidth
expresses how well the power is focused. The
standard method for measuring Beamwidth is
to describe the angle at which the signal has
lost half its power. In terms of decibels, this
point is known as the 3dB point since a 3dB
reduction in power corresponds to half the
power. FCC licensing applications will require
you to report the 3 dB Beamwidth of your
chosen antenna. Again, the smaller the 3 dB
Beamwidth angle the better.
Shroud - Shrouds are circular reflectors
placed around the edge of the antenna to
redirect microwave energy tat would otherwise
escape to the side or behind the dish. Shrouds
also reduce the ability of signals from other
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systems to reach the antenna and cause
interference's. Most short haul antennas and
particularly those located near potential
interfering systems use shrouds.
Radome - A radome is a covering over the
front of the antenna or shroud that is used to
protect an antenna against accumulation of
ice, snow, dirt, wasps, etc. From effecting the
antenna feed. Radomes can be flat or
rounded which provides some limited
aerodynamic stability to the antenna.
Radomes are made of fiberglass or rubber
and are clamped or bolted to the antenna. In
areas of heavy snow, radomes may be
equipped with heaters to melt accumulated
snow and ice. The attenuation of the radome
or shroud is minimal.
MICROWAVE PATH ENGINEERING
When implementing a microwave link, it is
important to consider the various factors that
affect microwave propagation. In a
metropolitan area, it is very common to find
out that although the two end points are
merely a short distance apart, the line-of-sight
is blocked because of another structure in
between.
The necessary steps to ensure an accurate
and reliable path are to:
1. Establish path profile.
2. Establish clearance from any potential
obstacles.
3. Check for potential reflection point.
4. Establish basic system configuration and
parameters.
5. System performance calculations.
6. Site survey to assure line-of-sight.
The steps are listed in their order of
preference to minimize wasted engineering
time, although it is perfectly acceptable for a
designer to- choose one step ahead of
another. For example, one may do a site
survey first because one is situated in a
particular building already, instead of spending
unnecessary time on plotting path profile.
Establish Path P ~ o ~ ~ The
e - objective to
establish a path profile along the transmission
path is to ensure sufficient obstacle clearance.
Maps are the principal source of data, both for
office study, which usually precedes the field
survey, and for the field survey itself. There
are several types of maps which will be helpful
to the profile work. The best ones agree the
topographical maps published by the US
Geological Survey, printed on a scale of
1:24,000, covering an area of 7.5 minutes in
both longitude and latitude (1 in. = 1/2 mile).
These maps show the terrain contour as well
as the vegetation in the area. Large buildings
are shown as well. However, there is no
indication of any structure heights. Depending
on the location of the terminals, more than one
map may be required to show the entire path.
Establish Path Clearance- The relative
curvature of the earth and the microwave
beam is an important fador when plotting a
profile chart. Although the surface of the earth
is curved, a beam of microwave energy tends
to travel in a straight line under normal
conditions, with occasions of bending
downward by a slight amount due to
atmospheric refraction. The amount of
bending depends on atmospheric conditions,
and the degree and direction of bending can
be conveniently defined by an equivalent
earth radius factor, K. This factor, K, mutiplied
by the actual earth radius, r, is the radius of a
fictitious earth curve. The curve is equivalent
to the relative curvature of the microwave
beam w-th respect to the curvature of the
actual earth minus the curvature of the actual
beam of microwave energy. Any change in
the amount of beam bending caused by
atmospheric conditions can then be expressed
as a change in factor K. This relative
curvature can be shown graphically, whether
as a curved earth with radius Kr and a
straight-line microwave beam or as a flat earth
with a bent microwave beam having a
curvature of Kr.
Establish Basic Sysfem Configuration-After
determining a line-of-sight path, the next step
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is to determine the system configuration.
Based on the specific radio and path
parameters, an adequate first system can be
built..
Taking into account the transmitter power
output, the antenna gains, and any losses
between the antennas and the radio system,
an adequate receive level can be determined.
The objective is to obtain a strong receive
level over all atmospheric conditions of
operation.
The receiver level can be determined as
follows:
-
RX=PwrTx+ AntTx FSL + A n h WGL,-
Where.. .
PwrTx = Transmitter power out
AntTx= Transmit antenna gain
FSL = Free Space Loss
A n h = Receiver antenna gain
WGh = Any waveguide loss connecting the
antennas to the radio system.
According to the study on electromagnetic
