SAMYAK SAU

2010-
XII - A

2011

Records of demonstration experiments

 SUBMITTED FROM PROJECT GUIDE
Samyak Sau Mr. Pankaj Pant
{Xii TH
‘A’ (Sc.)} {SUBJECT TEACHER}
Roll no.

Samyak Sau
 This to certify that the project
report entitled “Logic gates &
Transformers” submitted by
Samyak sau during the academic
year 2010 – 2011 is a bonafied
piece of work conducted under my
supervision and guidance. The
data sources have been dully
acknowledged.

I wish his success in all his

future endeavours.

Supervised
by:
Mr. Pankaj Pant Mr. P.C Prashar
(PGT Physics) (Principal)
 I take this opportunity to express my profound
sense of gratitude and respect to all those
who helped me throughout this venture.

I owe my regards to Mr. P.C Prashar,

Principal K.V No.1 (AFS) Pathankot for his
cooperation and valuable support and for
giving me the opportunity to undertake this
project work and providing the necessary
infrastructure.

I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to

my revered teacher and guide Mr. Pankaj
Pant for his valuable guidance,
encouragement and support throughout my
studentship under him at the institute. This
project is his visualization and owes a lot of its
functionality to him.

Last but not the least; I owe my overwhelming

gratitude to my family and friends who gave
me constant support and motivation to
continue with this endeavour.

SAMYAK SAU
XII ‘A’

Samyak Sau
S.N Page
Contents
o. No.
I. Introduction 1
II. Principle 2
III. Basic Gates 3
IV. OR Gate 4
V. AND Gate 5
VI. NOT Gate 6
VII. NOR Gate 7
VIII. NAND Gate 8
IX. EX-OR Gate 9
X EX-NOR Gate 10
Step-Down
XI 13
Transformer
Step-Up
XII 14
Transformer
XIII Construction 15
XIV Theory 16
A gate is defined as a digital circuit which follows

some logical relationship between the input and

output voltages. It is a digital circuit which either
allows a signal to pass through as stop, it is
called a gate.
The logic gates are building blocks at digital
electronics. They are used in digital electronics
to change on voltage level (input voltage) into
another (output voltage) according to some
logical statement relating them.
A logic gate may have one or more inputs, but it
has only one output. The relationship between
the possible values of input and output voltage is
expressed in the form of a table called truth
table or table of combinations.
Truth table of a Logic Gates is a table that shows
all the input and output possibilities for the logic
gate.
George Boole in 1980 invented a different kind
of algebra based on binary nature at the logic,
this algebra of logic called BOOLEAN ALGEBRA. A
logical statement can have only two values, such
as HIGH/LOW, ON/OFF, CLOSED/OPEN, YES/NO,
RIGHT/WRONG, TRUE/FALSE,
Samyak Sau
CONDUCTING/NON-CONDUCTING etc. The two
values of logic statements one denoted by the
binary number 1 and 0. The binary number 1 is
used to denote the high value. The logical
statements that logic gates follow are called
Boolean expressions.

LOGIC
STATES
1 0
HIGH LOW
+v Ov
ON OFF
CLOS
OPEN
E
RIGH WRON
T G
TRUE FALSE
YES NO

Any Boolean algebra operation can be

associated with inputs and outputs represent
the statements of Boolean algebra. Although
these circuits may be complex, they may all
be constructed from three basic devices. We
have three different types of logic gates
.These are the AND gate, the OR gate and
the NOT gate.

(a) THE OR GATE is a

device that combines A with B to give Y as the result.

The OR gate has two or more inputs and one output. The
logic gate of OR gate with A and B input and Y output is
shown below:

Samyak Sau
 In Boolean algebra, addition symbol (+) is referred as the
OR. The Boolean expression:
A+B=Y, indicates Y equals A OR B.

(b) THE AND GATE is a device that combines A with B to give

Y as the result.
The AND gate has two or more inputs and one output.
The logic gate of AND gate with A and B input and Y
output is shown below:

In Boolean algebra, multiplication sign (either x or.) is

referred as the AND. The Boolean expression:
A.B=Y, indicates Y equals A AND B.

(c) THE NOT GATE is a device that inverts the inputs. The
NOT is a one input and one output. The logic gate of NOT
gate with A and Y output is shown below:

_
In Boolean algebra, bar symbol ( ) is referred as the NOT.

The Boolean expression:

à =Y, indicates Y equals

NOT A.
Aim:
TO DESIGN AND SIMULATE THE OR GATE CIRCUIT.

Components:
Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2).

Theory and Construction:

An OR gate can be realize by the electronic circuit, making use of
two diodes D1 and D2 as shown in the figure.
Here the negative terminal of the battery is grounded and corresponds
to the 0 level, and the positive terminal of the battery (i.e. voltage 5V in
the present case) corresponds to level 1. The output Y is voltage at C
w.r.t. earth.

