Fundamentals of

Distance Protection

GE Multilin
Outline
• Transmission line introduction
• What is distance protection?
• Non-pilot and pilot schemes
• Redundancy considerations
• Security for dual-breaker terminals
• Out-of-step relaying
• Single-pole tripping
• Series-compensated lines

2/
GE /
November 14, 2010
Transmission Lines
A Vital Part of the Power System:
• Provide path to transfer power between generation
and load
• Operate at voltage levels from 69kV to 765kV
• Deregulated markets, economic, environmental
requirements have pushed utilities to operate
transmission lines close to their limits.

3/
GE /
November 14, 2010
Transmission Lines

Classification of line length depends on:

 Source-to-line Impedance Ratio (SIR),
and
 Nominal voltage
Length considerations:
 Short Lines: SIR > 4
 Medium Lines: 0.5 < SIR < 4
 Long Lines: SIR < 0.5

4/
GE /
November 14, 2010
Typical Protection Schemes
Short Lines

• Current differential
• Phase comparison
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip
(POTT)
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)

5/
GE /
November 14, 2010
Typical Protection Schemes
Medium Lines

• Phase comparison
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
• Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Unblocking
• Step Distance
• Step or coordinated overcurrent
• Inverse time overcurrent
• Current Differential
6/
GE /
November 14, 2010
Typical Protection Schemes
Long Lines

• Phase comparison
• Directional Comparison Blocking (DCB)
• Permissive Underreach Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Permissive Overreach Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Unblocking
• Step Distance
• Step or coordinated overcurrent
• Current Differential

7/
GE /
November 14, 2010
What is distance protection?

Intended
REACH point

F1

Z I*Z
V=I*ZF
I*Z -
V
For internal faults:
> IZ – V and V approximately in phase
RELAY (V,I) (mho)
> IZ – V and IZ approximately in phase
(reactance)

8/
GE /
November 14, 2010
What is distance protection?
F2
Intended
REACH point

Z I*Z
V=I*ZF
I*Z -
V
For external faults:
> IZ – V and V approximately out of
RELAY (V,I) phase (mho)
> IZ – V and IZ approximately out of
phase (reactance)

9/
GE /
November 14, 2010
What is distance protection?

Intended
REACH point

RELAY

10 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Source Impedance Ratio,
Accuracy & Speed
Relay
Lin
System e

f LOC [ PU ]
Voltage at the relay: VR ≈ VN
f LOC [ PU ] + SIR

Consider SIR = 0.1

Fault location Voltage Voltage change
(%) (%)
75% 88.24 2.76
90% 90.00 0.91
100% 90.91 N/A
110% 91.67 0.76
11 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Source Impedance Ratio,
Accuracy & Speed
Relay
System
Lin
e f LOC [ PU ]
Voltage at the relay: VR ≈ VN
f LOC [ PU ] + SIR

Consider SIR = 30
Fault location Voltage Voltage change
(%) (%)
75% 2.4390 0.7868
90% 2.9126 0.3132
100% 3.2258 N/A
110% 3.5370 0.3112
12 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Challenges in relay design
> Transients: 30
– High frequency
– DC offset in currents 20
steady-state
output
– CVT transients in voltages 10

voltage, V
0
High Voltage Line

C1 6 -10
3 5 CVT output
1
-20
C2
2
Secondary Voltage
-30
0 1 2 3 4
power cycles
Output

13 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Challenges in relay design
> Transients: 60
– High frequency
– DC offset in currents 40
steady-state
– CVT transients in voltages 20
output

voltage, V
0
High Voltage Line

C1 6 -20
CVT
3 5 output
1
-40
C2
2
Secondary Voltage
-60
0 1 2 3 4
power cycles
Output

14 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Challenges in relay design
100
vA vB vC 100
80

60

Reactance comparator [V]

40

20
50
Voltage [V]

