1.

INTRODUCTION

Beginning with short pulses, and going on to frequency modulated pulses

and beyond, waveforms have been developed for each of the common task of radar
and sonar-initial detection, localization and classification. Chaotic waveforms which
are generated by non-linear systems offer a new very broad source of signals. They
are deterministic (defined by an iterative map or differential equation), and can
therefore be practically implemented. They are non –periodic, which suggests there
are potential advantages in security and can be used as (infinitely) long spreading
sequences.

There has been intense interest in their use in covert communications

systems, and this work provides concepts and results which are useful in long range
sensing by radar and sonar.

Pulse compression schemes using linear FM have seen wide applications.

Linear FM, featuring simple implementation and post processing, has very high peak
side lobe level and the width of the main lobe is relatively large, which limits the
range resolution. Windowing techniques are usually applied to suppress the side lobe
level.

The performance of range resolution radar depends on the autocorrelation

pattern of the coded waveform which is nothing but the matched filter output. For best
performance, the autocorrelation pattern of the optimum coded waveform must have a
large peak value for zero shift and zero value for non-zero shifts.

In this work, good binary phase codes and ternary codes are generated
using chebyshev –map equation to achieve a low PSL. It is not an exhaust search
method. It is possible to generate infinite number of codes at larger lengths easily , by
changing the initial conditions by very small increment, threshold level and
bifurcation factor.

1
2.BASICS OF RADAR

2.1 RADAR IN BRIEF

Radar is an electromagnetic sensor for the detection and location of

reflecting objects. Its operation can be summarized as follows:

The radar radiates electromagnetic energy from an antenna to propagate in

space. Some of the radiated energy is intercepted by a reflecting object, usually called
a target, located at a distance from the radar. The energy intercepted by the target is
reradiated in many directions. Some of the reradiated (echo) energy is returned to and
received by the radar antenna.
After amplification by a receiver and with the aid of proper signal
processing, a decision is made at the output of the receiver as to whether or not a
target echo signal is present. At that time, the target location and possibly other
information about the target is acquired.

2.2 Block Diagram of Radar System:

It is a very elementary basic block diagram showing the subsystems usually found in
radar. The transmitter, which is shown here as a power amplifier, generates a suitable
waveform for the particular job the radar is to perform. It might have an average
power as small as milli watts or as large as megawatts. (The average power is a far
better indication of the capability of radar’s performance than is its peak power.) Most
radars use a short pulse waveform so that a single antenna can be used on a time-
shared basis for both transmitting and receiving.
The function of the duplexer is to allow a single antenna to be used by
protecting the sensitive receiver from burning out while the transmitter is on and by
directing the received weak echo signal to the receiver rather than to the transmitter.
The antenna is the device that allows the transmitted energy to be propagated into
space and then collects the echo energy on receive. It is almost always a directive
antenna, one that directs the radiated energy into a narrow beam to concentrate the
power as well as to allow the determination of the direction to the target. An antenna

2
that produces a narrow directive beam on transmit usually has a large area on receive
to allow the collection of weak echo signals from the target. The antenna not only
concentrates the energy on transmit and collects the echo energy on receive, but it also
acts as a spatial filter to provide angle resolution and other capabilities.

Figure 2.1 block diagram of radar system.

The receiver amplifies the weak received signal to a level where its
presence can be detected. Because noise is the ultimate limitation on the ability of a
radar to make a reliable detection decision and extract information about the target,
care is taken to insure that the receiver produces very little noise of its own. At the
microwave frequencies, where most radar are found, the noise that affects radar
performance is usually from the first stage of the receiver, as a low-noise amplifier.
For many radar applications where the limitation to detection is the unwanted radar
echoes from the environment (called clutter), the receiver needs to have a large
enough dynamic range so as to avoid having the clutter echoes adversely affect
detection of wanted moving targets by causing the receiver to saturate. The dynamic
range of a receiver, usually expressed in decibels, is defined as the ratio of the
maximum to the minimum signal input power levels over which the receiver can

3
operate with some specified performance. The maximum signal level might be set by
the nonlinear effects of the receiver response that can be tolerated (for example, the
signal power at which the receiver begins to saturate), and the minimum
Signal might be the minimum detectable signal. The signal processor,
which is often in the IF portion of the receiver, might be described as being the part of
the receiver that separates the desired signal from the undesired signals that can
degrade the detection process. Signal processing includes the matched filter that
maximizes the output signal-to-noise ratio. Signal processing also includes the doppler
processing that maximizes the signal-to-clutter ratio of a moving target when clutter is
larger than receiver noise, and it separates one moving target from other moving
targets or from clutter echoes.
The detection decision is made at the output of the receiver, so a target is
declared to be present when the receiver output exceeds a predetermined threshold. If
the threshold is set too low, the receiver noise can cause excessive false alarms. If the
threshold is set too high, detections of some targets might be missed that would
otherwise have been detected. The criterion for determining the level of the decision
threshold is to set the threshold so it produces an acceptable predetermined average
rate of false alarms due to receiver noise.
After the detection decision is made, the track of a target can be
determined, where a track is the locus of target locations measured over time. This is
an example of data processing. The processed target detection information or its track
might be displayed to an operator; or the detection information might be used to
automatically guide a missile to a target; or the radar output might be further
processed to provide other information about the nature of the target. The radar
control insures that the various parts of a radar operate in a coordinated and
cooperative manner, as, for example, providing timing signals to various parts of the
radar as required.
The radar engineer has as resources time that allows good Doppler
processing, bandwidth for good range resolution, space that allows a large antenna,
and energy for long range performance and accurate measurements. External factors
affecting radar performance include the target characteristics; external noise that
might enter via the antenna,interference from other electromagnetic radiators; and
propagation effects due to the earth’s surface and atmosphere.

4
2.3 Radar Frequency bands

The traditional band names originated as code-names during World War

II and are still in military and aviation use throughout the world in the 21st century.
They have been adopted in the United States by the IEEE, and internationally by the
ITU. Most countries have additional regulations to control which parts of each band
are available for civilian or military use.

Other users of the radio spectrum, such as the broadcasting and electronic
countermeasures (ECM) industries, have replaced the traditional military designations
with their own systems.

Band Frequency Wavelength

Notes
name range range
Coastal radar systems, over-the-horizon
HF 3–30 MHz 10–100 m
radar (OTH) radars; 'high frequency'
'P' for 'previous', applied retrospectively
P < 300 MHz 1 m+
to early radar systems
Very long range, ground penetrating;
VHF 30–330 MHz 0.9–6 m
'very high frequency'
Very long range (e.g.
Tf_2_nprsid3495173ballistic missile
UHF 300–1000 MHz 0.3–1 m
early warning), ground penetrating,
foliage penetrating; 'ultrahigh frequency'
Long range air traffic control and
L 1–2 GHz 15–30 cm
surveillance; 'L' for 'long'
Terminal air traffic control, long-range
S 2–4 GHz 7.5–15 cm
weather, marine radar; 'S' for 'short'
Satellite transponders; a compromise
C 4–8 GHz 3.75–7.5 cm (hence 'C') between X and S bands;
weather
X 8–12 GHz 2.5–3.75 cm Missile guidance, marine radar, weather,
medium-resolution mapping and ground
surveillance; in the USA the narrow
range 10.525 GHz ±25 MHz is used for
airport radar. Named X band because the

5
 frequency was a secret during WW2.
Ku 12–18 GHz 1.67–2.5 cm high-resolution
from German kurz, meaning 'short';
limited use due to absorption by water
vapour, so Ku and Ka were used instead
K 18–24 GHz 1.11–1.67 cm for surveillance. K-band is used for
detecting clouds by meteorologists, and
by police for detecting speeding
motorists. K-band radar guns operate at
24.150 ± 0.100 GHz.
mapping, short range, airport
surveillance; frequency just above K
band (hence 'a') Photo radar, used to
Ka 24–40 GHz 0.75–1.11 cm
trigger cameras which take pictures of
license plates of cars running red lights,
operates at 34.300 ± 0.100 GHz.
milli metre band, subdivided as below.
The frequency ranges depend on
7.5 mm – waveguide size. Multiple letters are
Mm 40–300 GHz assigned to these bands by different
1 mm groups. These are from Baytron, a now
defunct company that made test
equipment.
7.5 mm –
Q 40–60 GHz Used for Military communication.
5 mm
Very strongly absorbed by atmospheric
V 50–75 GHz 6.0–4 mm
oxygen, which resonates at 60 GHz.
Used as a visual sensor for experimental
autonomous vehicles, high-resolution
W 75–110 GHz 2.7 – 4.0 mm
meteorological observation, and
imaging.
18.75 cm – Used for through-the-wall radar and
UWB 1.6–10.5 GHz
2.8 cm imaging systems.

