Term project

Of
Physics
Name:-
Roll.
Reg:-
Submitted to:-
Lect. avneesh
content
1.defination
2.refrance
3.theory
4.application
5.scope
Dielectrics
introduction
the basic idea

Dielectrics are insulators, plain and simple. The two words refer to the same
class of materials, but are of different origin and are used preferentially in
different contexts.

• Since charges tend not to move easily in nonmetallic

solids it's possible to have "islands" of charge in glass,
ceramics, and plastics. The latin word for island is insula,
which is the origin of the word insulator. In contrast,
charges in metallic solids tend to move easily — as if
someone or something was leading them. The latin prefix
con or com means "with". A person you have bread with is
a companion. (The latin word for bread is panis.) To take
something with you on the road is to convey it. (The latin
word for road is via.) The person you travel with who leads
the way or provides safe passage is a conductor. (The latin
word for leader is ductor.) A material that provides safe
passage for electric charges is a conductor.
• Inserting a layer of nonmetallic solid between the plates of
a capacitor increases its capacitance. The greek prefix di
or dia means "across". A line across the angles of a
rectangle is a diagonal. (The greek word for angle is gonia
— γωνία.) The measurement across a circle is a diameter.
(The greek word for measure is metron — μέτρον.) The
material placed across the plates of a capacitor like a little
nonconducting bridge is a dielectric.

The plastic coating on an electrical cord is an insulator. The glass or ceramic

plates used to support power lines and keep them from shorting out to the
ground are insulators. Pretty much anytime a nonmetallic solid is used in an
electrical device it's called an insulator. Perhaps the only time the word
dielectric is used is in reference to the nonconducting layer of a capacitor.
Dielectrics in capacitors serve three purposes:

1. to keep the conducting plates from coming in contact,

allowing for smaller plate separations and therefore higher
capacitances;
2. to increase the effective capacitance by reducing the
electric field strength, which means you get the same
charge at a lower voltage; and
3. to reduce the possibility of shorting out by sparking (more
formally known as dielectric breakdown) during operation
at high voltage.

theory
When a metal is placed in an electric field the free electrons flow against the
field until they run out of conducting material. In no time at all, we'll have an
excess electrons on one side and a deficit on the other. One side of the
conductor has become negatively charged and the other positively charged.
Release the field and the electrons on the negatively charged side now find
themselves too close for comfort. Like charges repel and the electrons run away
from each other as fast as they can until they're distributed uniformly
throughout; one electron for every proton on average in the space surrounding
every atom. A conducting electron in a metal is like a racing dog fenced in a
pasture. They are free to roam around as much as they want and can run the
entire length, width, and depth of the metal on a whim.

Life is much more restrictive for an electron in an insulator. By definition,

charges in an insulator are not free to move. This is not the same thing as saying
they can't move. An electron in an insulator is like a guard dog tied to a tree —
free to move around, but within limits. Placing the electrons of an insulator in
the presence of an electric field is like placing a tied dog in the presence of a
mailman. The electrons will strain against the field as far as they can in much
the same way that our hypothetical dog will strain against its leash as far as it
can. Electrons on the atomic scale are more cloudlike than doglike, however.
The electron is really spread out over the whole volume of an atom and isn't
concentrated in any one location. A good atomic dog wouldn't be named Spot, I
suppose.
When the atoms or molecules of a dielectric are placed in an external electric
field, the nuclei are pushed with the field resulting in an increased positive
charge on one side while the electron clouds are pulled against it resulting in an
increased negative charge on the other side. This process is known as
polarization and a dielectric material in such a state is said to be polarized.
There are two principal methods by which a dielectric can be polarized:
stretching and rotation.

Stretching an atom or molecule results in an induced dipole moment added to

every atom or molecule.