-20 SPOL
-40

-60
0 Sorry… Future (unknown
-80

-100
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
-50
5
iA
4

3
SOP
-100
2 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Current [A]

power cycles
1

0 In-phase = internal fault

iB, iC >
-1 Out-of-phase = external fault
>
-2

-3
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
15 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Transient Overreach

• Fault current generally contains dc

offset in addition to ac power frequency
component
• Ratio of dc to ac component of current
depends on instant in the cycle at which
fault occurred
• Rate of decay of dc offset depends on
system X/R
16 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Zone 1 and CVT Transients
Capacitive Voltage Transformers (CVTs) create certain
problems for fast distance relays applied to systems with
high Source Impedance Ratios (SIRs):
> CVT-induced transient voltage components may
assume large magnitudes (up to 30-40%) and last for a
comparatively long time (up to about 2 cycles)
> 60Hz voltage for faults at the relay reach point may be
as low as 3% for a SIR of 30
> the signal may be buried under noise

17 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Zone 1 and CVT Transients
CVT transients can cause distance relays to overreach.
Generally, transient overreach may be caused by:
> overestimation of the current (the magnitude of the
current as measured is larger than its actual value, and
consequently, the fault appears closer than it is
actually located),
> underestimation of the voltage (the magnitude of the
voltage as measured is lower than its actual value)
> combination of the above

18 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
stance Element Fundamentals

Z1 End Zone

XL

XC
 15
34
42
44 A c tu a l F a u lt
L o c a tio n
10
d y n a m ic m h o
z o n e e x te n d e d L in e
30
fo r h ig h S IR s Im p e d a n c e
5
Reactance [ohm]

18
T r a je c to r y
22 (m s e c )
0

26

-5
-1 0 -5 0
R e s is t a n c e [ o h m ]
Impedance
Impedancelocus
5
locusmay
10
maypass
pass
below
belowthe
theorigin
originofofthe
theZ-plane
Z-plane--
this
thiswould
wouldcall
callfor
foraatime
timedelay
delay
to
toobtain
obtainstability
stability
20 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
CVT Transient Overreach
Solutions
>apply delay (fixed or adaptable)
>reduce the reach
>adaptive techniques and better filtering
algorithms

21 /
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November 14, 2010
CVT Transients – Adaptive
Solution
> Optimize signal filtering:
– currents - max 3% error due to the dc component
– voltages - max 0.6% error due to CVT transients
> Adaptive double-reach approach
– filtering alone ensures maximum transient overreach
at the level of 1% (for SIRs up to 5) and 20% (for
SIRs up to 30)
– to reduce the transient overreach even further an
adaptive double-reach zone 1 has been implemented

22 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
CVT Transients – Adaptive
Solution
The outer zone 1:
> is fixed at the actual reach
> applies certain security delay to cope with CVT
transients
X
The inner zone 1:
> has its reach D e la y e d
dynamically controlled T r ip

by the voltage
magnitude
> is instantaneous
In s ta n ta n e o u s
T r ip

23 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Desirable Distance Relay
Attributes
Filters:
> Prefiltering of currents to remove dc decaying transients
– Limit maximum transient overshoot (below 2%)
> Prefiltering of voltages to remove low frequency
transients caused by CVTs
– Limit transient overreach to less than 5% for an SIR of
30
> Accurate and fast frequency tracking algorithm
> Adaptive reach control for faults at reach points

24 /
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November 14, 2010
Distance Relay Operating
Times

25 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Distance Relay Operating
Times
35ms
25ms 30ms
20ms

15ms

26 /
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November 14, 2010
Distance Relay Operating
Times
SLG faults LL faults

3P faults

27 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Actual
Actualmaximum
maximumreach
reachcurves
curves
Relay 4

Relay 3

100 Relay 2

Relay 1

90 28 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Maximum Torque Angle

• Angle at which mho element has

maximum reach
• Characteristics with smaller MTA will
accommodate larger amount of arc
resistance