2.4 Radar equation

The power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the radar equation:

Pr = (PtGtArσF4)/ (4П)2 * R t2 *Rr2

6
 ………..2.1
Where

• Pt = transmitter power

• Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna

• Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna

• σ = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target

• F = pattern propagation factor

• Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target

• Rr = distance from the target to the receiver.

In the common case where the transmitter and the receiver are at the same
location, Rt = Rr and the term Rt² Rr² can be replaced by R4, where R is the range. This
yield:

This shows that the received power declines as the fourth power of the range,
which means that the reflected power from distant targets is very, very small.

The equation above with F = 1 is a simplification for vacuum without

interference. The propagation factor accounts for the effects of multi path and
shadowing and depends on the details of the environment. In a real-world situation,
path loss effects should also be considered.

2.5 Range-Resolution

In a pulse compression system, the range-resolution of the radar is given by the

length of the pulse at the output-jack of the pulse compressing stage. The ability to
compress the pulse depends on the bandwidth of the transmitted pulse (BWtx) (not by
its pulse width). As a matter of course the receiver needs at least the same bandwidth

7
to process the whole spectrum of the echoes and c0 is speed of light at which all
electromagnetic waves propagate, Sr is range sensitivity.

Sr ≥ c0
--------
2 · BWtx

…………………….2.2

2.5.1 Polarization_9_7_ _

In the transmitted radar signal, the electric field is perpendicular to the

direction of propagation, and this direction of the electric field is the polarization of
the wave. Radars use horizontal, vertical, linear and circular polarization to detect
different types of reflections. For example, circular polarization is used to minimize
the interference caused by rain. Linear polarization returns usually indicate metal
surfaces. Random polarization returns usually indicate a fractal surface, such as rocks
or soil, and are used by navigation radars.

2.5.2 Interference

Radar systems must overcome unwanted signals in order to focus only on

the actual targets of interest. These unwanted signals may originate from internal and
external sources, both passive and active. The ability of the radar system to overcome
these unwanted signals defines its signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). SNR is defined as the
ratio of signal power to the noise power within the desired signal. In less technical
terms, SNR compares the level of a desired signal (such as targets) to the level of
background noise. The higher a system's SNR, the better it is in isolating actual targets
from the surrounding noise signals.

2.5.3 Noise

Signal noise is an internal source of random variations in the signal, which

is generated by all electronic components. Noise typically appears as random
variations superimposed on the desired echo signal received in the radar receiver. The

8
lower the power of the desired signal, the more difficult it is to discern it from the
noise (similar to trying to hear a whisper while standing near a busy road). Noise
figure is a measure of the noise produced by a receiver compared to an ideal receiver,
and this needs to be minimized.

Noise is also generated by external sources, most importantly the natural

thermal radiation of the background scene surrounding the target of interest. In
modern radar systems, due to the high performance of their receivers, the internal
noises is typically about equal to or lower than the external scene noise. An exception
is if the radar is aimed upwards at clear sky, where the scene is so "cold" that it
generates very little thermal noise.

2.5.4 Clutter

Clutter refers to radio frequency (RF) echoes returned from targets which
are uninteresting to the radar operators. Such targets include natural objects such as
ground, sea, precipitation (such as rain, snow or hail), sand storms, animals (especially
birds), atmospheric turbulence, and other atmospheric effects, such as ionosphere
reflections, meteor trails, and three body scatter spike. Clutter may also be returned
from man-made objects such as buildings and, intentionally, by radar countermeasures
such as chaff.

There are several methods of detecting and neutralizing clutter. Many of

these methods rely on the fact that clutter tends to appear static between radar scans.
Therefore, when comparing subsequent scans echoes, desirable targets will appear to
move and all stationary echoes can be eliminated. Sea clutter can be reduced by using
horizontal polarization, while rain is reduced with circular polarization (note that
meteorological radars wish for the opposite effect, therefore using linear polarization
the better to detect precipitation). Other methods attempt to increase the signal-to-
clutter ratio.

Constant False Alarm Rate (CFAR, a form of Automatic Gain Control, or

AGC) is a method relying on the fact that clutter returns far outnumber echoes from
targets of interest. The receiver's gain is automatically adjusted to maintain a constant
level of overall visible clutter. While this does not help detect targets masked by
stronger surrounding clutter, it does help to distinguish strong target sources. In the

9
past, radar AGC was electronically controlled and affected the gain of the entire radar
receiver. As radars evolved, AGC became computer-software controlled, and affected
the gain with greater granularity, in specific detection cells.

Clutter may also originate from multipath echoes from valid targets due to
ground reflection, atmospheric ducting or ionosphere reflection/refraction. This clutter
type is especially bothersome, since it appears to move and behave like other normal
(point) targets of interest, thereby creating a ghost. In a typical scenario, an aircraft
echo is multipath-reflected from the ground below, appearing to the receiver as an
identical target below the correct one. The radar may try to unify the targets, reporting
the target at an incorrect height, or - worse - eliminating it on the basis of jitter or a
physical impossibility. These problems can be overcome by incorporating a ground
map of the radar's surroundings and eliminating all echoes which appear to originate
below ground or above a certain height. In newer Air Traffic Control (ATC) radar
equipment, algorithms are used to identify the false targets by comparing the current
pulse returns, to those adjacent, as well as calculating return improbabilities due to
calculated height, distance, and radar timing.

2.5.5 Jamming

Radar jamming refers to radio frequency signals originating from sources

outside the radar, transmitting in the radar's frequency and thereby masking targets of
interest. Jamming may be intentional, as with an electronic warfare (EW) tactic, or
unintentional, as with friendly forces operating equipment that transmits using the
same frequency range. Jamming is considered an active interference source, since it is
initiated by elements outside the radar and in general unrelated to the radar signals.

Jamming is problematic to radar since the jamming signal only needs to

travel one-way (from the jammer to the radar receiver) whereas the radar echoes travel
two-ways (radar-target-radar) and are therefore significantly reduced in power by the
time they return to the radar receiver. Jammers therefore can be much less powerful
than their jammed radars and still effectively mask targets along the line of sight from
the jammer to the radar (Main lobe Jamming). Jammers have an added effect of
affecting radars along other lines of sight, due to the radar receiver's side lobes (Side
lobe Jamming).

10
2.6 TYPES OF RADARS

Although there is no single way to characterize a radar, here we do so by

means of what might be the major feature that distinguishes one type of radar from
another.

Pulse radar: This is radar that radiates a repetitive series of almost-rectangular pulses.
It might be called the canonical form of a radar, the one usually thought of as a radar
when nothing else is said to define a radar.

High-resolution radar. High resolution can be obtained in the range, angle, or

Doppler velocity coordinates, but high resolution usually implies that the radar has
high range resolution. Some high-resolution radars have range resolutions in terms of
fractions of a meter, but it can be as small as a few centimetres.

Pulse compression radar. This is a radar that uses a long pulse with internal modu-
lation (usually frequency or phase modulation) to obtain the energy of a long pulse
with the resolution of a short pulse.

Continuous wave (CW) radar. This radar employs a continuous sine wave. It almost
always uses the Doppler frequency shift for detecting moving targets or for measuring
the relative velocity of a target.

FM-CW radar. This CW radar uses frequency modulation of the waveform to allow
a range measurement.

Surveillance radar. Although a dictionary might not define surveillance this way,
surveillance radar is one that detects the presence of a target (such as an aircraft or a
ship) and determines its location in range and angle. It can also observe the target over
a period of time so as to obtain its track.

Moving target indication (MTI). This is pulse radar that detects moving targets in
clutter by using a low pulse repetition frequency (PRF) that usually has no range
ambiguities. It does have ambiguities in the Doppler domain that result in so-called
blind speeds.

Pulse Doppler radar. There are two types of pulse Doppler radars that employ either

11
high or medium PRF pulse radar. They both use the Doppler frequency shift to extract
moving targets in clutter. A high PRF pulse doppler radar has no ambiguities (blind
speeds) in Doppler, but it does have range ambiguities. A medium PRF pulse doppler
radar has ambiguities in both range and Doppler.

