5th International Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering
ICECE 2008, 20-22 December 2008, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Advances on IPM Technology for Hybrid Cars
and Impact in Developing Countries
Dr. M. A. Rahman, Life Fellow, IEB and IEEE
Memorial University of Newfoundland
St. John’s, Newfoundland, A1B 3X5 Canada
Abstract—The past thirty years have been an exciting period
for tremendous advances in the development of interior
permanent magnet (IPM) electrical machines. Over the course
of this time, interior permanent magnet synchronous machines
(IPMSM) have expanded their presence in the commercial
marketplace from few specialized niche markets such as
machine tool servo drives to mass-produced applications
including high-efficiency electric traction drives for the latest
generation of hybrid-electric vehicles (HEV). Power ratings of
available IPM motor drives have dramatically expanded by
approximately three orders of magnitude during this period,
now reaching power levels up to 1 MW ratings. What are the
factors that made such impressive progress possible? Closer
examination reveals that several different knowledge-based
technological advancements and market forces have combined,
sometimes in fortuitous ways, to accelerate the development of
the impressive IPMSM drives technology that we find available
today. The purpose of this paper is to provide a broad
explanation of the various factors that lead to our current state-
of-the-art IPM technology. This highly efficient energy
conversion technology has enormous impacts on the world
electrical energy supply and demand utilizing conventional
fossil fuel sources like oil, coal and gas. Examples will illustrate
commercial successes of Toyota’s hybrid electric vehicles like
PRIUS, utilizing the latest developments in knowledge based
highly efficient and smart automobiles now and in the very
future.
I. INTRODUCTION
Electric power system forms the backbone of modern society.
Electricity and its accessibility are the greatest engineering
achievements in the past century. In the 21st century, global
warming has become an important issue. Carbon dioxide (Co2)
gas emissions should be reduced to preserve the correct air
quality as per Kyoto protocol, implemented on February 16,
2005 by most of the countries. Modern human beings, who need
electric energy technologies for climate controlled home and
work place environments via air conditioners and mass
transportation using cars as necessities, cannot put up with the
inconveniences of the past. In order to maintain and develop
this energy consuming technologies, availability of sustainable
energy sources and their effective uses through efficiency
improvements are of paramount importance. Power electronics
and electric motor drives are the enabling technologies crucial
for industrial competitiveness in the world market place. One of
the most valuable achievements in power electronics is to
introduce degree of freedom to variable frequency from the
fixed value of the generated ac power supplies. Over 60 % of
the generated energy is consumed by electric motors. Variable
ac speed drive, which regulates the speed of the motor by
controlling the frequency, can significantly reduce the energy
consumption, particularly in heavy-duty cycle fans, pumps,
compressors and traction in hybrid electric vehicles. Thus
improvements in efficiency of the electric motor drive systems
are the most effective measures to reduce primary energy
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consumption; and thereby reduce Co2 gas emissions, which
cause global warming.
The objective of this invited paper is to provide a brief
introduction to the recent emergence of high efficiency and high
performance interior permanent magnet (IPM) synchronous
motors. Highlights of IPM motor drives include wide spread
application in Japanese hybrid electric vehicles, which are just
one of many items of ac motor drive in passenger automobiles
to save precious electric energy.
II. ANALYSIS
The principle of operation of any rotating electric motor is
derived from Lorenz force. A current carrying conductor placed
in a magnetic field is acted upon by a force by way of the BLI
rule. For a conventional synchronous motor the stator is fed
from 3-phase balanced voltage source and rotor field winding is
supplied by dc excitation current through slip rings. The
machine starts as an induction motor, and when it attains near
synchronous speed, the dc excitation current is switched on. The
rotor is snapped into synchronism and it runs at synchronous
speed. The obvious disadvantage is that the motor needs two
sources of power; one ac from the stator and dc through the
rotor involving brushes and slip rings. Unlike in induction
motor, the speed of a synchronous motor is constant irrespective
of loads. But an induction machine is a singly fed motor. The
rotor is squirrel cage, simple and robust. The disadvantage is
that it cannot operate at synchronous speed Ns, and the rotor
speed Nr decreases with load.