Polariz
ation by Rotation
Polar molecules generally polarize more strongly than nonpolar molecules.
Water (a polar molecule) has a dielectric strength 80 times that of nitrogen (a
nonpolar molecule that is the major component of air). This happens for two
reasons — one of which is usually trivial. First, all molecules stretch in an
electric field whether they rotate or not. Nonpolar molecules and atoms stretch,
while polar molecules stretch and rotate. This combination of actions only has a
tiny effect on the overall degree to which a substance will polarize, however.
What's more important is that polar molecules are already strongly stretched —
naturally. The way the hydrogen atoms sit themselves on the arms of an oxygen
atom's electron clouds distorts the molecule into a dipole. All of this takes place
on an interatomic or molecular scale. At such tiny separations, the strength of
the electric field is relatively huge for what would otherwise be an
unremarkable voltage. (13.6 V for an electron in a hydrogen atom, for example.)

Stretching and rotation are not the end of the story when it comes to
polarization. They are just the methods simplest to describe to the casual
observer. In general, the polarization of a dielectric material is microscopic
electrostatic strain in response to a macroscopic electrostatic stress. An external
field applied to a dielectric can't make charges move macroscopically, but it can
stretch and distort them microscopically. It can push them into uncomfortable
positions and when released allow them to fall back into a relaxed state. The
thing that makes the polarizing in an insulator different from stretching an
elastic body like a spring is that eliminating the stress doesn't necessarily release
the strain. Some insulators will remain in their polarized state for hours, days,
years, or even centuries. The longest characteristic times have to be extrapolated
from incomplete observations more reasonable duration. No one is going to sit
around and wait two thousand years to see the polarization of a chunk of plastic
dwindle away to zero. It isn't worth the wait.

Finally, it's somewhat important to keep in mind that the charges "stored" in a
dielectric layer aren't available as a pool of free charges. To extract them, you
still need metal plates. It's very important to remember that the only reason
anyone seems to care about this phenomena is that it helps us to make better
capacitors. I think that's where this discussion should wrap up.

capacitors with dielectrics

Place a dielectric layer between two parallel charged metal plates with an
electric field pointing from right to left. (Why not left to right? Well, I read
from right to left, so it makes the diagrams easier for me to "read".) The positive
nuclei of the dielectric will move with the field to the right and the negative
electrons will move against the field to the left. Field lines start on positive
charges and end on negative charges, so the electric field within each stressed
atom or molecule of the dielectric points from left to right in our diagram —
opposite the external field from of the two metal plates. The electric field is a
vector quantity and when two vectors point in opposite directions you subtract
their magnitudes to get the resultant. The two fields don't quite cancel in a
dielectric as they would in a metal, so the overall result is a weaker electric field
between the two plates.

Let me repeat that — the overall result is a weaker electric field between the
two plates. Let's do some math.

Electric field is the gradient of electric potential (better known as voltage).

Δ Δ Δ
Ex = V Ey = V Ez = V E=−
& & ⇒
− Δ − Δ − Δ ∇V
x y z
Capacitance is the ratio of charge to voltage.

C Q
= V

Introducing a dielectric into a capacitor decreases the electric field, which

decreases the voltage, which increases the capacitance.

V ∝ E (d const C 1 (Q consta C 1 (d,

& ⇒
ant) ∝ Vnt) ∝ EQ constant)

A capacitor with a dielectric stores the same charge as one without a dielectric,
but at a lower voltage. Therefore a capacitor with a dielectric in it is more
effective.

About the first discoveries of the Leyden jar. Removing the rod lowers the
capacitance. (Air has a lower dielectric constant than water.) Voltage and
capacitance are inversely proportional when charge is constant. Reducing the
capacitance raises the voltage.

susceptibility, permittivity, dielectric constant

The electric dipole moment of anything — be it an atom stretched in an external

electric field, a polar molecule, or two oppositely charged metal spheres — is
defined as the product of charge and separation.

p=qr

with the SI unit of coulomb meter, which has no special name.

[Cm = Cm]

The polarization of a region is defined as the dipole moment per unit volume

Σ
P p
=
V

with the SI unit of coulomb per square meter.