wave, radio wave attenuation free space (free
space loss) between two isotropic antennas
(omnidirectionaltype) can be approximated by
the function.
Where.. .
FGk = signal frequency
= distance between the
Dmiles
two antennas
For example, for an 23-GHz signal traveling
-
over a distance of 10 miles, the signal loss is
141.8 dB. For a distance of 1 mile, the loss
will be -121.7 dB.
System Performance Calculations- The most
relevant parameter for measuring digital
microwave radio performance is the availability
rate. Availability is the percentage of time a
system is performing above a satisfactory rate,
such as 99.97 percent over a year at a bit
error rate level of 10“. The unavailability rate
of the system is therefore .03 percent.
A system is unavailable for different reasons.
From a system design standpoint, we can
group them into three categories, each of
them responsible for a portion of the outage
budget:
1. Multipath fading outage
2. Rain outage
3. Equipment failure
Multipath Fading Outage- During stratified
atmospheric conditions on a line-of-sight radio
relay system, various height configurations
between the transmitting and receiving
antennas can cause multiple fading, also
called dispersive fading. It exhibits a
frequency and duration of fading which are
related to the variation of the structure of the
refractive index in time. On overland paths
and in wet climates, these variations normally
occur during the night and early moming hours
of summer days.
Signal attenuation caused by these conditions
is referred to as “fading” since their effect is a
weakening or fading of the signal power. The
signal attenuation due to diffraction, refraction,
reflection, absorption, and scatter as a result
of normal atmospheric and terrain conditions
is known as multipath fading. This fading is
also known as selective fading because the
attenuation vanes with frequency or is
frequency selective.
Rain Outage. Signal attenuation due to the
absorption and scattering effect of rain is
known as rain fading. When calculating the
effect of fading upon microwave systems,
multipath and rain fading are calculated
separately since multipath fading is rather
constant but rain fading is only found during
rain storms. Unfortunately, far the 18- and 23-
GHz systems used for short-haul network,
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multipath outage only accounts for a very
small portion of the overall unavailability
figure. Rainfall outage usually dominates the
major portion. Furthermore, rain will stir up the
stratified atmosphere, so multipath fading is
not possible at the same time. The two events
are mutually exclusive of each other.
Modeling of attenuation due to rain on
terrestrial links can be very complicated, as
research has shown the signal attenuation to
be dependent on the rain rate, terminal rain
velocity, ambient temperature, and the
structure of the raindrop itself. There were
experiments models on raindrop size
distributions, index of refraction of water, and
so on, and they all have a direct contribution
to modeling of microwave rain attenuation.
Most of the model data were based on an 18’
C temperature, and departure from that
temperature can cause the prediction to be off
by as much as 20 percent, especially for
frequencies below 20 GHz.
Equipment Failure- There are two
components controlling the expected
equipment outage rate. The first one is the
possibility of an equipment outage; the second
is the time required to repair the equipment
failure.
The possibility of an equipment outage is
determined by the reliability of the individual
electronic components. In the equipment
design process, the manufacturer specifies
the kind of components of the equipment, and
part of the specification involves the mean
time between failure (MTBF) for the
components. The individual components
mean time between failure rates can then be
used to establish an expected mean time
between failure for the finished equipment.
This figure is then published by the
manufacturer However, be aware that this is
only a theoretical figure, and the final
performance outcome depends highly on the
manufacturing quality control process, and
can be quite different from the theoretical
figure.
Furthermore, the mean time between failure of
equipment depends on whether it has any
redundant feature or not. For hot-standby
equipment, that is, every functional part of the
equipment is redundant, the mean time
between failure rate is a lot higher than the
nonhot-standby unit.
Upon equipment failure, the system
unavailability clock starts counting. The time
necessary to repair the unit depends on:
1. The time required to reach the failed
equipment for diagnosis.
2. Equipment failure diagnosis time.
3. Availability of spare parts.
4. Time to replace the failed components.
5. Testing of the circuits before cutting over.
Depending on the user's decision on a
maintenance plan, the time required to repair
the equipment, called mean time to repair
(MTTR) can last from 1 hour to 24 hours, or
even days.
FCC CONSIDERATIONS
Once you have planned a microwave system
and are prepared to begin implementation, it is