Thus an induction motor is an inherently inefficient motion
control device, because the ideal efficiency is 1-S, where S =
(Ns-Nr)/Ns. These disadvantages of both the conventional
doubly fed synchronous motor and the singly fed induction
motor can be overcome by means of a permanently excited
singly fed IPM motor. An IPM is an induction start but
synchronously run high efficiency motor. It is sometimes
referred as induction-synchronous motor. It must overcome the
magnet brake torque at line starting. However, there are many
challenges to overcome. Some are given as follows:
• Create variation of d-q axis inductances without
varying air gap.
• Vary and control of excitation of permanently
excited rotor of IPM.
• Optimum variation of PM torque and reluctance
torque for specific applications.
• Reduction of cost, weight and size of IPM motor.
• Intelligent converter and inverter for IPM drive.
The developed power Pd in a 2-pole 3-phase salient pole
synchronous motor can be given as;
189

3Vp E 0 3Vp 2 (X d − X q )
Pd = sin δ + sin 2δ
Xd 2X d X q
Where Vp is terminal voltage/per phase, Eo is excitation
voltage/per phase; Xd and Xq are d-q axis reactances per phase,
respectively and δ is angle between Vp and Eo.
In conventional salient pole synchronous machines, the airgap
length at the direct (d) axis is small and the airgap length at the
quadrature (q) axis is large. Thus there exists physical
variation of the airgap, which in turn causes reluctance changes
of the motor as the rotor rotates.
The equation (1) can be rewritten as;
Pd = Pe sin δ + Pr sin 2δ (2)
2
Where, Pe = [3VpEo]/ Xd and Pr = [3Vp (Xd -Xq)]/ 2 Xd Xq
Pe is the peak power component due to dc field excitation and
Pr is the peak power component due to reluctance variation at
the airgap. The latter is called the reluctance power. The
contribution of each power component to the total power Pd is
significant for the optimum design of a salient pole synchronous
motor. For fixed parameter values it is obvious that the first
term of Eqn (2) is maximum when δ is 900, and the second
term of Eqn (2) is maximum for δ = 450 . The salient pole
synchronous motor develops more stable power for a given
excitation level, because the total developed peak power Pd peak
is greater than each of the Pe and Pr components individually.
The challenge for designers for an IPM motor is to create
reluctance variation of the motor by keeping airgap length
constant. This has been done by inserting permanent magnets in
various arrangements and magnet polarity orientations below
the conduction cage of the IPM rotor such that the machine
reluctance variations are made possible but keeping the airgap
length uniformly constant [1]. For some specific applications
the squirrel/conduction cages can be dispensed with for new
IPM rotors for air conditioners and hybrid electric vehicles.
The developed torque Td is obtained by dividing Eqn (2) by
angular synchronous speed. An IPM motor develops its driving
torque due to both the permanent magnet excitation and
reluctance variation.
Fig. 1: History of Permanent Magnet Material Developments
The history of development of IPM motors is linked to the
advancement of high-energy permanent magnet materials over
the past 50 years. Fig.1 illustrates the brief history of the
development of permanent magnet (PM) materials. In the 1950s
the most promising material was the Alnico (Aluminum Nickel
Cobalt) magnet with (BH) max at around 5 MG Oe. Next,
Barium Ferrite magnets came by 1960s, and Samarium Cobalt
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magnets appeared in the 1970s with (BH) max at about 4 and 6
(1) MG Oe., respectively. The latest quantum jump occurred in
early 1980s,when Neodymium Boron Iron (NdBFe) magnets
with (BH) max. at 14 MG Oe. became commercially available.
Now a days NdBFe magnets with (BH) max. at 58 MG Oe. are
routinely manufactured and marketed by the Japanese
manufactures like Neomax Co, Japanmagnets Inc., Aichi Steels
Co, TDK Co., etc .The critical properties of permanent magnets
for IPM motors are very high coercive force Hc, high residual
magnetic flux density Br and highest (BH) max. energy product.