⎡C C ⎤
m
=
⎣m m ⎦
3 3

Calculating polarization from first principles is a difficult procedure that is best

left to the experts. Don't concern yourself with the details of why the
polarization has the value that it has, just accept that it exists and is a function of
some variables. And what are those variables? Why they're material and field
strength, of course. Different materials polarize to different degrees — we'll use
the greek letter χe [chi sub e] to represent this quantity known as the electric
susceptibility — but for most every material, the stronger the field (E), the
greater the polarization (P). Add a constant of proportionality ε0 and we're all
set.

P = ε0χe E

The electric susceptibility is a dimensionless parameter that varies with

material. Its value ranges from 0 for empty space to whatever. I bet there are
even some bizarre materials for which this coefficient is negative (although I
don't know for sure). The constant of proportionality ε0 [epsilon nought] is
known as the permittivity of free space and will be discussed a bit more later.
For now, it's just a device for getting the units to work out.

⎡C C2 N⎤

⎢m Nm ⎥
= C
2 2

⎣ ⎦

rest my brain

The quantity κ [kappa] is unitless.

Dielectric Constant for Selected Materials (~300 K except

where indicated)
material κ material κ
1.0053 quartz, crystalline
air 4.60
64 (∥)
acetic acid 6.2 quartz, crystalline 4.51
 (⊥)
alcohol, ethyl (grain) 24.55 quartz, fused 3.8
alcohol, methyl (wood) 32.70 rubber, butyl 2.4
amber 2.8 rubber, neoprene 6.6
asbestos 4.0 rubber, silicone 3.2
asphalt 2.6 rubber, vulcanized 2.9
bakelite 4.8 salt 5.9
calcite 8.0 selenium 6.0
calcium carbonate 8.7 silicon 11.8
3.7 - silicon carbide
cellulose 10.2
7.5 (αSiC)
cement ~2 silicon dioxide 4.5
2.7 -
cocaine 3.1 silicone oil
2.8
cotton 1.3 soil 10 - 20
strontium titanate,
diamond, type I 5.87 332
+25 °C
strontium titanate, –
diamond, type IIa 5.66 2080
195 °C
ebonite 2.7 sulfur 3.7
epoxy 3.6 tantalum pentoxide 27
flour 3-5 teflon 2.1
freon 12, -150 °C (liquid) 3.5 tin antimonide 147
freon 12, +20 °C (vapor) 2.4 tin telluride 1770
titanium dioxide
germanium 16 114
(rutile)
1.6 -
glass 4-7 tobacco
1.7
glass, pyrex 7740 5.0 uranium dioxide 24
1
gutta percha 2.6 vacuum (exactly
)
jet fuel (jet a) 1.7 water, ice, –30 °C 99
lead oxide 25.9 water, liquid, 0 °C 87.9
lead magnesium niobate 10,000 water, liquid, 20 °C 80.2
lead sulfide (galena) 200 water, liquid, 40 °C 73.2
lead titanate 200 water, liquid, 60 °C 66.7
lithium deuteride 14.0 water, liquid, 80 °C 60.9
lucite 2.8 water, liquid, 100 °C 55.5
2.7 -
mica, muscovite 5.4 wax, beeswax
3.0
mica, canadian 6.9 wax, carnuba 2.9
2.1 -
nylon 3.5 wax, paraffin
2.5
oil, linseed 3.4 waxed paper 3.7
oil, mineral 2.1
oil, olive 3.1 human tissues κ
2.0 -
oil, petroleum bone, cancellous 26
2.2
oil, silicone 2.5 bone, cortical 14.5
oil, sperm 3.2 brain, gray matter 56
oil, transformer 2.2 brain, white matter 43
3.3,
paper brain, meninges 58
3.5
plexiglas 3.1 cartilage, general 22
polyester 3.2 - cartilage, ear 47
 4.3
polyethylene 2.26 eye, aqueous humor 67
2.2 -
polypropylene eye, cornea 61
2.3
polystyrene 2.55 eye, sclera 67
polyvinyl chloride (pvc) 4.5 fat 16
porcelain 6-8 muscle, smooth 56
potassium niobate 700 muscle, striated 58
potassium tantalate
34,000 skin 33 - 44
niobate, 0 °C
potassium tantalate
6,000 tongue 38
niobate, 20 °C

dielectric breakdown
Every insulator can be forced to conduct electricity. This phenomena is known
as dielectric breakdown.

