": wcr

I

II is the oldest kind 01 metallurgy (3000 B,C.) and practiced before man was able to develop temperatures sufficiently high to melt metals,

Powder metallurgy is defined as the technique of producing fine metal powders and objects in a finished or semi-finished shape from individual, mixed or alloyed metal powders with or without the inclusion of non- metallic constituents. The powder metallurgy

process consits 01 the following steps: .' .

i) Production of melal powders.

il) Powder conciilfoning

iii) Compaction of metal powders IV) Sintoring,

11.1 P;100UCTION OF METAL POWDERS

The processes employed for the production of melal powders are:

A) Machanical processes j) Ma.chining

ii) Crushing

iii). Milling

iv) StiOtUng

v) Graining

vi) Automizanon

OJ Physico·chemical processes

i) Condensation

ji) Thermal deoomposltion Hi) Reduclion

iv) Electro deposilio(l

v) Precipitation from aqueous solution.

PrinCip!es of Engineering Metallurgy

By using one or more of 1.hese methods, any metal can btl Pli;ictically made into powder. The selection of a particular method much depends on the type of raw materials available, the desired properties, type of application etc.

11.1.1 Mechanical processes

Mechanical disintegra1ion processes, for the proouonon of powders, are widely employed in powder metallurgy, (\1 the slx meihods mentioned In this classification, the 1irst three involve disintegration of solid metals and the next three involve disintegration of liquid metals in order to produce metal powders.

11.1,1,1 Machining

In this method, filings, turnings, chips etc are produced and they are subsequently pulverized by crushing and milling. The powder produced by this method will be coarse in size and irregular in shape, Hence this method is used for a few spedal cases such as production of magnesium powder (the explosiveness and malleability of this powder prohibits other methods), silver solders and dental alloys.

11.1.1.2 Crushing

Cmshing is employed for disintegration of oxides and brillle materials, The brittle solids are crushed by using hammers, jaY. crushers or gyratory crushers, The powder particles produced by crushing possess anpular shape and are coarse in size which are subsequently comminuted by milling to obtain the required finess.

11.1,1.3 MlllfnU

Both brittle and ductile metals can be pulverized by milling, Milling involves the appacation of Impact force on the materials to be pulwrized. This milling action can be c3ubd ':.'':! t-~, using ball mill, rod mill, impact mill. disk mill. vortex mill etc. During n,i1iinf" work hardening, oxidation of the fine powder, particle welding and aggfomeration OCCUf8. All these are most undesirable for subsequent processing such as compaction and sintering. But, these can be eliminated by annealing the powders in a reducing atmosphere,

11.1. 1.4 Shotting

Shetling involves the disintegration 01 molten metals. In this method, the molten meta! is poured on a vibrating screen which disintegrates the molten meta! into a large number 01 droplets. These droplets are allowed to solidify either in air or neutral gas atmosphere, The size and character of the resultant shot (particle} depends on the temperture of molten metal, size of openings in the screen and frequency of vibrations of the screen: ShoWng produces spherical particles. Copper, brass, aluminium, tin. zinc" .silvN, lead, nickel. gold etc., metal powders are usually produced by shottinq.

11.1.1.5 Graining

Graining involves the same procedure as shottinq, but the only difference is that the solidification of molten mB'tal droplets is carried out in water The powders produced by shO!1ing and graining methods are coarse in size and hence other pulverizing methods Z,18 used for further reduction of size,

I

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I

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Pow<iarMetaUurgy

11.1.1.6 Atomization

Atomi<:ation involves machanlcat disintegration (If molten meta! stream into fine particles by means of a jet-of compressed air, inert gases or water.

f=iE]~

~~;1,. W

";i~~t. i

rk"_

Air Driller

. ~.;-:''-

;v;~(;l!));:;~*,~" f---- Meta! powder

fig. 11.1 : Atomiullioll process

As shown in figure 11.1, in this method the molten metal is forced through a small orifice and is disintegrated by a powerful jet of compressed air into small particles. These small particles are Ihen allowed to'solloily. Atomization produces gonerally sphericat-stiaped particles. Sioce this process produces very small particles wh'lch are erroneously called atoms, the prOC<lSS is named as atomization,

By varying the temperature 01 the hletal, pressure and temperature of the atomizing gas, rate or metal lIovJ through the 'orilia! and tlte design of the orince. a wide range of particle size distrtbution may be obtained,

Since the methods of shottlng, graining and atomization involve molten metals, they are specially suitable for metals of low and rnodesate melting points such as tin, lead, zinc, cadrniurn, and aluminium,

----'- .. ~~-.-.-~~~

ptincip!(:

d) None i "

11.1.2 PhYsiC;;~C.herr1iCal processes

01 the live methodsmentioned in this classification, condensation and thermal decomposition are regarded as. physical methods, reduction and precipltr 'an from aqueous solution are regarded as chemical methods whereas electro depusition is regarded as an electro-chemical method.