Tracking radar. This is a radar that provides the track, or trajectory, of a target.
Tracking radars can be further delineated as STT, ADT, TWS, and phased array
trackers as described below:

Single Target Tracker (STT). Tracks a single target at a data rate high enough to
provide accurate tracking of a man overing target. A revisit time of 0.1 s (data rate of
10 measurements per second) might be “typical.” It might employ the mono pulse
tracking method for accurate tracking information in the angle coordinate.

Automatic detection and tracking (ADT). This is tracking performed by sur-

veillance radar. It can have a very large number of targets in track by using the
measurements of target locations obtained over multiple scans of the antenna. Its data
rate is not as high as the STT. Revisit times might range from one to 12 seconds,
depending on the application.

Track-while-scan (TWS). Usually a radar that provides surveillance over a narrow

region of angle in one or two dimensions, so as to provide at a rapid update rate
location information on all targets within a limited angular region of observation. It
has been used in the past for ground-based radars that guide aircraft to a landing, in
some types of weapon-control radars, and in some military airborne radar.

Phased array tracker. An electronically scanned phased array can (almost) “con-
tinuously” track more than one target at a high data rate. It can also simultaneously
provide the lower data rate tracking of multiple targets similar to that performed by
ADT.

Imaging radar. This radar produces a two-dimensional image of a target or a scene,

such as a portion of the surface of the earth and what is on it. These radars usually are
on moving platforms.

Side looking airborne radar (SLAR). This airborne side looking imaging radar pro-

12
vides high resolution in range and obtains suitable resolution in angle by using a
narrow beam width antenna.

Synthetic aperture radar (SAR). SAR is a coherent* imaging radar on a moving

vehicle that uses the phase information of the echo signal to obtain an image of a
scene with high resolution in both range and cross-range. High range resolution is
often obtained using pulse compression.

Inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR). ISAR is coherent imaging radar that uses
high resolution in range and the relative motion of the target to obtain high resolution
in the doppler domain that allows resolution in the cross-range dimension to be
obtained. It can be on a moving vehicle or it can be stationary.

Weapon control radar. This name is usually applied to a single-target tracker used
for defending against air attack.

Guidance radar. This is usually a radar on a missile that allows the missile to “home
in,” or guide itself, to a target.

13
2.7 INFORMATION AVAILABLE FROM ARADAR

Detection of targets is of little value unless some information about the

target is obtained as well. Likewise, target information without target detection is
meaningless.

2.7.1 Range.

Probably the most distinguishing feature of a conventional radar is its

ability to determine the range to a target by measuring the time it takes for the
radar signal to propagate at the speed of light out to the target and back to the
radar. No other sensor can measure the distance to a remote target at long range
with the accuracy of radar (basically limited at long ranges by the accuracy of the
knowledge of the velocity of propagation). At modest ranges, the precision can be
a few centimetres. To measure range, some sort of timing mark must be
introduced on the transmitted waveform. A timing mark can be a short pulse (an
amplitude modulation of the signal), but it can also be a distinctive modulation of
the frequency or phase. The accuracy of a range measurement depends on the
radar signal bandwidth: the wider the bandwidth, the greater the accuracy. Thus
bandwidth is the basic measure of range accuracy.
2.7.2 Radial Velocity.
The radial velocity of a target is obtained from the rate of change of range
over a period of time. It can also be obtained from the measurement of the Doppler
frequency shift. The speed of a moving target and its direction of travel can be
obtained from its track, which can be found from the radar measurements of the
target location over a period of time.
2.7.3 Angular Direction.

One method for determining the direction to a target is by determining the

angle where the magnitude of the echo signal from a scanning antenna is
maximum. This usually requires an antenna with a narrow beam width (a high-
gain antenna). Air-surveillance radar with a rotating antenna beam determines
angle in this manner. The angle to a target in one angular dimension can also be
determined by using two antenna beams, slightly displaced in angle, and

14
comparing the echo amplitude received in each beam. Four beams are needed to
obtain the angle measurement in both azimuth and elevation.

2.7.4 Size and Shape.

If the radar has sufficient resolution capability in range or angle, it can

provide a measurement of the target extent in the dimension of high resolution.
Range is usually the coordinate where resolution is obtained. Resolution in cross
range (given by the range multiplied by the antenna beam width) can be obtained
with very narrow beam width antennas. However, the angular width of an antenna
beam is limited, so the cross-range resolution obtained by this method is not as
good as the range resolution. Very good resolution in the cross-range dimension
can be obtained by employing the doppler frequency domain, based on SAR
(synthetic aperture radar) or ISAR (inverse synthetic aperture radar systems),
There needs to be relative motion between the target and the radar in order to
obtain the cross-range resolution by SAR or ISAR. With sufficient resolution in
both range and cross-range, not only can the size be obtained in two orthogonal
coordinates, but the target shape can sometimes be discerned..
2.7.5 Signal-to-Noise Ratio.
The accuracy of all radar measurements, as well as the reliable detection
of targets depends on the ratio E/No, where E is the total energy of the received
signal that is processed by the radar and No is the noise power per unit bandwidth
of the receiver. Thus E/No is an important measure of the capability of a radar.

2.7.6 The Doppler Shift in Radar.

The importance of the doppler frequency shift began to be appreciated for

pulse radar shortly after World War II and became an increasingly important
factor in many radar applications. Modern radar would be much less interesting or
useful if the doppler effect didn’t exist. The doppler frequency shift fd can be
written as

fd=2Vr/λ=(2vcosθ)/ λ
……………2.3

where Vr = v cos q is the relative velocity of the target

(relative to the radar) in m/s, v is the absolute velocity of the

15
 target in m/s, λ is the radar wavelength in m, and θ is the angle
between the target’s direction and the radar beam.
The doppler frequency shift is widely used to separate moving targets
from stationary clutter. Such radars are known as MTI (moving target indication),
AMTI (airborne MTI), and pulse doppler. All modern air-traffic control radars, all
important military ground-based and airborne air-surveillance radars, and all
military airborne fighter radars take advantage of the Doppler Effect. Yet in
WWII, none of these pulse radar applications used doppler. The CW (continuous
wave) radar also employs the Doppler effect for detecting moving targets, but CW
radar for this purpose is not as popular as it once was. The HF OTH radar could
not do its job of detecting moving targets in the presence of large clutter echoes
from the earth’s surface without the use of doppler.

2.8 Applications of Radar

2.8.1 Military Applications.

Radar was invented in the 1930s because of the need for defence against
heavy military bomber aircraft. The military need for radar has probably been its
most important application and the source of most of its major developments,
including those for civilian purposes.

The chief use of military radar has been for air defense operating from
land, sea, or air. It has not been practical to perform successful air defense without
radar. In air defense, radar is used for long-range air surveillance, short-range
detection of low-altitude “pop-up” targets, weapon control, missile guidance, non
cooperative target recognition, and battle damage assessment. The proximity fuze
in many weapons is also an example of radar. An excellent measure of the success
of radar for military air defense is the large amounts of money that have been
spent on methods to counter its effectiveness.

These include electronic counter measures and other aspects of electronic

warfare, anti radiation missiles to home on radar signals, and low cross-section
aircraft and ships. Radar is also used by the military for reconnaissance, targeting
over land or sea, as well as surveillance over the sea.

16
 On the battlefield, radar is asked to perform the functions of air
surveillance (including surveillance of aircraft, helicopters, missiles, and
unmanned airborne vehicles), control of weapons to an air intercept, hostile
weapons location (mortars, artillery, and rockets), detection of intruding
personnel, and control of air traffic.
The use of radar for ballistic missile defence has been of interest ever
since the threat of ballistic missiles arose in the late 1950s. The longer ranges, high
supersonic speeds, and the smaller target size of ballistic missiles make the
problem challenging. There is no natural clutter problem in space as there is for
defence against aircraft, but ballistic missiles can appear in the presence of a large
number of extraneous confusion targets and other countermeasures that an attacker
can launch to accompany the re entry vehicle carrying a warhead. The basic
ballistic missile defence problem becomes more of a target recognition problem
rather than detection and tracking. The need for warning of the approach of
ballistic missiles has resulted in a number of different types of radars for
performing such a function. Similarly, radars have been deployed that are capable
of detecting and tracking satellites.
A related task for radar that is not military is the detection and
interception of drug traffic. There are several types of radars that can contribute to
this need, including the long-range HF over-the-horizon radar.