29 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
 Mho Characteristics
Traditional

Directional
angle
“slammed”

Directional
angle lowered
and
“slammed”
Both MHO and
directional
angles
“slammed”
(lens)

30 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Load Swings

+XL

+ = LOOKING INTO
LINE normally
considered forward
h
Reac

Load
Trajectory
Operate No Operate
area
area
Typical load
characteristic
impedance
+R
31 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Load Swings

“Lenticular”
Characterist
ic

Load swing

32 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Load Encroachment
Characteristic

The load encroachment element responds to

positive sequence voltage and current and can
be used to block phase distance and phase 33 /
overcurrent elements. GE /
November 14, 2010
Blinders

• Blinders limit the operation of distance

relays (quad or mho) to a narrow region
that parallels and encompasses the
protected line
• Applied to long transmission lines,
where mho settings are large enough to
pick up on maximum load or minor
system swings
34 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Quadrilateral Characteristics

35 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Quadrilateral Characteristics

Ground Resistance
(Conductor falls on ground)

R Resultant impedance outside of

the mho operating region
XL

36 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Distance Characteristics -
Summary
Mho Lenticula Quadrilat
JX r eral

R
Standard for Used for phase Better coverage
phase elements elements with long for ground faults
heavily loaded lines due to
heavily loaded resistance
added to return
path

37 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Distance Element
Polarization
The following polarization quantities are
commonly used in distance relays for
determining directionality:
• Self-polarized
• Memory voltage
• Positive sequence voltage
• Quadrature voltage
• Leading phase voltage

38 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Memory Polarization
> Positive-sequence memorized voltage is used for
polarizing:
– Mho comparator (dynamic, expanding Mho)
– Negative-sequence directional comparator (Ground
Distance Mho and Quad)
– Zero-sequence directional comparator (Ground
Distance MHO and QUAD)
– Directional comparator (Phase Distance MHO and
QUAD)
> Memory duration is a common distance settings (all
zones, phase and ground, MHO and QUAD)

39 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Memory Polarization
jX Static MHO characteristic (memory not
established or expired)
ZL
Dynamic MHO characteristic for a reverse fa

Dynamic MHO characteristic for a forward f

Impedance During Close-up Faults

ZS

40 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Memory Polarization
jX Static MHO characteristic (memory not
established or expired)
ZL

Dynamic MHO characteristic for a forward fa

RL

ZS

Memory Polarization…Improved Resistive 41 /

GE /

Coverage November 14, 2010

Choice of Polarization

• In order to provide flexibility modern

distance relays offer a choice with
respect to polarization of ground
overcurrent direction functions:
– Voltage polarization
– Current polarization
– Dual polarization

42 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Ground Directional Elements
> Pilot-aided schemes using ground mho distance relays have
inherently limited fault resistance coverage
> Ground directional over current protection using either negative or
zero sequence can be a useful supplement to give more coverage
for high resistance faults
> Directional discrimination based on the ground quantities is fast:
– Accurate angular relations between the zero and negative
sequence quantities establish very quickly because:
 During faults zero and negative-sequence currents and
voltages build up from very low values (practically from
zero)
 The pre-fault values do not bias the developing fault
components in any direction

43 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Distance Schemes

Pilot Aided Non-Pilot Aided

Schemes Schemes
(Step Distance)

Communication No Communication
between Distance between Distance
relays Relays

44 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Step Distance Schemes
• Zone 1:
– Trips with no intentional time delay
– Underreaches to avoid unnecessary operation for faults beyond
remote terminal
– Typical reach setting range 80-90% of ZL
• Zone 2:
– Set to protect remainder of line
– Overreaches into adjacent line/equipment
– Minimum reach setting 120% of ZL
– Typically time delayed by 15-30 cycles
• Zone 3:
– Remote backup for relay/station failures at remote terminal
– Reaches beyond Z2, load encroachment a consideration