11.1.2.1 Condensation

In this method, metals are boiled to produce metalvapours which are then condensed to obtain metal powders. This process is' usually applied to volatile metals such as zinc, maqnesium and cadmium which can be easily transformed to their vapours. 'Condensation produces very fine powders with nearly spherical shape.

11.1.2.2 Thermal decomposition

Metal powders of Fe, Ni, Zn, Mg. Mo and Cr can be produced by thermal decomposition of their respective carbonyl!l;Metal carbonyls are produced by passing carbon monoxide gas at a suitable temperature and pressure. The thermal decomposition of various metal carbonyls at a suitable temperature and pressure are shown below.

Fe (COls .....--;;.. Fe + SCO
Ni(CO). --7 Ni + 4CO
MO(CO)e --7 MO + 6CO
W(CO)e --7 W + 6CQ This thermal decornposltlon gives metal powder of high purity and the carbon monoxide gas. can be recycled to produce metal carbonyls.

11.1.2.3 Reduction

Reduction is probably the oldest method of producing metal ~owders. tn this process, the reduction of compounds like metal oxides, oxalate or halides is carried out by a reducing agent (either solid or gas) such as carbon. hydrogen and carbon monoxide and the reduced powder is subsequently ground. This method is most suitable to produce powders of metals such as Fe, Cu, Ni, W, Mo. Infact this is the only practical method available for producinq powders of refractory metals such as tungsten and molybdenum. Reduction produces very fine powder particles and the shape of particles is irregular.

11.1.2.4 Electro deposition

Extremely pure metal powders can be produced by electro deposHion. This proc~ss is similar to electro plating. In this, during electrolysis, the meta! powder can, be d~rectly deposited on the cathode by controlling the current density, temperature. Circulation of th., electrolyte, composition of the electrolyte, The powder deposited on the cathode can be removed. washed and dried to obtain pure powders.

Electro deposition is mainly employed for the commercial production of metal powders such as copper, beryllium, iron, zinc, tin, nickel, cadmium, antimony, silver and lead.

Electro deposition produces powders having dendritic shape and purity of the powders is extromely high and may exceed 99.9 percent.

t1.1.2.6 Precipilafion from aqueous solution

This process is basad on the principle that a metal may be precipitated from its qquepus SOIUtiOh by adding to it a less noble meta! which is higher in the electromotive serles:'For example silver powder is produced from silver nitrate solution by adding a less noble metal such as copper or iron. Similarly tin powder is produced from stannous chloride $olul1on by adding a less noble metal such as zinc.

This method IS extensively used for producing copper powders. Copper powder is produced fWI)) copper sulphate solution by adding a less noble metal such as iron.

Precipitation from aqueous solution produces powders having dendritic shape with high purity,

11.2 POWDER CONDITIONING

The metal powders produced by the above processes, may not possess favourable pbyslcal or chemical characteristics lor subsequent processing like compaction and Sintering. Therefore the powder has to be conditioned before using for compaction and sintering. Powder conditioning consists of annealing treatment and blending or mixing.

11.2.1 Annealing treatment

Annealing 01 powders is usually carried out in reducinq atmosphere or in vaccum. Annealing eliminates work hardening eHeet, reduces the oxide content and impurity level and alters the apparent density {apparent density of a. powder is defined as the mass per unit volume 01 loose or unpacked powder). High temperature annealing increases the apparent dvnsIty of powder and reduces the pressure requirements whereas low temperature annealing decreases the apparent density of powder and increases pressure requirements during compaction.

During annealing treatment the powder particles get slntered and form a spongy mass. Hence the powder has to be pulverized and screened prior to its further use. Pulverizing shculd be done carefully so ihat work hardenlnq does not occur.

11.2.2 Blending (or) Mixing

Blending is an operation of thorough intermingling of different powders of the same 'composition Of various grades of the same powders. whereas mixing refers to the thorough intermingling ot powders of more than. one matejlal. Alloying powders, lubricants and volatlli:l:ing agents are added to the blended powders during mixing to give the desired amount 01 porosity

Mixing is carried out mainly to produce uniform distribution of particles so that the mixture will have the same composition throughout the mixture volume, The time for mixing may vary from a few minutes to 24 hours or even several days depending upon the results desired. Overmixing decreases particle size and causes work hardening 01 particles, hence it is avoided,

Various types 01 blenders and mills are employed for mixing. Usually ball mills or rod mills are used for miXing hard metals such as carbides. Otherwise double COne mixers are mostly employed. In cone mixers rolling action is provided to the powder mass and continuous dividing and recombining of powder mat's are made possible at each

revolution. '

d} None, .