necessary to begin the preparations needed to
obtain a license to operate the proposed
system. The first step in obtaining a license is
called frequency coordination.
Most microwave LAN systems operate in the
23 GHz band and require licensing by the
Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
This licensing procedure is a fairly simple
process and assures the user of interference
free operation. The licensing process consists
of three steps: First, an interference analysis
is performed to determine an available
frequency without interference from existing
operating frequencies. Many search firms are
available in the U.S. that can perform this
task. They basically have access to a
regularly updated database that identifies
other existing microwave users in various
geographic areas. The geographic
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coordinates of your intended site is submitted
to one of these search firms to allow them to
accurately recommend a unique frequency
that has minimal interference potential. Site
coordinates are generally obtained from a site
survey. Second, a frequency coordination is
required to notify the other microwave users In
your area of the impending implementation of
another microwave system. This process
usually takes 30 days, but this activity can be
expedited to within one weeks time frame.
Third, a License Request form 402 is filed with
the FCC along with the frequency coordination
report. After reviewing your submittal, the
FCC grants your station the license to operate
that specific microwave system at that specific
site using the requested frequencies. The
process takes anywhere from two to 5 weeks
for interference analysis and frequency
coordination and 30 days for the FCC license
approval.
The Federal Communications Commission
(FCC) is a federal organization established by
Congress to control the usage of the nation's
ainnraves. The FCC requires that every
prospective microwave user perform a study
to ensure that their proposed system does not
cause interference problems with any existing
systems and in tum is not interfered with by
other systems. The process is known as
frequency coordination. A license to operate a
microwave system will not be granted by the
FCC unless frequency coordination has been
performed.
Performing a frequency coordination requires
extensive knowledge of all existing microwave
systems operating within an area. For this
reason, there are a number of companies who
maintain a database of existing microwave
installations and perform frequency
coordination studies.
To successfully complete the frequency
coordination, the coordinating company will
need most of the system information
contained on the balance sheet including the
FCC identification codes given to the
equipment when it was tested and accepted
by the FCC.
Frequency coordination is not usually a
problem for 23 GHz except for some portions
of significant population centers such as New
York and Los Angeles. Even in those areas,
the frequency coordination company can
generally make suggestions such as installing
a special antenna or perhaps adding
attenuator pads so the system will meet the
interference standards for coordination.
Frequency coordination typically takes two
weeks but can usually be rushed if necessary.
Recent introductions of unlicensed microwave
have been made available. These systems
fall under FCC Rules Part 15 and can
transport full bandwidth ethemet up to 0.5
miles. There is no FCC license requirement
from the user, and as such absolutely
simplifies the process of implementing a
microwave system.
Warehouses use microwave for order
tracking, material control along with the
standard ethemet connectivity requirements.
Schools use microwave LANs for
administrative and academic purposes. They
transport student records and files between
schools in a district as well as share program
information and intemet access.
Businesses use microwave to extend ethemet
and phone lines. Many businesses operate in
a campus environment and use microwave to
interconnect their buildings in the campus.
Within this interconnections, they can transfer
files, share multimedia presentations and
conduct meetings via video conferencing.

MICROWAVE LAN APPLICATIONS

Microwave is generally used to extend a LAN

or to connect two LAN segments. Oftentimes
microwave is used as an altemative to fiber or
when traditional landlines are unavailable or
difficult to implement.

Due to the full bandwidth nature of microwave,

networks can be expanded campus-wide.
Also, additional bandwidth can be added to
the microwave such that full bandwidth LAN
and telephony can be achieved. Because of
the sophisticated technology involved, T I and
multiple-TI telephony traffic can be bit sliced
time division multiplexed onto one microwave
link along with the LAN traffic.

Other applications such as video

conferencing, emergency backup, disaster
recovery and internet access are becoming
more popular. Medical institutions such as
hospitals and clinics are using microwave to
transport patient files, perform remote medical
imaging, and video wnferencing.

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