45 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z1
BU

BU
S

S
Z1
Remot
e
46 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z1 End
Zone
BU

BU
S

S
End Z1
Zone Remot
e
47 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z1
Breake
r
Trippe
d
BU

BU
S

S
Breake
r Z1
Closed
Remot
e
48 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Step Distance Schemes
Local
Z2 (time
delayed)
Z1
BU

BU
S

S
Z1

Z2 (time
delayed)
49 /
Remot November 14, 2010
GE /
Step Distance Schemes
Z3 (remote …
backup)
Z2 (time
delayed)
Z1
BU

BU
S

S
50 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Step Distance Protection

51 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Distance Relay Coordination
Over Lap

Local Relay – Z2

Remote Relay – Z4

Local Relay Remote Relay

Zone 2 PKP Zone 4 PKP

52 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
eed For Pilot Aided Schemes

BU

BU
S

S
Local Remote
Relay Relay

Communication
Channel

53 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Pilot Communications
Channels
• Distance-based pilot schemes traditionally utilize
simple on/off communications between relays, but can
also utilize peer-to-peer communications and GOOSE
messaging over digital channels
• Typical communications media include:
– Pilot-wire (50Hz, 60Hz, AT)
– Power line carrier
– Microwave
– Radio
– Optic fiber (directly connected or multiplexed
channels)

54 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Distance-based Pilot
Protection

55 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
lot-Aided Distance-Based Schemes

 DUTT – Direct Under-reaching Transfer

Trip
 PUTT – Permissive Under-reaching
Transfer Trip
 POTT – Permissive Over-reaching
Transfer Trip
 Hybrid POTT – Hybrid Permissive Over-
reaching Transfer Trip
 DCB – Directional Comparison Blocking
Scheme
 DCUB – Directional Comparison 56 /

Unblocking Scheme GE /
November 14, 2010
Direct Underreaching
Transfer Trip (DUTT)
• Requires only underreaching (RU) functions which overlap in
reach (Zone 1).
•Applied with FSK channel
– GUARD frequency transmitted during normal conditions
– TRIP frequency when one RU function operates
• Scheme does not provide tripping for faults beyond RU
reach if remote breaker is open or channel is inoperative.
• Dual pilot channels improve security

57 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
DUTT Scheme

Zone 1

Bus Bus
Line

Zone 1

58 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Permissive Underreaching
Transfer Trip (PUTT)
• Requires both under (RU) and
overreaching (RO) functions
• Identical to DUTT, with pilot tripping
signal supervised by RO (Zone 2)

59 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
PUTT Scheme

Rx PKP
Local Trip
Zone 2
&
OR
Zone 1
60 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Permissive Overreaching
Transfer Trip (POTT)
• Requires overreaching (RO) functions (Zone
2).
• Applied with FSK channel:
– GUARD frequency sent in stand-by
– TRIP frequency when one RO function
operates
• No trip for external faults if pilot channel is
inoperative
• Time-delayed tripping can be provided
61 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
POTT Scheme

62 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
POTT Scheme
POTT – Permissive Over-reaching
Transfer Trip
End
Zone
BU

BU
S

S
63 /
Communication GE /

Channel November 14, 2010

POTT Scheme
Local Local
Relay FWD Remote
IGND Relay
Local Relay – Z2 FWD IGND

Remote Relay – Z2

Communicat
TRIP ion Channel

POTT RX POTT TX

Local ZONE 2 Remote

Relay2 PKP PKP Relay
ZONE
OR
OR
Ground Dir OC Ground Dir OC Fwd 64 /
GE /

Fwd November 14, 2010

POTT Scheme

Communications
POTT RX 1 POTT TX 1 A to G

Channel(s)
POTT RX 2 POTT TX 2 B to G

POTT RX 3 POTT TX 3 C to G

POTT RX 4 POTT TX 4 Multi Phase

Local Relay Remote Relay

65 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
POTT Scheme
Current reversal example
TRIP