1----·'--

~~~r~e~;~~~t:~~: ~~~e~n~~:~~~~jgp: s~bst3nces or b,31I1ed-uP aggregates of powder

operation. '. '. ' w ers are usua y screened after the rnbdng

11.3 COMPACTION OF MEl'Al POWDERS

~~~a~;~:~~~~~~~~:ec~mpadiio~ is t~ produ~e m~t~ compacts of deSir~d shap~'f;~~

from the tO~ls and' b ompacts sh~u'd have suffiCIent strength to withstand ejection

su sequent handling upto the completion of sinlering. "

The con r

, pac tng methods. are classified into the folfowing groups :

~) Pressure-less shaping technique

~!~ Cold pmssurashaping technique

m) Pressure shaping technique with heal.

11.3.1 Press ere-tess shaping technique

In pressure-leas shaping meth d th

application 01 any exter I' 0 s, e po,,:,der compacts are produced without the

na pressure. The vanous methods followed are

i) Loose sinlering

ii) Slip casting

iii) Slurry casting.

11.3.1.1 Loose 'sinterlng L

sintering , ,,_' or oose shaping or Gravity sintering or Pressure-less

!oi lhis method the metal der l ,

is having a n~gative' pow, er IS poured or Vibrated mechanically into a mould which

temperature to form th~mpre~slon of the object and then it is heated to the sintering porosities varying from :oowto 9grOcompacts. This method produces powder compacts with

I percent by volume,

The applicali"'1!O of 'his fr.Clthd arc ;

i)

to produce highly porous filter materials such as bronze monel st . I

tungsten etc. ' " ,aln ess steel,

Ii)

to produce extremely poro nlck I '

fuel ceUs. ' ' us nle a sheets which are used as electrodes in

11.3.1.2 Slip c;Jstlng

Slip casting is extensively used for c

this process, first a Slip is fe ar erami~s and ~nfY to a limited extent for metals. In

microns) in a liquid ( p rP ed. The slIp consists of powder particles (finer than 5

mas I y water) and a small am ! f ' .

deftocculants (ammonium and sodi ,., oun 0 addItives such as

which not only prevent the s III' um salts of alg~mc aclds such as Marox and Keltex) binding agent to improve the log and 5eggr9g8110n of the particles but also act as a then poured Into a mould e ~ee~ ~trength of the compact. The slip thus prepared is Alter partial dryirig in {he m:u~d e ~Iuld absorb:ng mat~riaf such as plaster of paris. casting is removed from the mo~~hat~~~sorp~on ~f. flUid by plaster of Paris), the slip Slip casting is ready for slnterin n. t en dried rn an ov~m. Now tho compact i.e., density than those produ Ad big· ObJ.ects. produced by this method will have high

ce y Dose slnlenng process.

This technique is v~ry useful for materials that are relatively incompressible by conventionat"diecoITlpaction. But the main disadvantage 01 this process is that it is a relatively slower process because long time is required tor the fluid to be absorbed by

the mould.

(1.3.1~~ ~/urtyc.tl.$ting

Slurry casting is similar to slip casting except 'thatthe slurry;,whicho'consistso of metal

, powders in a suitablaliquicl (usually liquid resins or self·sulidifying liquids may,be used) with various addl1iVeS and'blnders, is pot.lredlnto a mould made of plaster of paris and allowed to dry ill the mould itsel!. somnmes slow evaporation is used to remove the

solvent in the slurry and cause drying of the slurry. "

This process is,~ISO a .stower on~' i:,util eliminates the expensive dies and

squlpments used inconvenUonal compacuon, ' . ' '

11.3.2 Cold pressure shaping technique

The various cold pressure shaping methodS are listed below:

i) Cold die compaction

ii) Isostatic pressing

iii) Explosive forming

lv) Powder rolling

v) Vibratory compacting

11.3.2.1 Cold die COllJpaot{on

Compaction In metal dies is one 01 the most Important methods, for shaping metal powders.

The compaction process consists of the following three stages :

i} In the fifSt stage particles are brought close together is a-rasun of partlcle movement and rearrangement There ts no deformation of partlclesln this

stage.