Dielectric Breakdown in Selected Materials

field
field
material (MV/m material
(MV/m)
)
air 3 paper 14, 16
50, 500-
amber 90 polyethylene
700, 18
24, 25, 400-
bakelite 12, 24 polystyrene
600
polyvinyl chloride
diamond, type IIa10 40
(PVC)
glass, pyrex
13, 14 porcelain 4, 12
7740
mica, muscovite 160 quartz, fused 8
nylon 14 rubber, neoprene 12, 12
oil, silicone 15 strontium titanate 8
oil, transformer 12, 27 teflon 60
titanium dioxide
6
(rutile)

piezoelectric effect

Say all the vowels. Piezoelectricity is an effect by which energy is converted

between mechanical and electrical forms.

• Piezo is the Greek word for pressure (πιεζω).

• Discovered in the 1880s by the Curie brothers.
• Cheap piezoelectric microphones. When a polarized
crystal is stressed, the stress produces a potential
difference. This potential difference is proportional to the
stress, which is proportional to the acoustic pressure.
• A backward piezoelectric microphone is a piezoelectric
speaker: alarm clock buzzer, wristwatch chime, all sorts of
electronic beepers. When an electrical potential is applied
to a polarized crystal, the crystal undergoes a mechanical
deformation which can in turn create an acoustical
pressure.
• Collagen is piezoelectric. "When a force is applied to
[bone] collagen, a small dc electric potential is generated.
The collagen conducts current mainly by negative
charges. Mineral crystals of the bone (apatite) close to the
collagen conduct current by positive charges. At a junction
of these two types of semiconductors, current flows easily
in one direction but not in the other direction …. It is
thought that the forces on bones produce potentials by
the piezoelectric effect and that the junctions of collagen-
apatite, currents are produced that induce and control
bone growth. The currents are proportional to stress (force
per unit area), so increased mechanical bone stress
results in increased growth." Physics of the Body (255).

Microphones and How They Work

 sounds which which
produce cause result in
type
changes changes changes
in … in … in …
granule dens
carbon resistance voltage
ity
plate separa
condenser capacitance voltage
tion
dynamic coil location flux voltage
piezoelectriccompression polarization voltage

application
1. Since capacitance is directly proportional to plate area, a
lot of metal is needed to make a big capacitor. Since
capacitance is also inversely proportional to plate
separation, this metal foil should be separated by a very
thin dielectric film. A thinner film means less metal foil is
needed, but dielectric films can only be made so thin.
Thus, big capacitances require big capacitors (capacitors
with a large volume).

That is, if one uses conventional materials and

conventional designs. Enter the ultracapacitor (also known
as the supercapacitor or electrochemical capacitor).
Instead of two metal plates separated by a dielectric, an
ultracapacitor uses a porous carbon electrode soaked in
electrolytic paste. This effectively compresses a football
field worth of surface area into a teaspoon of volume and
shrinks plate separation down to the atomic scale.

According to one manufacturer …

An ultracapacitor gets its area from a porous carbon-
based electrode material. The porous structure of this
material allows its surface area to approach 2000 square
meters per gram, much greater than can be accomplished
using flat or textured films and plates. An ultracapacitor's
charge separation distance is determined by the size of
the ions in the electrolyte, which are attracted to the
charged electrode. This charge separation (less than 10
angstroms) is much smaller than can be accomplished
using conventional dielectric materials.
Source: Maxwell Technologies.