All PM materials except NdBFe magnets are found not quite
suitable for high efficiency IPM motor drives. Merrill
introduced an earlier IPM motor using Alnico-5 in 1955[2].
Binn, Barnard, Jabbar presented a series of flux focused IPM
motor using ferrite PM materials in 1978[3]. Rahman designed
and built the first large 45 kW high efficiency IPM motor
utilizing NdBFe magnets in 1982 [4,6]. Rahman, Little and
Slemon provided analytical models for IPM in 1985[7-8]. Jahns
incorporated the flux-weakening regime in 1987[11,13].
Sebastian and Slemon presented inverter driven IPM drives in
1987[15]. Fratta, Vagati and Villata provided design criteria of
IPM for field weakening operation in 1990 [20]. Zhou and
Rahman presented the finite element analysis of IPM motor
incorporating field and circuit coupling in 1994[28]. Sustained
and extensive research, development, analysis, control and
application of IPM motors are progressing in leaps and bounds
for the past two decades [12-47], perhaps even exceeding
Merrill’s dream [2] and Alger’s expectation.
III.DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
The key requirements of IPM motors and generators for
traction applications in hybrid electric vehicles are:
ƒ Large torque and higher power density,
ƒ High torque at low speeds for starting and uphill climb
ƒ High power at high cruising speeds
ƒ Maximum efficiency over wide speed and torque ranges
ƒ Wide speed range with constant power mode, exceeding
2- 4 times the base speed
ƒ Optimum compromise between motor peak torque and
inverter volt-ampere ratings
ƒ Short term overload capability, typically twice the rated
torque over short duration
ƒ Low cogging torque, low ripple and low acoustic noise
ƒ Optimum stator winding design
ƒ New rotor design with magnets orientation for maximum
variation of d-q inductances
ƒ Reduction of magnetic saturation due to cross-coupling
Limits to open circuit voltage and total harmonic contents
ƒ Low copper and iron losses at high speeds
ƒ High reliability for all operating conditions
ƒ Minimum weight and smallest size
ƒ Low fuel consumption rate (litre/km),
ƒ Clean and environmentally benign
ƒ Quiet, smooth and comfortable ride
ƒ Better battery power and self-charging
ƒ Smart sensors and interfaces
ƒ Least magnet flux leakage
ƒ Magnet demagnetization withstand with respect to
armature reaction
ƒ Temperature and surface corrosion constraints of magnets
ƒ Minimum gear and more direct drive
ƒ Regenerative braking and short charging cycle
ƒ No plug-in and hybrid transmission
ƒ Plug-in in off peak periods
ƒ Solar panel body and hybrid transmission
ƒ Seamless transfer between engine and electric traction
ƒ Minimum maintenance and high efficiency
 ƒ Lowest initial and operating cost Is If
Im
IV. MOTOR TORQUE
Vp
The developed torque Td for an IPM motor can also be Xm If
expressed for synchronously revolving d-q axis reference frame
as [6];
3p
Td =
2
[
λ m i q + (L q − L d )i d i q (3) ]
Where, λ m is flux linkage due to permanent magnet Fig.3: Norton’s Equivalent Circuit of IPM Motor
excitation, Ld and Lq are d-q axis inductances, respectively; id
and iq are d-q axis currents, respectively and p is number of pole
pairs. It is also to be noted that the torque equation (3) is quite
non-linear, because λ m , Ld, Lq, id and iq are not usually
constants. All these five quantities vary during dynamic
operating conditions.