The following interference can be easily drawn from the working of

electrical circuit is:
a) If switch A & B are open lamp do not glow (A=0, B=0), hence
Y=0.
b) If Switch A open B closed then (A=0, B=1) Lamp glow, hence
Y=1.
c) If switch A closed B open then (A=1, B=0) Lamp glow, hence
Y=1.
Input Input Output
d) If switch A & B are
A B Y
closed then (A=1, B=1)
Lamp glow, hence Y=1. 0 0 0

Truth Table: 1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

Samyak Sau
Aim:
TO DESIGN AND SIMULATE THE AND GATE CIRCUIT.

Components:
Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2), a resistance R.

Theory and Construction:

An AND gate can be realize by the electronic circuit, making use of
two diodes D1 and D2 as shown in the figure. The resistance R is
connected to the positive terminal of a 5V battery permanently.
Here the negative terminal of the battery is grounded and corresponds
to the 0 level, and the positive terminal of the battery (i.e. voltage 5V in
the present case) corresponds to level 1. The output Y is voltage at C
w.r.t. earth.

The following conclusions can be

easily drawn from the working of electrical circuit:
a) If both switches A&B are open (A=0, B=0) then lamp will not
glow, hence Y=0.
b) If Switch A closed & B open (A=1, B=0) then Lamp will not glow,
hence Y=0.
c) If switch A open & B closed (A=0, B=1) then Lamp will not glow,
hence Y=0.
d) If switch A & B both closed (A=1, B=1) then Lamp will glow,
hence Y=1.
Truth Table: Input
A
Input
B
Output
Y
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

Samyak Sau
Aim:
TO DESIGN AND SIMULATE THE NOT GATE CIRCUIT.

Components:
An ideal n-p-n transistor.

Theory and Construction:

A NOT gate cannot be realized by using diodes. However an
electronic circuit of NOT gate can be realized by making use of a n-p-n
transistor as shown in the figure.
The base B of the transistor is connected to the input A through a
resistance Rb and the emitter E is earthed. The collector is connected to
5V battery. The output Y is voltage at C w.r.t. earth.

The following conclusion can be easily

drawn from the working of the electrical circuit:
a) If switch A is open (i.e. A=0), the lump will glow, hence Y=1.
b) If Switch A is closed (i.e. A=1), the lump will not glow, hence
Y=0.

Truth Table:
 Input Output
A Y
0 1
1 0

Aim:
TO DESIGN AND SIMULATE THE NOR GATE CIRCUIT.

Components:
Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2), an ideal n-p-n transistor.

Theory and Construction:

If we connect the output Y’ of OR gate to the input of a NOT gate
the gate obtained is called NOR.
The output Y is voltage at C w.r.t. earth.

In Boolean expression, the NOR

gate is expressed as Y=A+B, and is being read as ‘A OR B negated’. The
following interference can be easily drawn from the working of electrical
circuit is:
a) If Switch A & B open (A=0, B=0) then Lamp will glow, hence Y=1.
b) If Switch A closed & B open (A=1, B=0) then Lamp will not glow,
hence Y=0.
c) If Switch A open & B close (A=0, B=1) then Lamp will not glow,
hence Y=0.
d) If switch A & B are closed then (A=1, B=1) Lamp will not glow,
hence Y=0.

Samyak Sau
Truth Table:
Input Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0
Aim:
TO DESIGN AND SIMULATE THE NAND GATE CIRCUIT.

Components:
Two ideal p-n junction diode (D1 and D2), a resistance R, an ideal n-
p-n transistor.

Theory and Construction:

If we connect the output Y’ of AND gate to the input of a NOT gate
the gate obtained is called NAND.
The output Y is voltage at C w.r.t. earth.

In Boolean expression, the NAND gate is expressed as Y=A.B, and is

being read as ‘A AND B negated’. The following interference can be
easily drawn from the working of electrical circuit:
a) If Switch A & B open (A=0, B=0) then Lamp will glow, hence Y=1.
b) If Switch A open B closed then (A=0, B=1) Lamp glow, hence
Y=1.
c) If switch A closed B open then (A=1, B=0) Lamp glow, hence
Y=1.
d) If switch A & B are closed then (A=1, B=1) Lamp will not glow,
hence Y=0.

Truth Table:
Samyak Sau
 Input Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
1 0 1

Aim: 0 1 1

TO DESIGN AND 1 1 0
SIMULATE THE EX OR
GATE CIRCUIT.

Components:
Two AND gate, an OR gate, two NOT gate.

Theory and Construction:

The operation EXOR checks for the exclusivity in the value of the
two signals A and B. It means if A and B are not identical (i.e. if A=0 and
B=1 or vice versa), the output Y=1, and if both are identical, then the
output Y=0. This operation is also called exclusive OR gate, designated
EXOR.