2.8.2 Remote Sensing of the Environment.

The major application in this category has been weather observation radar
such as the Nexrad system whose output is often seen on the television weather
report. There also exist vertical-looking wind-profiler radars that determine wind
speed and direction as a function of altitude, by detecting the very weak radar echo
from the clear air. Located around airports are the Terminal Doppler Weather
Radar (TDWR) systems that warn of dangerous wind shear produced by the
weather effect known as the downburst, which can accompany severe storms.
There is usually a specially designed weather avoidance radar in the nose of small
as well as large aircraft to warn of dangerous or uncomfortable weather in flight.
Another successful remote-sensing radar was the downward-looking
space borne altimeter radar that measured worldwide the geoid (the mean sea
level, which is not the same all over the world), with exceptionally high accuracy.

17
There have been attempts in the past to use radar for determining soil moisture and
for assessing the status of agriculture crops, but these have not provided sufficient
accuracy. Imaging radars in satellites or aircraft have been used to help ships
efficiently navigate northern seas coated with ice because radar can tell which
types of ice are easier for a ship to penetrate.

2.8.3 Air-Traffic Control.

The high degree of safety in modern air travel is due in part to the
successful applications of radar for the effective, efficient, and safe control of air
traffic. Major airports employ an Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) for observing
the air traffic in the vicinity of the airport. Such radars also provide information
about nearby weather so aircraft can be routed around uncomfortable weather.

Major airports also have a radar called Airport Surface Detection

Equipment (ASDE) for observing and safely controlling aircraft and airport
vehicle traffic on the ground. For control of air traffic en route from one terminal
to another, long-range Air Route Surveillance Radars (ARSR) are found
worldwide.

The Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) is not a radar
but is a cooperative system used to identify aircraft in flight. It uses radar-like
technology and was originally based on the military IFF (Identification Friend or
Foe) system.

18
2.8.4 Other Applications.
A highly significant application of radar that provided information not
available by any other method, was the exploration of the surface of the planet
Venus by an imaging radar that could see under the ever-present clouds that mask
the planet.

One of the widest used and least expensive of radars has been the civil marine
radar found throughout the world for the safe navigation of boats and ships. Some
readers have undoubtedly been confronted by the highway police using the CW
doppler radar to measure the speed of a vehicle. Ground penetrating radar has been
used to find buried utility lines, as well as by the police for locating buried objects
and bodies. Archaeologists have used it to determine where to begin to look for
buried artefacts. Radar has been helpful to both the ornithologist and entomologist
for better understanding the movements of birds and insects. It has also been dem-
onstrated that radar can detect the gas that is often found over underground oil and
gas deposits.
A long-range radar antenna, known as ALTAIR, used to detect and track
space objects in conjunction with ABM testing at the Ronald Reagan Test Site on
the Kwajalein atoll.

19
3. MATCHED FILTER

In telecommunications, a matched filter (originally known as a North

filter) is obtained by correlating a known signal, or template, with an unknown signal
to detect the presence of the template in the unknown signal. This is equivalent to
convolving the unknown signal with a conjugated time-reversed version of the
template (cross-correlation). The matched filter is the optimal linear filter for
maximizing the signal to noise ratio (SNR) in the presence of additive stochastic
noise. Matched filters are commonly used in radar, in which a known signal is sent
out, and the reflected signal is examined for common elements of the out-going signal.
Pulse compression is an example of matched filtering. Two-dimensional matched
filters are commonly used in image processing, e.g., to improve SNR for X-ray
pictures.

3.1 Derivation of the matched filter

The following section derives the matched filter for a discrete-time

system. The derivation for a continuous-time system is similar, with summations
replaced with integrals.

The matched filter is the linear filter with impulse response h(n),
maximizes the output signal-to-noise ratio.

……………..3.1

Though we most often express filters as the impulse response of

convolution systems, as above (see LTI system theory), it is easiest to think of the
matched filter in the context of the inner product, which we will see shortly.

We can derive the linear filter that maximizes output signal-to-noise ratio
by invoking a geometric argument. The intuition behind the matched filter relies on
correlating the received signal (a vector) with a filter (another vector) that is parallel
with the signal, maximizing the inner product. This enhances the signal. When we
consider the additive stochastic noise, we have the additional challenge of minimizing
the output due to noise by choosing a filter that is orthogonal to the noise.

20
 Let us formally define the problem. We seek a filter, h, such that we
maximize the output signal-to-noise ratio, where the output is the inner product of the

filter and the observed signal x.

Our observed signal consists of the desirable signal s and additive noise v:

……………….3.2

Let us define the covariance matrix of the noise, reminding ourselves that
this matrix has Hermitian symmetry, a property that will become useful in the
derivation:

…………….3.3

Where .H denotes Hermitian (conjugate) transpose and E denotes

expectation. Let us call our output, y, the inner product of our filter and the observed
signal
such that

…3.4

We now define the signal-to-noise ratio, which is our objective function,

to be the ratio of the power of the output due to the desired signal to the power of the
output due to the noise:

…………….3.5

We rewrite the above:

_3_1_749…………3.6
We wish to maximize this quantity by choosing h. expanding the denominator of our objective
function, we have
….3.7

21
 Now, our SNR becomes

……………………………………….3.8

We will rewrite this expression with some matrix manipulation. The

reason for this seemingly counterproductive measure will become evident shortly.

Exploiting the Hermitian symmetry of the covariance matrix Rv, we can write

……………………...3.9

We would like to find an upper bound on this expression. To do so, we

first recognize a form of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality:

……………………………….3.10
Which is to say that the square of the inner product of two vectors can only be as large as the product of
the individual inner products of the vectors. This concept returns to the intuition behind the matched
filter: this upper bound is achieved when the two vectors a and b are parallel. We resume our
derivation by expressing the upper bound on our SNR in light of the geometric inequality above:
Our valiant matrix manipulation has now paid off. We see that the expression for our upper bound can
be greatly simplified:

…3.11
We can achieve this upper bound if we choose,

………………………………………3.12
Where α is an arbitrary real number. To verify this, we plug into our expression for the output SNR:

Thus, our optimal matched filter is

……………………………..3.13

We often choose to normalize the expected value of the power of the filter

22
output due to the noise to unity. That is, we constrain

………………………….3.14

This constraint implies a value of α, for which we can solve:

……………….3.15

Yielding

……………3.16

giving us our normalized filter,

…………3.17

If we care to write the impulse response of the filter for the convolution

system, it is simply the complex conjugate time reversal of h.

Though we have derived the matched filter in discrete time, we can extend

the concept to continuous-time systems if we replace Rv with the continuous-time

autocorrelation function of the noise, assuming a continuous signal s(t), continuous

noise v(t), and a continuous filter h(t).

3.2 Alternative derivation of the matched filter

Alternatively, we may solve for the matched filter by solving our

maximization problem with a Lagrangian. Again, the matched filter endeavors to

maximize the output signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of a filtered deterministic signal in

stochastic additive noise. The observed sequence, again, is

……….3.18

With the noise covariance matrix,35

………….3.19

The signal-to-noise ratio is

23
 ………….3.20

Evaluating the expression in the numerator, we have

…………..3.21

and in the denominator,

…..3.22

The signal-to-noise ratio becomes

………..3.23

If we now constrain the denominator to be 1, the problem of maximizing

SNR is reduced to maximizing the numerator. We can then formulate the problem
using a Lagrange multiplier:

…………..3.24

…………..3.25

…………..3.26

…………..3.27

which we recognize as an eigenvalue problem

…………..3.28

Since ssH is of unit rank, it has only one nonzero eigenvalue. It can be
shown that this eigenvalue equals

…………..3.29

yielding the following optimal matched filter

…………..3.30

This is the same result found in the previous section.

24
3.3 Frequency-domain interpretation

When viewed in the frequency domain, it is evident that the matched filter
applies the greatest weighting to spectral components that have the greatest signal-to-
noise ratio. Although in general this requires a non-flat frequency response, the
associated distortion is not significant in situations such as radar and digital
communications, where the original waveform is known and the objective is to detect
the presence of this signal against the background noise.

3.4 Example of matched filter in radar and sonar

Matched filters are often used in signal detection .As an example, suppose
that we wish to judge the distance of an object by reflecting a signal off it. We may
choose to transmit a pure-tone sinusoid at 1 Hz. We assume that our received signal is
an attenuated and phase-shifted form of the transmitted signal with added noise.