It is to be noted that the first term of equation (3) is identical
to the separately excited dc motor. It is important for indirect Fig.4: Current Phasor Diagram of IPM Motor
vector control of an IPM motor. The second term is the
reluctance torque. Efficient utilization of this reluctance torque Unlike conventional wire-wound synchronous machines, the
component of equation (3) is most critical for intensive flux rotor of an IPM motor is permanently excited. The rotor
weakening operations and efficiency improvements in hybrid permanent magnet can be modeled by equivalent current source,
electric vehicles (HEV) and electric traction drives [45]. as indicated by If in Fig. 3. The excitation current If due to rotor
Finite element (FE) analysis is a requirement for fine-tuning permanent magnets for IPM synchronous motor is constant.
the parameters determination of the IPM motors for optimum However, the IPM motor can be operated by controlling
efficiency in high-speed operation using smart inverter and the angle β between the magnetizing current Im and constant
control systems. Figure 2 shows the finite element based d-q excitation current If. This is explained by means of the current
axis magnetic flux distribution due to flux focusing phasor triangle. An IPM motor can be operated in leading, unity
arrangements of rotor permanent magnets [26]. Design and lagging power factor modes of operation by varying the
optimization of the IPM motor drive system can also be carried angle β, as shown in Fig.4. This eliminates another constraint
out by various methods. for its wide spread applications in industry as the singly fed
permanently excited variable power factor IPM synchronous
motor. Fig 5 shows an alternate method of varying power factor
of an IPM synchronous motor. The direct and quadrature axis
(d-q) components of the stator current may be controlled by the

Fig. 2: Variation of d-q axis fluxes

V. STEADY STATE OPERATING MODES

The operation of a synchronous motor is conventionally Fig.5 : D-Q Currents Vector Diagram of IPM Motor
explained by using the Thevenin’s per phase equivalent circuit
model. The applied phase voltage Vp and the excitation vector control (field weakening) technique, in which the d-axis
voltage Eo at the airgap due to dc field current in the rotor of the current is varied to operate the IPM motor in leading, lagging
motor is connected by series reactance X, neglecting stator and unity power factor modes of operation.
resistance drop. The phasor voltage triangle is governed by the
Kirchoff’s voltage law. For the sake of better insight of dc field VI. ROTOR DESIGN FOR LINE START IPM
current supplied in its rotor, the Thevenin’s equivalent can be
The earlier design of the rotors for IPM motors using Ferrite
replaced by its dual Norton’s equivalent circuit model.
magnets was geared to increase the air gap flux by arranging the
Fig.3 shows the per phase Norton’s equivalent circuit of an
magnets and their orientation. Different old topologies had been
IPM motor. The phasor current triangle of the Norton’s
tried by Binns [3-4]. Modern NdBFe magnets having high Br
equivalent circuit of a synchronous motor is governed by the
and very large Hc lead the recent trend for new rotor designs.
Kirchoff’s current law of If + Is = Im. Note that Is is the stator
current per phase, Im is the magnetising current per phase and If
is the phasor current arising out of the rotor permanent magnet
excitation. It is quite well known that a conventional
synchronous motor can be operated at variable power factor
modes by regulating its dc field current Ifdc. It is well known that
the dc excitation current If is varied by controlling the rotor
field current Ifdc to operate the motor at unity, leading and
lagging power factor modes of operation. It is not possible for
IPM synchronous motors. Fig.6: IPM Rotors for Line Start Motor.

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(a)
Fig. 7: Magnet flux distribution
(a) FE grids (b) magnetic flux contours
Fig.6 shows the experimental rotor for an IPM motor with line
start provision [41]. The left hand picture depicts the IPM rotor,
and the right hand figure provides details of dimensions and
permanent magnet orientation over one quadrant of 4-pole IPM
rotor [41]. Figure 7 shows the finite element grids and magnet
flux density contours for one quadrant of the IPM rotor of Fig.6.
The design data for an experimental 3-phase, 4-pole, Y-
connected, 200V, 1 hp IPM motor with NdBFe magnets
(Neomax –32) are given as; stator : OD= 128mm, ID = 77mm,
stack length = 70 mm, number of slots = 24, conductors/slot =
56. rotor: OD = 76.2 mm, core length = 70 mm, inertia = 0.0015
kgm2 and load inertia = 0.0263 kgm2.. The rotor consists of 2
cages of aluminum bars with lower cage of 7.5 mm depth [41].