,ii) The second stage aUibUtes to plastic deformatiCln and cold working. Since Il1e applied pressure Is'more than the bulk yield stress of the material, plastic flow becomes hOmOgMeOUs. instead of local.

Iii) The third stage corresponds to bulk compression and involves tracture and

fragmentation of brittle powders. .

The basic equipment required for cotnj)acting metal powders in metal dies are :

i) A mechanical or hydrauliC mechanism for applying the desired pressure.

Mechanical presses are awilable with pressure ratings of 10 to 150 tons and speeds 01 6 to 150 strokes per minute. The special features of mechancial presses are high speed production rates, flexibility In deSign, simplicity and, economy in operation. These presses require low investment and malnlatlance costs.

Hydraulic presses haVe higher pressure ratings upto about 5000 tons but slower stroke speeds usually less than 2.0 strokes per minute, These presses are employed when high pressure Is requlred especiaf!y tor producing more complicated powder metal parts.

ii) A die bfMequato strength having a cavity of Ihe desired shape and size. Dies, are usually made a! hardened, ground tool steels.

iii} Feeding devices for filling the die cavity wilh loose powder.

iv)Upper and lower punches of requisite strength and design to permif the application of pressure and to assist in ejection of the pressed compact and

.' removal of the ejected compactfrom-the -dle

The punches fire generally made of die Sleel which is heat treated to be slightly softer than t:16 die, since the punches are usually easier to replace than the die. They must be perfectly aligned and very closely fitted.

v) Proper control to maintain the magnitude and rate of pressure application, the degree of movement and speed of the punches and in some cases the die and ejection of the pressed compact

D~---

t.ower punch -----+

tal

Up{lerp""ch

j

(b)

Fig. 11.2: Cold die compaction

The usual sequence of operations in die compaction are shown in ligl>ie11.2

These are:

a) Filling the die cavity with a definite volume of powder.

d) None ~

. "~. ·~i"].l. ~,'" ..

d) IrreQularl".v8ri,,~

L

(

b) Application 01 tne required pressure by movement of the upper and lower punches toward each other.

e/ 'Ejection of the green compact by the lower punch.

Due to friction, a major loss of energy occurs during die compaction. The several types of friction that occur during die compaction are :

i) Friction between moVing punches and dies,

ii) F(ictiori between powder particles and the die wall,

iii) Friction between t:~ gre&n compact and the die wall during ejection.

IV) Friction between panicles.

Lubrication is usually done to overcome the frictional effects. lubricants are of two types:

a) External lubricants; These are applied to the die walls, also called as die wall lubrication"

b) tnternal lubrtcants.: These are admixed with metal powders before compaction,

3.2.2 Isostatic pressing

Isostatic pressing produces powder compacts using tightly sealed lIexible moulds and applying. a uniform pressure slmultaneously and equally in all directions thereby achieving uniform density and strength.

Tal'

t'ig. 11.3 : rsostanc pressing method

F'i£jwe 11.3 SIWWS.,3 typical isostatic compaction. As shown in the figurE.> powder is loaded in a suita0lV$haped flexible envelope for the production of a desired shaped object Hllij then tiglltly sealed. (The flexible envelope is made trorn natural rubber, synthetic rubber, plastics or thin metal foils. The flexiblE! envelope must be completely Impervious to lhe pressurizing fluid and be able to withstand internal pressure). The sealed flexible envelope is then placed in the sealed high strength pressure vessel (see fig. 11,3) filled ','Iith oil. The fluid (oil) in the pressure vessel is pressurizedto the' required pressure with tile heip of a suitable high pressure pump. Application of this pressure causes. the flexib!e cnvolope to impart the desired shape to the powder, Afler thji;;,'thepressureis then released and the pressed compact is taken out of the pressure chamber. The density of the compact depends on the pressure used in this process,

The main advantage of Ihis process is the application of uniform pressure in all directions and hence the compact possesses very high density near to the theoretical density. But the production rates are low because this is a batch process.

Isostatic compaction is employed to produce powder compacts of metal powders such as tungsten, molybdenum, niobium etc.

11.3.2.3 Explosive forming

In this rnethcd the pressure generated by' an explosive is used for the movement of punch or piston into the dies containing metal powder. The metal powder is we!1 protected from the products 01 the explosives. The detonation (combustion) of low explosives such as smokeless powder and black powder produces pressures upto 3.00,000 pounds per square inch whereas high explosives such as dynamite, TNT(trinltro tolvene) produces pressures upto several millions of pounds per square inch.

Since very high pressures are involved in this process, the compacts produced by this process possess very high and uniform desnity of the order of 94 to 98 percent 01 the theoretical density.