Determine the total …

a. surface area,
b. mass, and
c. volume

of the electrodes in a one farad ultracapacitor. (One

angstrom is 10−10 m and the density of activated carbon is
0.50 g/cm3.)

Solution …

d. Answer it.
e. Answer it.
f. Answer it.

Ultracapacitors can be used …

o in place of rechargeable batteries for long periods in

low current devices (like computer back up memory)
and for shorter periods in high current devices (like
power tools).
o to provide a bridge current when power is switched
from one source to another (when subway cars
switch tracks, for example, or while waiting for a
backup generator to come online during a blackout).
o for load levelling high voltage, low energy devices
connected to low voltage, high energy sources
 (remote radio transmitters connected to solar arrays,
for example).
2 Write something.
o Answer it.
3 Write something.
o Answer it.
4 Write something completely different.
o Answer it.

Resources
• dielectric constants
o ASI Instruments

Dielectric Material
A dielectric material is a substance that is a poor conductor of electricity, but an
efficient supporter of electrostatic field s. If the flow of current between
opposite electric charge poles is kept to a minimum while the electrostatic lines
of flux are not impeded or interrupted, an electrostatic field can store energy.
This property is useful in capacitor s, especially at radio frequencies. Dielectric
materials are also used in the construction of radio-frequency transmission lines.

In practice, most dielectric materials are solid. Examples include porcelain

(ceramic), mica, glass, plastics, and the oxides of various metals. Some liquids
and gases can serve as good dielectric materials. Dry air is an excellent
dielectric, and is used in variable capacitors and some types of transmission
lines. Distilled water is a fair dielectric. A vacuum is an exceptionally efficient
dielectric.

An important property of a dielectric is its ability to support an electrostatic

field while dissipating minimal energy in the form of heat. The lower the
dielectric loss (the proportion of energy lost as heat), the more effective is a
dielectric material. Another consideration is the dielectric constant , the extent
to which a substance concentrates the electrostatic lines of flux. Substances with
a low dielectric constant include a perfect vacuum, dry air, and most pure, dry
gases such as helium and nitrogen. Materials with moderate dielectric constants
include ceramics, distilled water, paper, mica, polyethylene, and glass. Metal
oxides, in general, have high dielectric constants.

The prime asset of high-dielectric-constant substances, such as aluminum oxide,

is the fact that they make possible the manufacture of high-value capacitors with
small physical volume. But these materials are generally not able to withstand
electrostatic fields as intense as low-dielectric-constant substances such as air. If
the voltage across a dielectric material becomes too great -- that is, if the
electrostatic field becomes too intense -- the material will suddenly begin to
conduct current. This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown . In
components that use gases or liquids as the dielectric medium, this condition
reverses itself if the voltage decreases below the critical point. But in
components containing solid dielectrics, dielectric breakdown usually results in
permanent damage.

• SCOPE:
The 2008 International Workshop on “Dielectric Thin Films
for Future ULSI Devices: Science and Technology” (IWDTF-
08) will be held at Tokyo Institute of Technology, Meguro-
ku, Tokyo, Japan, on November 5-7, 2008. The IWDTF
started in 1999, based on a domestic annual workshop on
ultrathin silicon dioxide films. In succession to the second
(IWDTF-04, Tokyo) and the third (IWDTF-06, Kawasaki)
workshops, the IWDTF-08 will focus on the science and
technologies of gate dielectric films for MOS devices, such
 as ultrathin SiO2, SiON, high-k gate dielectrics, and
ferroelectric films. The topics on other technologies
involved in the advanced gate stacks, which include metal
gate electrodes and high-mobility channel materials, will
also be discussed. The IWDTF will provide a great
opportunity for information exchange and discussions at
forefront of the researches on future ULSI. The papers on
both experimental and theoretical studies, for the deep
understanding of the properties of gate dielectric films and
their interfaces, are welcomed. The workshop will consist
of invited and contributed talks, and poster presentations.
Selected topics of current interests will be reviewed by
several invited talks.