ADVANCED ENERGY CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES

Authorised By
SANTOSH BHARADWAJ REDDY
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Abstract

In this paper An Assessment of Solar Energy Conversion Technologies and Research

Opportunities are discussed briefly. The potential of this resource is enormous and makes
solar energy a crucial component of a renewable energy portfolio aimed at reducing the
global emissions of greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere. From a scientific and
technical viewpoint, the development of new technologies with higher conversion
efficiencies and low production costs is a key requirement for enabling the deployment of
solar energy at a large scale. This paper summarizes the state of the research in some
mature and emerging solar technologies with high potential for large scale energy
production, and identifies fundamental research topics that are crucial for improving their
performance, reliability, and competitiveness.

INTRODUCTION
Solar radiation represents the largest energy flow entering the terrestrial ecosystem. After
reflection and absorption in the atmosphere, some 100,000TW hit the surface of Earth
and undergo conversion to all forms of energy used by humans, with the exception of
nuclear, geothermal, and tidal energy. The aim of this report is to evaluate the potential of
solar energy for low-carbon intensive and large-scale energy production and to provide a
picture of the state of research in the most significant solar technologies. More than a
comprehensive review, this document is intended to be an attempt at identifying
interdisciplinary and fundamental research topics with high breakthrough potential for the
improvement of the performance, the reliability, and the competitiveness of solar
technologies.
Photovoltaics, or PV for short, is a solar power technology that uses solar cells or solar
photovoltaic arrays to convert light from the sun directly into electricity. Photovoltaics is
also the field of study relating to this technology and there are many research institutes
devoted to work on photovoltaics.

Fig 1: Solar radiation energy flow diagram (units in TW). Shaded surfaces represent natural energy
destruction; arrows represent human use for energy services.

SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES
A wide variety of solar technologies have the potential to become a large component of
the future energy portfolio. Passive technologies are used for indoor lighting and heating
of buildings and water for domestic use. Also, various active technologies are used to
convert solar energy into various energy carriers for further utilization.
• Photovoltaics directly convert photon energy into electricity. These devices use
inorganic or organic semiconductor materials that absorb photons with energy greater
than their band gap to promote energy carriers into their conduction band.

Fig 2: Solar energy conversion paths and technologies considered in this paper.
 • Solar thermal technologies convert the energy of direct light into thermal energy
using concentrator devices. These systems reach temperatures of several hundred degrees
with high associated energy. Electricity can then be produced using various strategies
including thermal engines (e.g. Stirling engines) and alternators, direct electron extraction
from thermionic devices, See beck effect in thermoelectric generators, conversion of IR
light radiated by hot bodies through thermo photovoltaic devices, and conversion of the
kinetic energy of ionized gases through magneto hydrodynamic converters.
• Photosynthetic, photo (electro) chemical, thermal, and thermo chemical
processes are used to convert solar energy into chemical energy for energy storage in the
form of chemical fuels, particularly hydrogen. Among the most significant processes for
hydrogen production is direct solar water splitting in photo electrochemical cells or
various thermo chemical cycles such as the two-step water-splitting cycle using the
Zn/ZnO redox system.
Photon-to-Electric Energy Conversion
Photovoltaics is the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level. Some
materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to absorb
photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured, an electric
current results that can be used as electricity. The photoelectric effect was first noted by a
French physicist, Edmund Bequerel, in 1839, who found that certain materials would
produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to light. In 1905, Albert Einstein
described the nature of light and the photoelectric effect on which photovoltaic
technology is based, for which he later won a Nobel prize in physics. The first
photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954. It was billed as a solar
battery and was mostly just a curiosity as it was too expensive to gain widespread use. In
the 1960s, the space industry began to make the first serious use of the technology to
provide power aboard spacecraft. Through the space programs, the technology advanced,
its reliability was established, and the cost began to decline. During the energy crisis in
the 1970s, photovoltaic technology gained recognition as a source of power for non-space
applications.
 Fig 3: Schematic diagram of a photovoltaic cell
The diagram above illustrates the operation of a basic photovoltaic cell, also called a
solar cell. Solar cells are made of the same kinds of semiconductor materials, such as
silicon, used in the microelectronics industry. For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer
is specially treated to form an electric field, positive on one side and negative on the
other. When light energy strikes the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the
atoms in the semiconductor material. If electrical conductors are attached to the positive
and negative sides, forming an electrical circuit, the electrons can be captured in the form
of an electric current -- that is, electricity. This electricity can then be used to power a
load, such as a light or a tool.
A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in a support
structure or frame is called a photovoltaic module. Modules are designed to supply
electricity at a certain voltage, such as a common 12 volts system. The current produced
is directly dependent on how much light strikes the module.

Fig 4: Schematic diagram of cell module

Today's most common PV devices use a single junction, or interface, to create an electric
field within a semiconductor such as a PV cell. In a single-junction PV cell, only photons
whose energy is equal to or greater than the band gap of the cell material can free an
electron for an electric circuit. In other words, the photovoltaic response of single-
junction cells is limited to the portion of the sun's spectrum whose energy is above the
band gap of the absorbing material, and lower-energy photons are not used.