11.3.2.4 Powder rolling

Fig.l1.4 : Powdm rolling

r

The continuous compaction of metal powders by roHing had been first reported in Germany in 1950, In this process, as shown in figure 11.4; the rolls are aet-slde by side So that the strip comes out vertically downward, The metal powder is poured from the hopper into the channel between the totaling rolls upto the required height on the roll surface. When the rolls star! rotating, the powder is drawn into the gap between the roils and is compacted into a strip,

At present powder rolling is mainly used lor the production of metallic strips and sheets.

11.3.2.5 Vibratory compaction

In tne vibratory compaction method; both pressure and vibration are simultaneously applied during compaction of metal powders in a rigid die, The application of

I

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/

r

\.

vlbration during compaction Co''1SElS desired densiflcation at much Im,er pressures compared with ordinary die compaction, Both high frequency low amplitude and low frequency high amplitude vibrations have been appfied successfully lor achieving the given level of denslficl)tion.

The maior drawback 01 this process is the design of complex equipment for applying vibrations. This process's mainly sui1able lor producing very large and complex parts due to great reduction in the required pressure.

11.3.3 Pressure shaping tecllnfque with heat

Pressure shaping with heat include the following processes : i) Hot pressing

iiJ PO\vder (or) sinter forging iii) Hot rotling

11.3.3.1 Hot pressing

To produce very farge parts is a difficult task in cold die compaction because 'Iery hiyh pressures are required. Rut in hot rressing Where pressure and heat are simultaneously applied, large parts can be compacted to the required density with the application 01 only 10 to 20 percent of the cold die compaction pressure. The amount of pressure required for compaction decreases with increase in temperature.

In this process, the metal powder is poured into the die and then pressure/and heat are simultaneously applied. !ieating Is usually done with the help of water cooled high !requ€!ncy coil. Just by employing a pressure of about 100 KgfCm2 and a temperature ',f two thirds of the melting' point of the ITlNai powder. compacts can be produced with about 90 percent of the theoretical densily.

. During ihe operations such as filting, heating and ejection. a protective atmosphere (usually argon or evan vacuum) is maintained in order to prevent oxidation,

The major problem associated in this process is the rapid wear of the die. therefore die material should be properly oncosen. Usually hardened high speed steel dies are employed.

11.3.3,2 Powder or Sinter forging

In this process, the powder compact, produced by conventional die compaction, isostatic compaction or slip casting, is healed to hot working temperature in a protective atmosphere. The healed compact is immediately transferred rc a closed die and the forging operatlon is done, To reduce oxidation, 'after forging. the component is removed from the die and is immediately either <:jUI.Hlt:hed or cooled in a protective atmosphere.

The components produced by this process possess 100 percent theoretical density. 11.3.3.3 Hot .famllg

The compacts produced by this process wil! have Detter properties than those produced by cold rolling, In this process. either hOi rolls or hot powders are employed and the operation is similar to cold rolling. But the problem encountered in this process is to provide a proteclivE1 atmosphere during rolling to prevent oxidation of the powder at high

temperatures used in the process. .

H .1

,,.1

HOi rollin(J i::l Illb,;l 'bullod lor molybdnnum and tungsten· based alloys which can be cold rollod only wi1n great ·diflic.uHy.

i 1 A SINTEAiNG

Due to tile limited degree of inter-particle bonding, the green compacts, produced by various compacting methods wi!! be very fragile. Hence handlingot these compacts between compacting and slnterinq is restricted to a .minimum to avoid. breakage. The most important step in powder metallurgy is the sinterjngprocess. Sintering imparts the required properties such as more strength, densification and dimensional control to the green compacts due to the formation of strong bond between the particles. After sinterfng the articles can be used in almost all practical applications.

Sintering may be defined as "the heating of compacted aggregate of metal powders below the melting point of the base metal with or without the application of external pressure in order to transform it to a more dense material by lnter-parucle bonding". Thus sinlering is a progressive translnon withoufrnehlnqfrom an agglo'meration state to a massive state possessing the required physical and mechanical properties.

11.4.1 Sintering process

(hi

(ei

In)

,

,.

fig. i1.5 : ;::;int~;ing ,,;ac!;::mism

There are three stages involved in sinterinij process. These are :

i) In the first stage, as the green compact is heated, the sinteringprocess starts with bonding among particles, Boncling Involvesdlffusion of atoms where there is intimate contact between particles, leading to the development of grain boundaries (Fig.11.5(a»). This lnter-parncle bonding causes a farge increase in strength and hardness even after short exposures to an elevated temperature,

ii) In the second stage, the newly formed bond areas called "necks" grow in size followed by pore rounding (Fig.1 i.5b).

iii) In the last stage, shrinkage of pore and its eventual elimination occur (Fig.11.0 c&d). This staqe is never complete because Ille temperatures and lime periods required are too impractical.