To judge the distance of the object, we correlate the received signal with a
matched filter, which, in the case of white (uncorrelated) noise, is another pure-tone 1-
Hz sinusoid. When the output of the matched filter system exceeds a certain threshold,
we conclude with high probability that the received signal has been reflected off the
object. Using the speed of propagation and the time that we first observe the reflected
signal, we can estimate the distance of the object. If we change the shape of the pulse
in a specially-designed way, the signal-to-noise ratio and the distance resolution can
be even improved after matched filtering: this is a technique known as pulse
compression.

Additionally, matched filters can be used in parameter estimation

problems .To return to our previous example; we may desire to estimate the speed of
the object, in addition to its position. To exploit the Doppler effect, we would like to
estimate the frequency of the received signal. To do so, we may correlate the received
signal with several matched filters of sinusoids at varying frequencies. The matched
filter with the highest output will reveal, with high probability, the frequency of the
reflected signal and help us determine the speed of the object. This method is, in fact,

a simple version of the discrete Fourier transform (DFT). The DFT takes an N-valued

complex input and correlates it with N matched filters, corresponding to complex

exponentials at N different frequencies, to yield N complex-valued numbers

25
corresponding to the relative amplitudes and phases of the sinusoidal components.

3.5 Example of matched filter in digital communications

The matched filter is also used in communications. In the context of a

communication system that sends binary messages from the transmitter to the receiver
across a noisy channel, a matched filter can be used to detect the transmitted pulses in
the noisy received signal.

Imagine we want to send the sequence "0101100100" coded in non polar Non-return-to-zero (NRZ)
through a certain channel.
Mathematically, a sequence in NRZ code can be described as a sequence of unit pulses or shifted
rectangular functions, each pulse being weighted by +1 if the bit is "1" and by 0 if the bit is "0".
Formally, the scaling factor for the kth bit is,

……………3.31

We can represent our message, M(t), as the sum of shifted unit pulses:

……………3.32

Where T is the time length of one bit.

Thus, the signal to be sent by the transmitter is

26
If we model our noisy channel as an AWGN channel, white Gaussian noise is added to the signal. At
the receiver end, for a Signal-to-noise ratio of 3dB, this may look like:

A first glance will not reveal the original transmitted sequence. There is a high power of noise relative
to the power of the desired signal (i.e., there is a low signal-to-noise ratio). If the receiver were to
sample this signal at the correct moments, the resulting binary message would possibly belie the
original transmitted one.
To increase our signal-to-noise ratio, we pass the received signal through a matched filter. In this case,
the filter should be matched to an NRZ pulse (equivalent to a "1" coded in NRZ code). Precisely, the
impulse response of the ideal matched filter, assuming white (uncorrelated) noise should be a time-
reversed complex-conjugated scaled version of the signal that we are seeking. We choose

……………3.33

In this case, due to symmetry, the time-reversed complex conjugate of

h(t) is in fact h(t), allowing us to call h(t) the impulse response of our matched filter
convolution system.

After convolving with the correct matched filter, the resulting signal,

Mfiltered(t) is,

Where * denotes convolution.

This can now be safely sampled by the receiver at the correct sampling
instants, and compared to an appropriate threshold, resulting in a correct interpretation

27
of the binary message.

4. PULSE COMPRESSION

Pulse compression is a signal processing technique mainly used in radar,

sonar and echo grapy to augment the range resolution as well as the signal to noise
ratio. This is achieved by modulating the transmitted pulse and then correlating the
received signal with the transmitted pulse.

In addition to these advantages, narrow pulse widths also assist radar when
operating in a cluttered environment. Radar also has an ability to perform limited
target classification if operating with sufficiently narrow pulse widths, or sufficiently
fine range resolution.

Extremely narrow pulse widths result in wide receiver bandwidths and the associated
problems with noise. Large receiver bandwidths effectively de-sensitise the radar
receiver and either force the transmitter to transmit higher levels of peak power to
compensate, or accept the consequential reduction in range. There are always limits on
the amount of peak power available from the transmitter, and invariably a reduction in
pulse width leads to a reduction in the maximum range of the radar.

28
 In short, narrow pulse widths are desirable, but they are not always feasible. Pulse-
compression radars make use of specific signal processing techniques to provide most
of the advantages of extremely narrow pulses widths whilst remaining within the peak
power limitations of the transmitter.
There are numerous waveforms suitable for use with pulse compression including
binary or phase coding and linear frequency modulation.

4.1 CONCEPT OF PULSE COMPRESSION

The block diagram for a pulse-compression radar is very similar to that of the
standard pulse radar, and a simplified block diagram is shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure… 4.1

The block diagram shows the frequency modulator responsible for generating the
frequency-modulated (chirp) pulse. In addition to generating the transmitted pulse, the
frequency modulator also plays a role in the design of the pulse-compression filter.
The pulse-compression filter is an example of a matched filter because the filter is
specially designed to recognise the characteristics of the transmitted pulse as they are
returned to the receiver in the form of reflected pulses.
To that end, the filter has been matched to the transmitted waveform. Received pulses
with similar characteristics to the transmitted pulse are recognised by the matched
filter where other received signals pass relatively unnoticed by the receiver.
4.2 Linear Frequency-Modulated Waveforms
The power of the pulse compression concept comes from the waveforms used. We
concentrate on a popular pulse compression waveform called the linear frequency-

29
modulated (or chirp) pulse. The actual pulse train from a pulse-compression radar is
the same as for any pulse radar. To the casual observer, the pulse train looks like an
amplitude- modulated sinusoidal signal. To an extent, this is true, however the
sinusoidal signal has now been frequency-modulated as well as amplitude-modulated.
The modulation within each pulse (in this case, frequency-modulation) is the critical
element of the pulse compression waveform. The modulation provides the basis and
power of the compression concept. As stated earlier, the same modulation provides the
basis for the design of the pulse-compression filter.
The below figure shows two ways to represent the pulses in a pulse train from
linear FM pulse-compression radar.

Figure 4.2(a) shows the modulated sinusoidal signal that is transmitted by the
pulse-compression radar. The pulse is characterised by its pulse width, which in the
case of a pulse-compression radar is called the uncompressed pulse width, T. This
pulse width is one of the critical characteristics of the pulse-compression radar. Figure
4.2 (b) shows the frequency change within the pulse as a function of time.
The characteristic of interest in Figure 4.2(b) is the bandwidth of the modulation
within the pulse, B. The bandwidth is simply the difference between the highest and
lowest frequencies within the uncompressed pulse.
To recognise the presence of the uncompressed pulse, the pulse-compression filter

30
performs a correlation between the received pulse and the transmitted pulse. In this
context, correlation is a signal processing term but it is directly analogous to the
common English use of the term. The pulse-compression filter is simply looking for a
strong correlation between what was transmitted and what was received. When a
waveform similar to the waveform shown in Figure 4.2(a) is passed through the
matching pulse-compression filter, an interesting pulse called a sinc pulse results as
the output of the filter. We have already encountered the sinc pulse and, therefore
know that a sinc has a shape described by (sinx/x). An example of a sinc pulse as it
applies to the output of the pulse-compression filter is shown in Figure below and is
characterised by a very narrow and tall central pulse surrounded by gradually
decaying signals. The height and the width of the central pulse of the sinc pulse from
the pulse-compression filter are dependent upon the bandwidth and pulse width of the
uncompressed pulse.

From Figure 4.3, the width of the sinc pulse is inversely proportional to the
bandwidth of the uncompressed pulse and the height is proportional to the product of
the bandwidth and uncompressed pulse width.
The output of the pulse-compression filter forms the input into the detector section
of the pulse-compression radar. It is therefore desirable to have a very narrow and tall

31
pulse (just as it is in a standard pulse radar system). The main points to note from
Figure are that the input to the filter is a relatively broad and low-power pulse. The
output pulse, however, is very narrow and strong; two very desirable characteristics
from a pulse radar.
The output of the pulse-compression filter shown in Figure 4.3 represents the
amplitude of a signal rather than its power. To be consistent with the radar range
equation, the output of the pulse-compression filter is converted into power that is
taken as the square of the amplitude.
When the signal in Figure 4.3 is converted into power, we see that the peak value of
the pulse becomes the product of the modulation bandwidth, B and the uncompressed
pulse width, T. This is known as the pulse-compression ratio of the pulse-compression
radar.