Table-1 shows the comparative test performance results of
the IPM synchronous motor and induction motor (IM). Both the
motors were run at 140V (L-L) and 200V (L-L) voltages. It is
quite evident from the test results of Table-1 that the IPM motor
outperformed in every category of performances.
Table-1: Performance Results of IPM and Induction Motors
Quantity IPM Rotor IM Rotor
Input voltage: V (V) 140
Input current: I (A) 2.91
Input power: W (W) 696
Rotor speed: n (rpm) 1500
Torque: T (Nm) 3.82
Efficiency: η (%) 86.2
Power factor: pf (%) 98.6
Output power: P (W) 600
Off. X pf product (%) 85.0
Max output: Pmax. (W) 1115
The significant conclusion is that the efficiency and power
factor as well as their product of the IPM motor is over 35%
better than that for an identical rated induction motor. The
energy efficiency aspect is a key factor for wide spread
applications of high performance IPM motor drives.
VIII. APPLICATIONS
IPM motors with intelligent power module (IPM) are now
widely used for heavy duty cycle loads, which include
ventilation fans, blowers, air conditioner, heat pumps,
compressors, cranes, elevators/escalators, blood pumps, ship
propellers, locomotive traction drives, electric and hybrid
electric vehicles (HEV). The ratings span from few watts to few
megawatts range.
Double IPM motors are now increasingly used for energy
saving applications in hybrid electric vehicles. The key
requirements of IPM propulsion motors for HEV applications
include the following [25,30,32,38]: high torque and power
density, high torque at low speeds for staring and uphill climb
but high power at high cruising speeds, maximum efficiency
over wide speed and torque ranges including at low torques,
wide speed range with constant power mode, exceeding 2-4
times the base speed, optimum compromise between motor
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peak torque and inverter volt-ampere ratings, short term
overload capability, typically twice the rated torque over short
duration, low acoustic noise, low cogging torques, low torque
(b) ripples, optimized stator distributed winding with minimum
total harmonic distortion factor, innovative rotor design
topology with magnets orientation for maximum variation of d-
q axis inductances, reduction of cross-coupling magnetic
saturation, least magnet flux leakage, magnet demagnetization
withstand with respect to armature reaction, temperature and
surface corrosion constraints, excessive open circuit back–emf,
load and no load stator iron loss at high speeds, high reliability
and robustness for various operating conditions, minimum
weight and smallest size, low fuel consumption rate (litre/km),
clean, quiet, smooth, powerful, efficient and low cost. It is
obvious that many of the above mentioned design requirements
are complex, some times conflicting and interlinked for specific
HEV applications. Furthermore, these design criteria cannot be
isolated from their control strategy including power electronic
converter and battery. Figure 8 shows the per unit torque/power
and efficiency over wide speeds for hybrid electric vehicles [30].
Fig. 8: Torque/power and efficiency requirements for HEV
200
3.43
818
1434
4.00
73.3
68.8
600
Fig.9: IPM Rotors for Toyota Hybrid Electric Vehicles [45]
50.4
1240 Figure 9 shows the IPM rotors for Toyota Prius 2000 model and
sports utility vehicles (SUV2005) model of hybrid electric
vehicles [45]. Table-2 shows the utilization of IPM motors for
Toyota Prius and sports utility vehicles (SUV) to create
variation of d-q inductances of the rotor magnets topology for
reluctance torque. However, the V type arrangements are
preferred for hybrid electric vehicle applications, where the
reluctance torque component is critical for high-speed operation
in flux weakening regime.
Table-2: d-q axis inductances (mH) [45]
Axis Straight IPM (Prius) V- IPM (SUV)
d-axis Ld 1.06 0.86
q-axis Lq 2.26 2.23
Lq –Ld 1.20 1.37
Lq/Ld 2.13 2.59
For SUV 2005 Toyota models the reluctance torque
component is about 63% of the total driving torque at a speed of
12,400rpm. The torque to weight ratio significantly improves by
operating the IPM motor at 650 Vdc from smart dc-dc converter.