During sintering, the formation of surface oxide films must be avoided since bonding between panicles is greatly affected by surface oxide ff1ms. This can be achieved b~' . providing a controlled protective atmospher.e during sintering. Usually natural gas Of propane or dissociated ammonia or vacuum is used as a protective atmosphere.

As a msuH of sint8rlng, apart 1(001 inter-particles bonding, the following Ch:III[JPS abo occur:

,

'a:) dimensional changes

b) chemical changes

0) electrical property changes

d) phase changes

e) relief of internal stresses t) alloying

In general, density, mechanical strength, ducti::,y, electrical and thermal conductivity increase wilh increased amount of sintering.

11.4.2 liquid phase siotering :

Sintering in the presence of a liquid phase in a multi component system is known as liquid phase sinterlnq i.s., the liquid persists during ihe entire sintering period.

Advantage" :

I) Liquid phase sintering renders a density almost equal to the iheorltical density.

Due to liquid-solid interfacial tensions, almost all the pores are filled by the liquid.

ii) The rate of diffusion through the liquid phase is more and hence the rate of alloying will be greatly enhanced,

jii) After liquid phase sintering. the compacts possess a more desirable metallurgical structure which gives excellent mechanical. properties.

11.4.3 Siotering furnace

Sintering turnace is required for heating the cornpuuenis ouring s:~,:crjng. Electrical resistance Of qas or oil type 01 furnaces mliY be used for sinterlnq. During slnterinq since close control of temperature is very essential, usually electric furnace is preferred where accurate control of temperature is possible.

flg.H.G .. Continuous type Slntering furnace

- ~-. _: --~

~. ';('-j, ;.: j<

:; .... ,...",...,d...,rhr •• .-"rl;,""·

Tlw essentldi,part!> of a sintering furnace are :

... ~ ._-.,

Principles of I: !lgi 1I(,uing Metaiiurgy

i) a burn oftchamber for the removal of air or lubricant vapours, ii) a controlled high temperature sintering zone, and

ill) a COOling and discharging zone.

a) Burn off zone: The burn-off zone is also called as the entrance zone which is an important part of the furnace where upto 900°C temperature wlfl be maintained. In this zone the green ccmoacts are heated Slowly, otherwise the entrapped air and lubricants wil! expand very rapidly so that the metal particles will be pushed apart. Before pushing the compacts into the high temperature zone i.e., sintering zone, all the lubricants used during compaction should be expelled as vapours along with furnace atmosphere.

b) High temperature zone or Sintering zone: In this zone, the actual siotering of the components will occur. Sintering time and slnterlng temperature are the critical parameters, controlling 01 Which enables good sintering. Proper sintering results in

rig.l1.7 : Mechanical strength Versus slntering lime

getting the desired density and stranpth in the powder metailurgy components. Otherwise poor strength and dansity will be obtained

Figure 11.7 shows the curves of the mechanical. strength versus siniering time at a given temperature. As shown in figure 11'.7, the degree of sintering increases with increase in sin taring lime but the effect is more pronounced with increase in temperature.

Table 11.1, shows the typical values of sintering temperature and sinterinq time for various metals:

'Table. 11.1 : Typical sinterinq temperature and time for various metals.

Motnl

Sinlering Temperature "C,

Sintering Time, minutes

Bronze

COUlc" Nickel

160870 840-900 840-900 1010-1150 1090-1290 2050

S\ainless slool /,Aolvbdonum TiJngsien '[antHill!!.

2340 2400

10~20 10-45 12-45

30-45 30-60

120 approx. 480

480

P(lWci8f MMallufgy

c) Cooling Zone: Tile sintered parts from high temperature zone pass to tlis cooling zone of the sinterillg furnace where ~h",,, are cooled so that oxidation does not OC!'1I1 on el<posing to air. The cooling zone consists of two sections These are:

J) a short insulated cooling zone: This allows the sintered components to cool from high sintering ternperature to 'a low temperature. In this zone, Ihe ,cooling is done at a slower rate in order to avoid thermal stresses.

ji} a relatively long water jacketed COOling zone : In this zone., the sintered components are Cooled below 150'C to prevent oxidation of the components 00 exposing to air. Cooilng in this zone is done for a long lime i.e. very slow COOling rates are provided,

·11,5. SECONDARY OP.l:RAl'IONS AFTER SINTERING

The following secondary operations will be carried after sintering to impar! better surface finish and properues to sintered parts.