Pulse compression ratio

Where =B
B is the× bandwidth
T ……………………….4.1
of the modulation within each pulse
in hertz and T is the uncompressed pulse width in seconds. As with radar antennas, we
normally consider the usable portion of the sinc pulse to be half the null-to-null points
in Figure above.

To that end, the width of the compressed pulse is simply the inverse of the modulation
bandwidth, B.

……..4.2

where B is the bandwidth of the modulation within each pulse in hertz.

Pulse compression ratios in the hundreds are common in modern pulse-
compression radar.
Elementary pulse-compression radar has been simulated using the MATLAB to
demonstrate the real power of the signal processing technique behind pulse
compression.
Figure 4.4 shows an uncompressed chirp pulse representing the transmitted pulse,
and the output of the corresponding pulse-compression filter when that pulse is
processed. Note that the two graphs in Figure 4.4 are drawn on the same time scale

32
(horizontal axis) to show how the process has compressed Figure 4.4 (b) into a very
narrow pulse. Unfortunately, it is not possible to draw the amplitude axes (vertical
axis) on the same scale due to the magnitude difference between Figure 4.4 (a) and
(b). The amplitude of the pulse in Figure 4.4 (b) is approximately 500 times larger
than Figure 4.4 (a).

It is fair to say that the results in Figure 4.4 are not realistic because the pulse passed
through the matched filter has not suffered from noise or attenuation. Noise and
attenuation are a real problem when operating radar systems, so the exercise has been
repeated incorporating both random noise and signal attenuation, and is shown in
Figure 4.5.

33
 The output of the matched filter in Figure 4.5 (b) is now much noisier than the
matched filter output in Figure 4.4 (b), which reflects the effects of the noise and
attenuation of the input pulse. With that said, the output is still impressive from a peak

Amplitude and pulse-width perspective and the target is clearly visible.

4.3 Required energy to transmit signal

The instantaneous power of the transmitted pulse is P(t) = | s | 2(t). The energy put into that signal
is
E= p(t) dt = A2.T ………….4.3

Similarly, the energy in the received pulse is Er = K2A2T. If σ is the

standard deviation of the noise, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at
the receiver is:

………….4.
4

The SNR augments with the pulse duration, if other parameters are frozen.
This goes against the resolution requirements, since generally one wants a large
resolution.

34
5. PULSE COMPRESSION TECHNIQUES

5.1 Pulse compression by linear frequency modulation (“chirping”)

5.1.1 Basic principles

How can one have a large enough pulse (to still have a nice SNR at the
receiver) without having a lousy resolution? This is where pulse compression
enters the picture. The basic principle is the following:

A signal is transmitted, with a long enough length so that the energy

budget is correct. This signal is designed so that after matched filtering, the width
of the inter correlated signals is smaller than the width obtained by the standard
sinusoidal pulse, as explained above (hence the name of the technique: pulse
compression).

In radar or sonar applications, linear chirps are the most typically used
signals to achieve pulse compression. The pulse being of finite length, the

amplitude is a rectangle function. If the transmitted signal has a duration T, begins

at t = 0 and linearly sweeps the frequency band Δf centered on carrier f0, it can
be written:

………….5.1

Remark: the chirp is written that way so the phase of the chirped signal
(that is, the argument of the complex exponential), is:

………….5.2

Thus the instantaneous frequency is (by definition):

………….5.3

Which is the intended linear ramp going from f0 − Δf / 2 at t = 0 to f0 + Δf /

35
 2 at t = T.

5.1.2 Cross-correlation between the transmitted and the received signal

As for the "simple" pulse, let us compute the cross-correlation between

the transmitted and the received signal. To simplify things, we shall consider that
the chirp is not written as it is given above, but in this alternate form (the final
result will be the same):

………….5.4

Since this cross-correlation is equal (save for the K attenuation factor), to

the autocorrelation function of sc', this is what we consider:

………….5.5

It can be shown that the autocorrelation function of sc' is:

………….5.6

Function Λ is the triangle function, its value is 0 on

, it augments linearly on [ − 1 / 2,0] where it

reaches its maximum 1, and it decreases linearly on [0,1 / 2] until it reaches 0
again

The maximum of the autocorrelation function of sc' is reached at 0.

Around 0, this function behaves as the sin c term. The -3 dB temporal width of

that cardinal sine is more or less equal to T' = 1 / Δf. Everything happens as
if, after matched filtering, we had the resolution that would have been reached

with a simple pulse of duration T'. For the common values of Δf, T' is smaller
than T, hence the "pulse compression" name.

Since the cardinal sine can have annoying side lobes, a common practice
is to filter the result by a window (Hamming, Hann, etc). In practice, this can be

36
 done at the same time as the adapted filtering by multiplying the reference chirp
with the filter. The result will be a signal with slightly lower maximum amplitude,
but the side lobes will be filtered out, which is more important.

The distance resolution reachable with a linear frequency modulation of a pulse on a

bandwidth Δf is: where c is the speed of the wave.

Ratio is the pulse compression ratio. It is generally greater than 1

(usually, its value is 20 to 30).

Example (chirped pulse): transmitted signal in red (carrier 10 hertz, modulation

on 16 hertz, amplitude 1, and duration 1 second) and two echoes (in blue).

After matched filtering: the echoes

Before matched filtering are shorter in time.

5.1.3 SNR augmentation through pulse compression

The energy of the signal does not vary during pulse compression.
However, it is now located in the main lobe of the cardinal sine, whose width is

approximately . If P is the power of the signal before compression

and P' the power of the signal after compression, we have:

………….5.7

This yield:

………….5.8

Besides, the power of the noise does not change through inter correlation since it

37
 is not correlated to the transmitted pulse (it is totally random). As a consequence:

After pulse compression, the power of the received signal can be

considered as being amplified by T.Δf. This additional gain can be injected in the
radar equation.

Example: same signals as above, plus an additive Gaussian white noise (σ = 0.5)

After matched filtering: echoes become

Before matched filtering: the signal is hidden visible.
in noise

5.2. Pulse compression by phase coding

There are other means to modulate the signal. Phase modulation is a

commonly used technique; in this case, the pulse is divided in N time slots of duration
T/N for which the phase at the origin is chosen according to a pre-established
convention. For instance, it is possible not to change the phase for some time slots
(which comes down to just leave the signal as it is, in those slots) and de-phase the

signal in the other slots by π (which is equivalent of changing the sign of the signal).

The precise way of choosing the sequence of {0,π} phases is done according to a
technique known as Barker codes. It is possible to code the sequence on more than
two phases (poly phase coding). As with a linear chirp, pulse compression is achieved
through intercorrelation.

5.2.1 Advantage

The advantages of the Barker codes are their simplicity (as indicated
above, a π de-phasing is a simple sign change), but the pulse compression ratio is
lower than in the chirp case and the compression is very sensitive to frequency

38
 changes due to the Doppler effect

5.2.2 Barker code

A Barker code is a sequence of N values of +1 and −1,

aj for

such that

………….5.9

for all .
[1]

Here is a table of all known Barker codes, where negations and reversals of the codes
have been omitted. A Barker code has a maximum autocorrelation of 1 (when codes
are not aligned). Longer Barker-like codes exist; there is a 28 baud sequence which
has sidelobes no larger than 2, and which thus has better RMS performance than the
codes below. The table below shows all known Barker codes; it is conjectured that no
other perfect binary phase codes exist.

Figure 5.2

39
Figure 5.3

Known Barker Codes

Length PSL in db Codes

2 -6.0 +1 −1 +1 +1

3 -9.5 +1 +1 −1

4 -12.0 +1 +1 −1 +1 +1 +1 +1 −1

5 -14.0 +1 +1 +1 −1 +1

7 -16.9 +1 +1 +1 −1 −1 +1 −1

11 -20.8 +1 +1 +1 −1 −1 −1 +1 −1 −1 +1 −1

13 -22.3 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 −1 −1 +1 +1 −1 +1 −1 +1

Barker codes of length 11 and 13 are used in direct-sequence spread

spectrum and pulse compression radar systems because of their low autocorrelation

40
properties. The +ve and -ve amplitudes of the pulses forming the Barker codes imply
the use of biphase modulation; that is, the change of phase in the carrier wave is 180
degrees.