The light load stator iron loss also decreased primarily by
employing high-grade silicon steel for IPM motors.
Figure 10 provides an illustration of a 123kW IPM
motor/generator set for the Toyota hybrid electric car. The back
wheel IPM motor is rated at 50 kW for the 4-wheel drive model.
The sophisticated and intelligent control in a hybrid electric
 vehicle forms the key to successful utilization of IPM motors.
Smart power electronic modules as well as new nickel metal
hydride battery are the enabling technology for the popular
Toyota ‘Prius’ sedans and 4-wheel SUV models. The design of
Toyota hybrid system (THS) includes gasoline engine, new
transmission system, IPM traction motor, IPM generator,
converter/inverter module, battery and control units. Figure 11
shows the complete transmission layout of the Toyota hybrid
system (THS) for its popular hybrid electric vehicle models.
This innovative THS transmission is geared to achieve
maximum fuel efficiency and a high degree of driving
comfort.PM traction drive motors are crucial for fulfilling the Fig. 13: Ratio of Magnet and Reluctance Torques
power characteristics required for high performance
automobiles.

IPM
Generator

Front IPM
Motor
Fig. 14: Efficiency Contour for SUV 2005
Table-3: Application of IPM Motor drives in Japanese Hybrids
Fig 10: IPM Motor / Generator Set for Toyota Hybrid Car
Year Company Brand Vehicle type Power Voltage km/liter
1997 Toyota Prius Sedan 30kW 274V 22
2000 Toyota Prius-1 Sedan 33kW 288V 22.5
2004 Toyota Prius-2 Sedan 50kW 500V 25.0
2005 Toyota Camry Sedan 60kW 650V 25.6
2005 Toyota Kluger* V6-SUV 123kW 650V 17.8
2005 Toyota Estima* V6-Van 123kW 650V 18.6
2005 Toyota Harrier* V6-SUV 123kW 650V 17.8
2007 Toyota Lexus Sedan 147kW 650V 20.0
Fig. 11: Toyota Hybrid System (THS) Transmission * Japanese 4WD, front motor/generator, 123 kW, 12400 rpm,
rear motor, 50 kW, nickel metal hydride battery

Rotor design features for specific applications are briefly

Fig. 12: Layout for Motor/Generator, dc/dc converter
Figure 12 shows the layout of IPM traction motor, IPM
generator, dc/dc converter and batter systems. Fig.13
graphically shows the contributions of electric torque due to
permanent magnet and the reluctance torque produced within
the IPM rotor for the 2000 Prius and 2005 SUV models. This
confirms the better choice of IPM motors technology for HEVs.
Perhaps it ends the debate of using either the induction motors
or reluctance motors for efficient traction drives for mass
transportations. Fig. 14 shows the efficiency contours of the
Toyota SUV 2005 models at extended speeds of operation,
respectively. It is to be noted that Table-3 contains the uses of
IPM motor drives in Japanese hybrid electric vehicles.
VIII. CONCLUSIONS
This paper gives a brief introduction to the emergence of high
efficiency interior permanent magnet (IPM) synchronous
motors. A list of references provides a state of the art survey of
significant as well as few incremental contributions in
chronological order of appearance over the past 50 years.
Simple expressions for developed power and torque are given.
covered. On line and soft starting provisions are included.
Operation of IPM motors at variable power factor is illustrated
with the help of Norton’s equivalent circuit and phasor
diagrams. Comparative performances of IPM and induction
motors are summarized. An example of successful traction
application is given. Highlight of IPM motor drives includes its
wide spread application in Japanese hybrid electric vehicles,
which are just one of many items of ac motor drives in
passenger automobiles to save precious energy. The paper
opens up the debate on plug-in, solar and auto-charged smart
hybrid electric vehicles [48-49]. It concludes by hinting on the
economic, environmental and social impacts in poor countries.
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