i} Coininq : Coining is a process in which the sintered part is pressed in dies to reduce porosity and to increase densily.

il) Sizing: During sintering dimensional changes occur in the parts. Sizing is the operation of pressing the pan in dies to achieve the required dimensional accuracy. Sizing also improves surface finish and causes sm31J changes in density.

iiil Machining: Mach1nirm operafionis usuaHi ca.r;ir:0 on sii"Gwd pan to provide under cuts, threads etc, which .ca.n not be provided on the part duriny compaction because it becomes complicated

Iv} Impregnation: Impregnation operation is carried out to ccrnpletely f:!I or close the voids with oil. grease or other lubricating oils. In this operation sintsred parts are immersed in the lubricant and heated 10 a temperature 01 about 95"c for 20 to 25 mj~utes and then removed. By doing this, the lubricant enters the pores by capillary ·action.

j j H H H H

,I

II

v) Infiltration: Infiltration is the process of addino one meta! to the pores 01 the Gintered part For example, copper blank is placed over sintered Iron part (30 10 40 percent porosity) and heated to a temperature of 1150"c in a furnace where the copper melts and infiltm:tes into the pores of the sintered iron part thereby producing a sinlered part of 100 percent density, Infiltration also provides extra strength, hardnes s and toughness to Ihe sinterad parts.

11.6. ADVAN1'AGE:S or POWDER METALLURGY

Powder metallurgy has certain unique advantages over conventional meta! casting method.

These are ;

i) High P~(ity raw materials are used and this purity can be I!li\inlainiid W! 1118 end 01 the process by controlling the fabrication steps.

iii) CIOilf1 and smooth operations

iii) Close dimensional tolerances and smooth surfaces can be acliieved

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"iv) N& defects such as gas pockets, blow 110l13s etc, are produced whereas these are ccm=to» in metal casting.

v) 'Various machining operations can be eliminated and this causes high production rates.

vi) New combinations can be achieved. For example metal and non metal can

be mixed which is quite impossible by othermethods, . .

vii) Highly qualified or skilled personnel are not required.

viii) Parts of any desired composition Can be made. There is almost no need of referring to their equilibrium diagram.

11.1. LIMITATIONS OF POWOER METALLURGY

The following are some serious limitations of powder metallurgy which limits its application :

o The cost 01 dies and equipment is very high and also rapid wear of dies Occur during compaction. Hence it is only suitable for mass production and not for products less than 10.000 in quantity,

ii} This process is not used In some cases, due to the problem of storing the expensive powders without deterioration.

iii} Sintered parts possess lower tensile strengths, lower elongations and much lower impact strengths due to the presence of inherent porosity.

IV) I ntrieat€! . shapes ca n not be manufactured easily with this process.

v) Oxidation of meta! powders causes slntering difficult and results in inferior parts.

vi) Parts with theoretical density can not be manufactured.

Vii) Powders like magnesium, aluminium, titanium etc. sometlraas causes explosions and fira hazards.

11.8. APPLICATIONS OF POWDER METALLURGY

Powder metallurgy is utilized for manufacturing a number of materials and products. Some of the important material and products produced by powder metallurgy are

i) Porous meia! sheets: Metal powders such as copper. brass, bronze and stainless steel can be rolled into porous sheets having controlled porosity. The following two processes are employed lor making the porous sheets.

Gravity sintering : This process is used for stainless steel. In this process, a uniform layer 01 powder is spread on ceramic- trays. It is then sintered in an atmosphere of dissociated ammonia for 40 hours at high temperature. Then they are rolled t6" obtain uniform thickness and better surface tinish. These porous sheets made of stalnlsss.steel powders are corrosion resistant and are used for gasoline, oils and chemical filters.

Rolling: This process is used for brass, bronze and copper. In this process, the metal powder is tilled in a hopper and the powder is allowed to fall in between two metallic roilers, where the powder gets compressed into a sheet. This sheet is then sintered and

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then rol/ed again to get the !Ina I size. This process results in uniform mechanical properties allp controlled porosity,

H) Porous self lubricating bearings

By powder metallurgy technique. any desired degree of porosity can be obtained in metal products by contfolling the particle size, its distribution and the pressure during '~ompaction: Sell-lubricating bearings. require 25-30 percent inter-connected porosity. These bearings, after sinteting, are subjected to oil impregnation so that the pores will be completely filled wilh oil, Hence during service, these bearings produce a constant supply of lubricant to 1he surface due to capillary action. In an assembly, where lubrioation Is not pOSSible or oil splash is undesirable, self-lubricating bearings can be used, for example in food industries.