A Barker code resembles a discrete version of a continuous chirp, another

low-autocorrelation signal used in other pulse compression radars. Pseudorandom can
be thought of as cyclic Barker Codes, having perfect (and uniform) cyclic
autocorrelation side lobes. Very long pseudorandom number sequences can be
constructed.

41
6. CHAOTIC MAPPING METHODS

6.1 Chaotic signal:

A chaotic frequency modulated (FM) sine wave is an example of a chaotic signal that
can yield higher transmitted mean power when peak – power limited transmitters are
used .
In general, a frequency modulated (FM) signal provides high resolution, high
transmitting power and low design cost.
If the FM signal is random it can lead to a low probability of intercept and interference
frequency range and simplicity of generation.

6.2 Chaotic waveforms:

They are deterministic (defined by an iterative map or differential equations), and can
therefore be practically implemented. They are non – periodic, which suggests there
are potential advantages in security and can be used as (infinitely) large sequences.
They are sensitive to initial conditions (SIC) so that the behaviour of two systems with
small difference in the initial system state (or) a parameter diverge exponentially in
time. A solution to the power efficiency challenge can be provided by chaotic
systems.
6.3 Mapping methods:
Chaotic map where chosen for analysis, the parameter for each map are chosen so that
the map falls in its chaotic regime
Different maps: logistic map, quadratic map, exponent map, Bernoulli map, hopping
map, chebyshev map, congruent map etc.
map │g! (x)│
logistic │r(1-2x)│
quadratic 8│x│
exponent (1-Bx)exp(B(A-x))│
tent r x≠0
Bernoulli r x≠0
chebyshev Cos(Aacrcos(x(n)) A>2
congruent B x≠±A

42
6.4 Chebyshev chaotic equation

The one dimension chaotic mapping is defined as follows

Xn+1 = f (xn) ……………………………….6.1
We use chebyshev chaotic mapping
Xn+1 = cos (Aacrcos (xn)) A>2 ………………………….6.2
To simulate and analyze our method, the density of its orbit point is

ρ(x) = 1/Π√1-x^2 -1<x<1

0 otherwise ………………………………6.3

6.5 Proposed method

By using the chebyshev chaotic mapping we can generate different sequences and can
also select the best sequence among all the sequences, thus by changing initial values
and bifurcation factors we can generate a new different sequence for the analysis
The best sequence is taken and is been coded in binary and ternary for analysis.
Fig 6.1 (a) and Fig 6.1 (b) shows variation of the raw sequence x (n) for minute
variation in initial value

Fig 6.1 (a) x0 = 0.1

43
Fig 6.1 (b) x0 = 0.1 1

The threshold for the binary codes is done as below

X (n) >0 xx (n) = 1 ………………………………. 6.4

X (n) <0 xx (n) = -1 ……………………………….6.5

And for ternary code

X (n)>= 0.3 xx (n) =1 ……………………………..6.6

X (n) <=-0.3 xx (n) =-1 else xx (n) = 0 ………………………………6.7

By applying,
The Function thus been applied is auto –correlation

X (n) is an N length sequence the auto correlation function is defined as

44
R(k) = ∑ x (n) x(n+k) limits from n= zero to N-1-k ……………………..6.8

From the autocorrelation pattern, the discriminator (D) can be formed as,
D = R (0)/max(R (k)) where k ≠ 0 …………………………..6.9

For all the lengths,

The performance parameters o of chebyshev mapping binary and ternary codes which
is discrimination factor has been estimated with and with out windowing functions
and the results are compared. At every lengths the best sequence having the highest
discrimination factor are found.
.

7. SIDELOBE REDUCTION USING WINDOW FUNCTIONS

45
The main disadvantage of pulse compression is the appearance of side lobes in the
autocorrelation function which will mask the weak reflections from other targets, this
can be over come by reducing the side lobes, there are various techniques for this
purpose, and one such is the windowing techniques.

The following window functions have been applied.

7.1. Hamming - Hamming window

Syntax

w = hamming (L)
w = hamming (L,'sflag')

Description

w = hamming (L) returns an L-point symmetric Hamming window in the column

vector w. L should be a positive integer. The coefficients of a Hamming window
are computed from the following equation.

……………..7.1

The window length is .

w = hamming (L,'sflag') returns an L-point Hamming window using the window

sampling specified by 'sflag', which can be either 'periodic' or 'symmetric' (the
default). The 'periodic' flag is useful for DFT/FFT purposes, such as in spectral
analysis. The DFT/FFT contains an implicit periodic extension and the periodic
flag enables a signal windowed with a periodic window to have perfect periodic
extension. When 'periodic' is specified, hamming computes a length L+1 window
and returns the first L points. When using windows for filter design, the
'symmetric' flag should be used.

46
 Note If you specify a one-point window (L=1), the value 1 is returned.

Examples

Create a 64-point Hamming window and display the result in WVTool:

L=64;

Wvtool (hamming (L))

7.2. hann - Hann (Hanning) window

Syntax

w = hann(L)
w = hann(L,'sflag')

Description

w = hann(L) returns an L-point symmetric Hann window in the column vector w.

L must be a positive integer. The coefficients of a Hann window are computed

47
from the following equation.

…………………..7.2

The window length is .

w = hann(L,'sflag') returns an L-point Hann window using the window sampling

specified by 'sflag', which can be either 'periodic' or 'symmetric' (the default). The
'periodic' flag is useful for DFT/FFT purposes, such as in spectral analysis. The
DFT/FFT contains an implicit periodic extension and the periodic flag enables a
signal windowed with a periodic window to have perfect periodic extension. When
'periodic' is specified, hann computes a length L+1 window and returns the first L
points. When using windows for filter design, the 'symmetric' flag should be used.

Examples

Create a 64-point Hann window and display the result in WVTool:

L=64;

wvtool(hann(L))

48
7.3 .Triang - Triangular window

Syntax

triang(L)

Description

triang(L) returns an L-point triangular window in the column vector w. The

coefficients of a triangular window are:

For L odd:

…………………..7.3

For L even:

…………………..7.4

49
The triangular window is very similar to a Bartlett window. The Bartlett window
always ends with zeros at samples 1 and L, while the triangular window is nonzero
at those points. For L odd, the center L-2 points of triang(L-2) are equivalent to
bartlett(L).

Examples

Create a 200-point triangular window and plot the result using WVTool.

L=200;

wvtool(triang(L))

50
8. SOFTWARE

MATLAB, which stands for Matrix Laboratory, is a software package

developed by Math Works, Inc. To facilitate numerical computations as well as some
symbolic manipulation.1 It strikes me as being slightly more difficult to begin
working with than such packages as Maple, Mathematical, and Macsyma, though once
we get comfortable with it, it others greater flexibility.

We can suggest three useful resources for help with MATLAB:

1. The references listed at the end of these notes, the best of which for our
purposes is probably the short book by Gilat,

2. MAT Lab’s extensive built-in help, which we can access from the
MATLAB prompt with the command helpdesk, and

3. The Calclab help sessions in which we can typically find at least one or
two people who not only know MATLAB but also have been through
this modelling course.
The (default) MATLAB screen is divided into three windows, with a large
Command Window on the right, and two smaller windows stacked one atop the other
on the left. The Command Window is where calculations are carried out in MATLAB,
while the smaller windows display information about our current MATLAB session,
our previous MATLAB sessions, and our computer account.

The options for these smaller windows are Command History, which
displays the commands we've typed in from both the current and previous sessions,
Current Directory, which shows which directory we're currently in and what files are
in that directory, and Workspace, which displays information about each variable
defined in our current session.

We can choose which of these options we would like to have displayed

by selecting Desktop from the main MATLAB window. Occasionally, it will be
important that we are working in a certain directory. Notice that we can change MAT

51
Lab’s working directory by double-clicking on a directory in the Current Directory
window.

52
 9. MAT LAB PROGRAMS

Programme for Generating the Best sequence along with MERIT Factor.