In Boolean expression, the EX OR gate is

expressed as
Y=A.B + A.B =
The following interference can be easily drawn from the working of
electrical circuit:
a) If both switches A&B are open (A=0, B=0) then lamp will not
glow, hence Y=0.
b) If Switch A open B closed then (A=0, B=1) Lamp glow, hence
Y=1.
c) If switch A closed B open then (A=1, B=0) Lamp glow, hence
Y=1.
d) If switch A & B are closed then (A=1, B=1) Lamp will not glow,
hence Y=0.
Truth Table:
Input Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

Samyak Sau
Aim:
TO DESIGN AND SIMULATE THE EX NOR GATE CIRCUIT.

Components:
Two AND gate, an OR gate, three NOT gate.

Theory and Construction:

The operation EXNOR checks for the exclusivity in the value of the
two signals A and B. It means if A and B are not identical (i.e. if A=0 and
B=1 or vice versa), the output Y=0, and if both are identical, then the
output Y=1. This operation is also called exclusive NOR gate, designated
EXNOR.

In Boolean expression, the EX NOR

gate is expressed as
Y=A.B + A.B =
The following interference can be easily drawn from the working of
electrical circuit:
a) If Switch A & B open (A=0, B=0) then Lamp will glow, hence Y=1.
b) If Switch A closed & B open (A=1, B=0) then Lamp will not glow,
hence Y=0.
c) If Switch A open & B close (A=0, B=1) then Lamp will not glow,
hence Y=0.
d) If switch A & B both closed (A=1, B=1) then Lamp will glow,
hence Y=1.

Truth Table:
 Input Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

Samyak Sau
The transformer is a device used for

converting a low alternating voltage to

a high alternating voltage or a high

alternating voltage into a low

alternating voltage.
It is based on the principle of mutual

induction that is if a varying current is

set-up in a circuit induced e.m.f. is

produced in the neighbouring circuit. The

varying current in a circuit produce

varying magnetic flux which induces

e.m.f. in the neighbouring circuit.

Samyak Sau
In this step-down transformer is used:
This transformer converts high voltage at alternating current
into low voltage alternating current. In step-down
transformer the number of turns in primary coil remains
large as compare to secondary coil.
Samyak Sau
In this step-up transformer is used:
This transformer converts low voltage at alternating current
into high voltage alternating current. In step-up transformer
the number of turns in secondary coil remains large as
compare to primary coil.
The transformer consists of two coils. They are

insulated with each other by insulated material

and wound on a common core. For operation at

low frequency, we may have a soft iron. The soft

iron core is insulating by joining thin iron strips

coated with varnish to insulate them to reduce

energy losses by eddy currents.

Samyak Sau
The input circuit is called primary. And the output

circuit is called secondary.

Suppose, the number of turns in the

primary coil is NP and that in the secondary coil is

NS. The resistance of the coil is assumed to be
zero. Let dq /dt be the rate of change of flux in
each turn of the primary coil. If Ep be the e.m.f.
in the primary circuit then.
EP = –NP (1)
We suppose that there is no loss of flux between
the primary and secondary coils. Then, the
induced e.m.f. in the secondary coil will be:
ES = –NS (2)
From equations (i) and (ii), we find:
Ns/Np = K
is called transformer ratio or turn ratio.
For step up transformer K > 1
For step down transformer K < 1
That is for step-up transformer NS > NP,
therefore ES>EP.
For the step down transformer NS < NP therefore
ES < EP.

Efficiency: The efficiency of the transformer is

given by:

Samyak Sau
If Ip and Is be the currents in the primary and
secondary circuits. For ideal transformer = 1 =
100%. Therefore
ES|IS = EP|IP
Therefore, for step up, transformer current in the
secondary is less than in the primary (IS < IP).

And in a step down transformer we have IS > IP.

In practice, the output energy of a transformer is

always less than the input energy, because
energy losses occur due to a number of reasons
as explained below.

1. Loss of Magnetic Flux: The coupling

between the coils is seldom perfect. So,
whole of the magnetic flux produced by the
primary coil is not linked up with the
secondary coil.
2.
3. Iron Loss: In actual iron cores in spite of
lamination, Eddy currents are produced. The
magnitude of eddy current may, however be
small. And a part of energy is lost as the
heat produced in the iron core.
4.
3. Copper Loss: In practice, the coils of the
transformer possess resistance. So a part of the
energy is lost due to the heat produced in the
resistance of the coil.

5. Hysteresis Loss: The alternating current in

the coil tapes the iron core through
complete cycle of magnetization. So Energy
is lost due to hysteresis.
6.
5. Magneto restriction: The alternating current
in the Transformer may be set its parts in to
vibrations and sound may be produced. It is
called humming. Thus, a part of energy may be

lost due to humming.

Encarta

Encyclopaedia.

Samyak Sau
Britannica

Encyclopaedia.

www.wikipedia.co

m.

www.answers.com

www.google.co.in.
 Developed At: - Kendriya Vidyalaya no.1 (AFS),
Pathankot

Affiliated to CENTRAL BOARD OF

SECONDARY EDUCATION New Delhi.

Samyak Sau