Local Relay Remote Relay

Timer
Start Communication
Timer
Expire Channel

GND
GNDDIR
DIROC
OCFWD
REV POTT RX POTT TX ZONE
GND 2 OC
DIR ORREV
GND DIR OC FWD
66 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
POTT Scheme
Echo example
Remote FWD
IGND
Open

Remote – Z2

OPEN Communication
Channel
TRIP

POTT RX POTT TX

Local Relay POTT TX POTT RX Remote Relay

Communication
Channel 67 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Hybrid POTT

• Intended for three-terminal lines and

weak infeed conditions
• Echo feature adds security during weak
infeed conditions
• Reverse-looking distance and oc
elements used to identify external faults

68 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Hybrid POTT

69 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)
• Requires overreaching (RO) tripping and blocking (B)
functions
• ON/OFF pilot channel typically used (i.e., PLC)
– Transmitter is keyed to ON state when blocking
function(s) operate
– Receipt of signal from remote end blocks tripping
relays
• Tripping function set with Zone 2 reach or greater
• Blocking functions include Zone 3 reverse and low-
set ground overcurrent elements

70 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
DCB Scheme

71 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)

BUS End Zone

BUS
72 /
Communication Channel GE /
November 14, 2010
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)
Internal FaultsLocal Relay – Z2

FWD IGND

TRIP
TRIP Timer
Start
Expired
Zone 2 PKP
NO Dir Block RX
OR
Local Relay GND DIR OC Fwd Remote Relay
73 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Directional Comparison
Blocking (DCB)
External FaultsLocal Relay – Z2

FWD IGND
Remote Relay – Z4

TRIP Timer REV IGND

Start No TRIP
Dir Block RX DIR BLOCK TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Zone 2 PKP Communication Zone 4 PKP
Channel
OR OR

GND DIR OC Fwd GND DIR OC Rev 74 /

GE /
November 14, 2010
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
• Applied to Permissive Overreaching (POR) schemes to
overcome the possibility of carrier signal attenuation or
loss as a result of the fault
• Unblocking provided in the receiver when signal is
lost:
– If signal is lost due to fault, at least one permissive
RO functions will be picked up
– Unblocking logic produces short-duration TRIP
signal (150-300 ms). If RO function not picked up,
channel lockout occurs until GUARD signal returns

75 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
DCUB Scheme

F o rw a rd

Bus Bus
L in e

F o rw a rd

T r ip
( U n - B lo c k ) Tx1 L in e
B re a k e rs

( B lo c k ) Tx2

F o rw a rd

( B lo c k ) R x2 AN D
AN D
AN D t
o
AN D
( U n - B lo c k ) R x1

76 /
Lockout GE /
November 14, 2010
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)

BUS End Zone

BUS
77 /
Communication Channel GE /
November 14, 2010
 Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Normal conditions

Load Current

FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1 RX GUARD1 TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
NO Loss of Guard GUARD2 TX GUARD2 RX NO Loss of Guard
NO Permission NO Permission
Communication
Channel 78 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
 Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Normal conditions, channel failure

Load Current

Loss of Channel
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1
NO RX RX GUARD1 TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Loss of Guard GUARD2 TX GUARD2
NO RX RX Loss of Guard
Block Timer Expired
Started Block Timer Expired
Started
Communication
Block DCUB Channel Block DCUB 79 /
until Guard OK until Guard OK GE /
November 14, 2010
Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Internal fault, healthy
Local Relay – channel
Z2

Remote Relay – Z2

TRIP TRIP Z1
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1
TRIP1 RXRX GUARD1
TRIP1 TX
TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Zone 2 PKP ZONE 2 PKP
GUARD2
TRIP2 TX TX GUARD2
TRIP2 RXRX

Loss of Guard
Communication 80 /
Permission
Channel GE /
November 14, 2010
 Directional Comparison
Unblocking (DCUB)
Internal fault, channel failure
Local Relay – Z2