9.1 Programme 1:

53
 clear all ;
A=4;dmax=6;sum=0;jmax=0;
for j=0.1:0.0000001:0.4
x(1)=j;
Programme for generating binary codes and its response to a matched filter.
m1=3999;
for n= 1:m1
x(n+1)=cos(A*acos(x(n)));
end
for n=1:m1+1
if x(n)>0
xx(n)=1;
else xx(n)=-1;
end
end
disp(xx);
q=abs(xcorr(xx,xx));
disp(q);
for n=1:m1
sq(n)=q(n);
end
d=max(q)/max(sq);
disp(d);
if d > dmax
dmax=d;
disp(xx);
jmax=j;
jfinal=jmax;
end
disp(dmax);
disp(jmax);
end
y(1)=jfinal;
for n=1:m1
y(n+1)=cos(A*acos(y(n)));
end
for n=1:m1+1
if y(n)>0
yy(n)=1;
else yy(n)=-1;
end
54
end
disp(yy);
yq=abs(xcorr(yy,yy));
The window functions used are hanning window, hamming window, triangular
window.
9.2 Programme 2:
clear all ;
A=4;
dremax=6;dhnmax=6;dhmmax=6;dtrmax=6;
for j=0.1:0.0001:0.4
x(1)=j;
m1=19;
for n= 1:m1
x(n+1)=cos(A*acos(x(n)));
end
for n=1:m1+1
if x(n)>0
xx(n)=1;
else xx(n)=-1;
end
end
for n= 1:m1+1
hn(n)=xx(n)*(0.54+0.46*cos(pi*n/(m1+1)));
hm(n)=xx(n)*(0.5+0.5*cos(pi*n/(m1+1)));
tr(n)=xx(n)*(1-n/(2*(m1+1)));
end
disp(xx);
disp(hm(n));
disp(hn(n));
disp(tr(n));
yre=abs(xcorr(xx,xx));
yhn=abs(xcorr(xx,hn));
yhm=abs(xcorr(xx,hm));
ytr=abs(xcorr(xx,tr));
for n=1:m1
yyre(n)=yre(n);

55
 yyhn(n)=yhn(n);
yyhm(n)=yhm(n);
yytr(n)=ytr(n);

end
dre=max(yre)/max(yyre);
dhn=max(yhn)/max(yyhn);
dhm=max(yhm)/max(yyhm);
dtr=max(ytr)/max(yytr);
if dre>dremax
dremax=dre;
dr=dremax;
end
if dhn>dhnmax
dhnmax=dhn;
dn=dhnmax;
end
if dhm>dhmmax
dhmmax=dhm;
dm=dhmmax;
end
if dtr>dtrmax
dtrmax=dtr;
dt=dtrmax;
end
end
disp(dr);
disp(dn);
disp(dm);
disp(dt);

56
Programme for generating Ternary codes and its response to a matched filter.
The window functions used are hanning window, hamming window, triangular
window
9.3 Programme 3
clear all ;
A=4;
dremax=6;dhnmax=6;dhmmax=6;dtrmax=6;
for j=0.1:0.00001:0.4
x(1)=j;
m1=19;
for n= 1:m1
x(n+1)=cos(A*acos(x(n)));
end
for n=1:m1+1
if x(n)>=0.3
xx(n)=1;
elseif x(n)<=-0.3
xx(n)=-1;
else
xx(n)=0;
end
end
for n= 1:m1+1
hn(n)=xx(n)*(0.54+0.46*cos(pi*n/(m1+1)));
hm(n)=xx(n)*(0.5+0.5*cos(pi*n/(m1+1)));
tr(n)=xx(n)*(1-n/(2*(m1+1)));
end
disp(xx);
disp(hm(n));
disp(hn(n));
disp(tr(n));
yre=abs(xcorr(xx,xx));
yhn=abs(xcorr(xx,hn));
yhm=abs(xcorr(xx,hm));

57
 ytr=abs(xcorr(xx,tr));
for n=1:m1
yyre(n)=yre(n);
yyhn(n)=yhn(n);
yyhm(n)=yhm(n);
yytr(n)=ytr(n);
end
dre=max(yre)/max(yyre);
dhn=max(yhn)/max(yyhn);
dhm=max(yhm)/max(yyhm);
dtr=max(ytr)/max(yytr);
if dre>dremax
dremax=dre;
dr=dremax;
end
if dhn>dhnmax
dhnmax=dhn;
dn=dhnmax;
end
if dhm>dhmmax
dhmmax=dhm;
dm=dhmmax;
end
if dtr>dtrmax
dtrmax=dtr;
dt=dtrmax;
end
end
disp(dr);
disp(dn);
disp(dm);
disp(dt);

58
10. MATLAB PROGRAMS RESULTS

10.1 Programme 1:
SIDELOBES MERIT
SI.NO: LENGTH D(VALUE)
IN (dB) FACTOR

1 20 10 -20 5.2632

2 50 10 -20 3.1172

3 100 10 -20 2.0145

1
.
4 500 13.8889 -22.8534 3
2
6
4

5 1000 16.9492 -24.5830 1.2653

6 1500 19.2308 -25.6799 1.1421

7 2000 21.0526 -26.4661 1.0774

8 2200 22.2222 -26.9357 1.1388

9 2500 23.1481 -27.2903 1.1540

1
.
10 2700 23.2759 -27.3381 1
1
7
4

11 3000 24.1935 -27.6740 1.0644

59
12 3200 24.4759 -27.6884 1.0170

13 3500 25.5474 -28.1469 1.0563

14 3700 26.4286 -28.4415 1.0580

10.2 Programme 2:

SI.NO: LENGTH Dr(value) Dn(value) Dm(value) Dt(value)

8
.
1 20 6.6667 10.8312 9.8325 3
0
9
9

2 50 7.1429 9.0304 8.4854 8.9976

3 100 8.3333 9.3569 9.1214 9.3730

4 500 12.8205 13.1354 12.4756 12.5941

5 1000 15.3846 15.6690 15.4656 15.4266

6 1500 17.6471 17.6575 16.6046 17.6489

7 2000 19.4175 19.2275 18.1054 20.1763

8 2200 20.0000 19.5404 18.7240 21.2006

9 2500 20.4918 20.3297 19.3727 21.5021

10 2700 21.6000 20.6815 20.1835 22.0711

11 3000 22.5564 21.7009 20.8204 23.6876

12 3200 23.0216 22.6096 21.6583 24.0874

13 3500 23.4899 22.3319 22.7187 25.2248

60
14 3700 23.8710 22.8246 22.1586 25.0092

15 4000 25.1572 23.4437 22.6908 25.8829

9.3 PROGRAMME 3:

SI.NO: LENGTH Dr(value) Dn(value) Dm(value) Dt(value)

9
.
9.5000 12.2079 13.5505 7
1 20 2
3
4

8.2000 9.9096 9.8885 9.1787

2 50
8.7778 10.2198 9.6901 9.5004
3 100
12.6774 13.4606 12.9605 13.3589
4 500
16.0392 16.4150 16.3076 16.4012
5 1000
18.2727 18.5104 172564 18.7866
6 1500
20.0625 20.0061 19.4061 21.2721
7 2000
20.8140 20.0946 19.6081 21.8712
8 2200
22.1304 21.4424 20.1553 22.3502
9 2500
22.6563 23.5441 20.9887 22.8810
10 2700
23.3689 22.9683 23.4315 24.0322
11 3000
24.2336 23.0076 23.5076 24.6767
12 3200

13 3500 24.5913 23.9601 22.9455 25.5940

14 3700 24.9832 24.2463 23.9490 26.1398

15 4000
25.6667 24.7911 23.9365 26.4855

61
62
11. RESULT AND CONCLUSION

At different lengths, good sequences were obtained and it was found that the
discrimination factor increases with the length of the sequence for binary and ternary
codes. Better sequences are found using ternary codes.
Different window functions were used to modify the impulse response
coefficients of the matched filter to reduce the side lobe level and the correlation i.e.
the output response of the matched filter are found. It was found that the response with
the triangular window function showed good results at larger lengths compared to the
other window functions.
At lower lengths up to 1000 length the performance with hanning window
were found to be superior compared with the other windows.

Graphical Result

63
12. REFERENCE

1. Ghobad Heidari-Bateni, Clare D McGillem, “A Chaotic Direct-Sequence

Spread-Spectrum Communication System,” IEEE Transactions on
Communications. vol. 42(2/3/4), pp. 1524-1527, 1994.MAKOTO ITOH,
“Spread Spectrum Communication via Chaos”

2. International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos,” vol. 9, No.1, pp. 155-213,

1999

3. Radar signal design using chaotic signals vol.18 , pp 424- 521,2007

4. A. Bauer. “Utilisation of chaotic signals for radar and sonar purposes”. Norsig
96 pp. 33-36

5. http://www.mathworks.com

6. SKOLNIK, M.I., kretschmer, ww.aspects of radar signal processing. artech

house , inc., 1986

7. Other web sites

64