Self,lubricating bearings of bronze, copper, lin. graphite and iron are made by powder metallurgy,

iii) Gears and pump rotors

Gear and rotor for automobile oil pumps are manufactured by powder metallurgy. In this, the iron powder is mixed with suflident" graphite so that it provides the desired carbon content to the product. It is compacted with a pressure of about 40 KgICm~ and then sinterod in an inert atmosphere in electric furnace. The sintered products are then impregnated with oil. Puring service, under operating pressure. the oil seeps 10 the contact surface and When the load is removed, the oil will be re-absorbed.

iv} Electrical contacts and electrodes

Electrical contacts and resistance welding electrodes are made by the powder metallurgy technique. Different combinations like tunqsten-copper, tungsten-cobalt, tunqsten-silver, Silve'-molybdenum and copper-nickel-tungsten have been developed to provide the ch3'1lcteristics of wear resistent, refractory and good electical conductivity 10 the contact parts.

v) Magnet materials

Small magnets known as Alnico which are a mixture of aluminium, nickel 'and copper powders are produced by powder metallurgy technique. The magnets produced by powder metallurgy have better properties than the magnets produced by casting. They possess hornopeneous structure, fine grain size and are free from internal defects,

vi) Diamond impreqnated tools

Diamond impregnated tools which are used lor cutting porcelain and' glass, are made from a mixture of iron powder and 30 percent diamond dust. This mixture is compacted at a pressure 01 8 to 1 0 KgfCm~ and then sintered at a temperature of lOOODC. The diamond impregnated tool bit is generally welded or brazed to a 'steel.

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vii) Metallic coatings

Production of metallic coatings by powder metallurgy is a recent development. In this method a layer 01 meW! powder (to be coated) is spreadon a sheet 01 metal like iron.

:}AUllJ[JnpnnClple ':'C"C. d)· None;--~-,:.

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Gll,').niwIl Of sthlnless steel and then healed in a hydrogen atmosphere for about 20 to ;,0 rn;nules ata-;;de~srred temperature. After sintering the sheets are rolled. Iron can be coated Nith oopp&{, nicke], silver, tungsten, molybdenum, chromium and cobal. powder followed by rolliog mto sheets,

viii) Cemented camides

I Tungsten caraide

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Carbide tools

poban powder I

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Fig. iva ;: Twical flow sheet showing .the slaps in. the production of carbide toots.

For produll:iing fill! eementsd carbide cutting tools, tungsten carbide and cobalt powders are mixed in a :mixing machine in a suitable proportion. Cobalt powder should be uniformly OlSl.ril!a:Jled iin tungsten carbide powder In order 10 obtain a strong bond. After mixing, i! is comeacted with a pressure of 48 Kgicm2 and then sintered. In this case, sinte,ing is done in t,;,'O stages; the pre-sinterinq and final sinterinq, Pre-sinterinq is done in Ii COlltR')~6d j'y.Uf@gen atmosphere at a temperature 01 about gOODC. At this sintering tempcralll'f.t,. !,ufOlgslBr.l carbide remains intact while cobalt molts and forms liquid causing liqUid pnasa sintwiflg. In tOB pre-sintered condition, the products can be Gut, machined and grouno to ahe ,!;.'8ul shape. Then the prs-sintered compacts are subjected to final siflt8fing8t a 1'"mp2J'<iture 01 13DO"C for about 2 hours to develop fuJi hardness. The compacts ,8Je- .(;'Of.)1ed in the furnace gradually. After cooling, 11 necessary, these are ground. 1h£ CfriJlBllti1d carbide tools are noted for high compressive strength, red ',aTeness aoo ~m'M resistance.

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QUESTIONS

List out various me1hods s rnployed lor U,G produc1ion 01 metal powders.

2.

Distinguish between stloWng and atorruzation.

What am the advantages in blending or mii(Jng metal powders.

4.

Explain Ihe following ;

l) Loose sinte ring ii) Slip cas!in~

iin Slurry caSting

S. With a Ileat skstcn explain the COld die cornpacuon process.

6. Wrlle notes DO the (ollowing ;

i} Explosive forming il) Powder rolling

jij) Vibratory compac{irlg

7.

Explain the mechanism tnvotvad in siolering.

8.

Explain the lOnes in <I 5intering ·furnace. f

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Wha1 arc the advantaqos End tlrnitatloos of powcsr metallurgy.

10.

Explain three important applications of power metiallur9Y·

11.

Wilh II flow sheo t explai n the steps involved in the production of carbide tools.

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