Remote Relay – Z2

Loss of Channel
TRIP TRIP Z1
FSK Carrier FSK Carrier

GUARD1
NO RX RX GUARD1
TRIP1 TX
TX
Local Relay Remote Relay
Zone 2 PKP ZONE 2 PKP
GUARD2
TRIP2 TX TX GUARD2
NO RX RX
Loss of Guard Loss of Guard
Block Timer Started Communication 81 /
Duration Timer Expired
Started Channel GE /
November 14, 2010
Redundancy Considerations
• Redundant protection systems increase dependability of the
system:
 Multiple sets of protection using same protection principle and
multiple pilot channels overcome individual element failure, or
 Multiple sets of protection using different protection principles
and multiple channels protects against failure of one of the
protection methods.
• Security can be improved using “voting” schemes (i.e., 2-out-of-
3), potentially at expense of dependability.
• Redundancy of instrument transformers, battery systems, trip
coil circuits, etc. also need to be considered.

82 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
edundant Communications
End Zone

BUS

BUS
AND Channels: OR Channels:
POTT Less Reliable POTT More Reliable
Communication Channel 1
DCB Less Secure DCB More Secure
Communication Channel 2
More Channel Security More Channel Dependability

Loss of Channel 2 83 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Redundant Pilot Schemes

84 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Pilot Relay Desirable
Attributes
• Integrated functions:
weak infeed
echo
line pick-up (SOTF)
• Basic protection elements used to key the
communication:
distance elements
fast and sensitive ground (zero and
negative sequence) directional IOCs with
current, voltage, and/or dual polarization

85 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Pilot Relay Desirable
Attributes
Pre-programmed distance-based pilot schemes:
 Direct Under-reaching Transfer Trip (DUTT)
 Permissive Under-reaching Transfer Trip (PUTT)
 Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (POTT)
 Hybrid Permissive Overreaching Transfer Trip (HYB POTT)
 Blocking scheme (DCB)
 Unblocking scheme (DCUB)

86 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Security for dual-breaker
terminals
• Breaker-and-a-half and ring bus terminals are
common designs for transmission lines.
• Standard practice has been to:
– sum currents from each circuit breaker
externally by paralleling the CTs
– use external sum as the line current for
protective relays
• For some close-in external fault events, poor
CT performance may lead to improper operation
of line relays.

87 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Security for dual-breaker
terminals

Accurate CTs preserve the

reverse current direction
under weak remote infeed

88 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Security for dual-breaker
terminals

Saturation of CT1 may

invert the line current
as measured from
externally summated
CTs

89 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Security for dual-breaker
terminals • Direct measurement of
currents from both circuit
breakers allows the use of
supervisory logic to prevent
distance and directional
overcurrent elements from
operating incorrectly due to
CT errors during reverse
faults.
• Additional benefits of direct
measurement of currents:
 independent BF
protection for each circuit
breaker
90 /
 independent GE /
November 14, 2010
Security for dual-breaker
terminals
Supervisory logic should:
– not affect speed or sensitivity of protection elements
– correctly allow tripping during evolving external-to-internal
fault conditions
– determine direction of current flow through each breaker
independently:
• Both currents in FWD direction → internal fault
• One current FWD, one current REV → external fault
– allow tripping during all forward/internal faults
– block tripping during all reverse/external faults
– initially block tripping during evolving external-to-internal
faults until second fault appears in forward direction. Block is
then lifted to permit tripping.

91 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Single-pole Tripping

• Distance relay must correctly identify a SLG

fault and trip only the circuit breaker pole for
the faulted phase.
• Autoreclosing and breaker failure functions
must be initiated correctly on the fault event
• Security must be maintained on the healthy
phases during the open pole condition and
any reclosing attempt.

92 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Out-of-Step Condition

• For certain operating conditions, a

severe system disturbance can cause
system instability and result in loss of
synchronism between different
generating units on an interconnected
system.

93 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Out-of-Step Relaying
Out-of-step blocking relays
– Operate in conjunction with mho tripping relays to prevent a
terminal from tripping during severe system swings & out-of-
step conditions.
– Prevent system from separating in an indiscriminate manner.
Out-of-step tripping relays
– Operate independently of other devices to detect out-of-step
condition during the first pole slip.
– Initiate tripping of breakers that separate system in order to
balance load with available generation on any isolated part
of the system.

94 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Out-of-Step Tripping The locus must
When the inner stay for some
characteristic is time between the
entered the outer and middle
element is ready characteristics
to trip

Must move and

stay between the
middle and inner
95 /
characteristics GE /
November 14, 2010
Power Swing Blocking
Applications:
> Establish a blocking signal for stable power swings
(Power Swing Blocking)
> Establish a tripping signal for unstable power swings
(Out-of-Step Tripping)
Responds to:
> Positive-sequence voltage and current

96 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Series-compensated lines
Benefits of series capacitors:
• Reduction of overall XL of long lines
• Improvement of stability margins
• Ability to adjust line load levels
• Loss reduction
• Reduction of voltage drop during severe
disturbances
• Normally economical for line lengths > 200 miles
Xs SC XL Infinte
E
Bus

97 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Series-compensated lines
SCs create unfavorable conditions for protective
relays and fault locators:
• Overreaching of distance elements
• Failure of distance element to pick up on low-
current faults
• Phase selection problems in single-pole tripping
applications
• Large fault location errors
Xs SC XL Infinte
E
Bus

98 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Series-compensated lines
Series Capacitor with MOV

99 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Series-compensated lines

100 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control

101 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for External Faults

102 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for External Faults

103 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Series-compensated lines
Dynamic Reach Control for Internal Faults

104 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Distance Protection Looking
Through a Transformer
• Phase distance elements can be set to see
beyond any 3-phase power transformer
• CTs & VTs may be located independently on
different sides of the transformer
• Given distance zone is defined by VT location
(not CTs)
• Reach setting is in Ω sec, and must take into
account location & ratios of VTs, CTs and
voltage ratio of the involved power transformer
105 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Transformer Group
Compensation

Depending on location of VTs and CTs, distance relays need to compensate for the
phase shift and magnitude change caused by the power transformer

106 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Setting Rules
• Transformer positive sequence impedance must be
included in reach setting only if transformer lies between VTs
and intended reach point
• Currents require compensation only if transformer located
between CTs and intended reach point
• Voltages require compensation only if transformer located
between VTs and intended reach point
• Compensation set based on transformer connection &
vector group as seen from CTs/VTs toward reach point

107 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Distance Relay Desirable
Attributes
> Multiple reversible distance zones
> Individual per-zone, per-element characteristic:
– Dynamic voltage memory polarization
– Various characteristics, including mho, quad, lenticular
> Individual per-zone, per-element current supervision (FD)
> Multi-input phase comparator:
– additional ground directional supervision
– dynamic reactance supervision
> Transient overreach filtering/control
> Phase shift & magnitude compensation for distance
applications with power transformers

108 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Distance Relay Desirable
Attributes
> For improved flexibility, it is desirable to have the
following parameters settable on a per zone basis:
– Zero-sequence compensation
– Mutual zero-sequence compensation
– Maximum torque angle
– Blinders
– Directional angle
– Comparator limit angles (for lenticular
characteristic)
– Overcurrent supervision

109 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
Distance Relay Desirable
Attributes
> Additional functions
– Overcurrent elements (phase, neutral, ground,
directional, negative sequence, etc.)
– Breaker failure
– Automatic reclosing (single & three-pole)
– Sync check
– Under/over voltage elements
> Special functions
– Power swing detection
– Load encroachment
– Pilot schemes

110 /
GE /
November 14, 2010
 111 /
GE /
November 14, 2010