Fig 5: Schematic diagram showing charging of cell

In photovoltaic devices made of inorganic semiconductors, charge separation is driven by
the built-in electric field at the p-n junction. As a consequence, their efficiency is
determined by the ability of photogenerated minority carriers to reach the p-n junction
before recombining with the majority carriers in the bulk of the material. Thus, bulk
properties such as crystallinity and chemical purity often control the device efficiency.

Fig 6: Schematic diagram showing the jumping of photons

The molecule’s properties, and in particular its bandgap, are determined by the highest
occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital
(LUMO). Light absorption in either small molecules or in conjugated polymers leads to
the formation of an exciton, i.e. an electron-hole pair that is bound together by Coulomb
attraction that must be dissociated. A built-in electric field can be created by sandwiching
an organic semiconductor between two semiconductors with different work functions, but
this method is not effective in splitting excitons. Instead, efficient exciton dissociation
occurs at the interface between a donor material, where the exciton is created, and an
acceptor material with an empty energy level that is lower than the LUMO of the donor
(see above Fig). Exciton dissociation at the heterojunction produces electrons on one side
of the interface already separated from the holes produced on the other side of the
interface. This creates a photo induced interfacial chemical potential energy gradient that
efficiently drives the photovoltaic effect, even in the absence of a built-in electrical
potential. The efficiency of these devices is determined by the requirement that excitons
reach the donor-acceptor interface, charges are transferred before recombination occurs,
and charges are subsequently transported to the electrodes before electrons back-transfer
from the LUMO of the acceptor to the HOMO of the donor.
Conversion Efficiency and power Output
A solar cell usually uses a p-n junction .The current and voltage relation ship is given by
 V  
J i = J o exp e  − 1
  KT  
Where
J o is the saturation current also called dark current and is obtained when a large

negative voltage is applied across the diode.

V is the voltage across junction
e is the electronic charge
K is the Boltzmann’s constant
T is the absolute temperature
When light is impinges on the junction, electron hole pairs are created at a constant rate
providing an electrical current flow across the junction. The net current is the difference
between the normal diode current and light generated current Jl .The net

  Ve  
current J is given by J= J l - J i = J l - J o exp  − 1
  KT  
The internal voltage drop in a cell can usually be minimized, and for an ideal cell ( Rs
=0)
 KT   J l 
Open circuit voltage Voc is given by Voc =   ln  J + 1 . As, J l >> J o , the
 e   o 

KT J
open circuit voltage is Voc = ln l . The maximum power that can be
e Jo

derived from the device is given by Pmax = Vmp . J mp

Where , Vmp is the voltage at the maximum power point

J mp is the current at the maximum power point
Vmp J mp
The maximum efficiency for the cell is obtained as η=
Psun

Psun is the total power density of the sunlight. Maximum power can also be defined as
Pmax = J l * Voc * FF

FF is the fill factor and for a good silicon cell it is about 0.8
Photovoltaic module
In the field of photovoltaics, a photovoltaic module is a packaged interconnected
assembly of photovoltaic cells, also known as solar cells. An installation of photovoltaic
modules or panels is known as a photovoltaic array. Photovoltaic cells typically require
protection from the environment. For cost and practicality reasons a number of cells are
connected electrically and packaged in a photovoltaic module, while a collection of these
modules that are mechanically fastened together, wired, and designed to be a field-
installable unit, usually with a glass covering and a frame and backing made of metal,
plastic or fiberglass, are known as a photovoltaic panel or simply solar panel. A
 photovoltaic installation typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules or panels, an
inverter, batteries (for off grid) and interconnected wiring.
Crystalline silicon modules
The most common design of modules contains cells connected using conductive ribbons
into one or more 'strings'. The strings are sandwiched between a solar glass frontside and
a flexible and durable polymer backsheet, using a polymeric encapsulant. The
encapsulant is melted and crosslinked in a vacuum laminator. The strings are electrically
terminated into a junction box usually glued to the back of the module. A frame made of
aluminium profile is fitted around the edges. Crystalline silicon modules have a sunlight
conversion rate of 10-12%.
Rigid thin-film modules
In rigid thin film modules, the cell is created directly on a glass substrate or superstrate,
and the electrical connections are created in situ, a so called "monolithic integration". The
substrate or superstrate is laminated with an encapsulant to a front or back sheet. The
main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, amorphous silicon, micromorphous
silicon (alone or tandem), or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight
conversion rate of 5-7%.
Flexible thin-film modules
Flexible thin film cells are created by depositing the photoactive layer and other
necessary layers on a flexible substrate. If the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or
polyimide film) then monolithic integration can be used. If a conductor then monolithic
integration cannot be used, and another technique for electrical connection used. The
cells are converted to a module by lamination to a transparent colourless fluoropolymer
on the front side (typically ETFE or FEP) and a polymer suitable for bonding to the final
substrate on the other side. The only commercially available (in MW quantities) in a
flexible module is amorphous silicon triple junction (from Unisolar).
Applications of PV
• PV in buildings: Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are increasingly
incorporated into new domestic and industrial buildings as a principal or ancillary source
of electrical power, and are one of the fastest growing segments of the photovoltaic
industry. Typically, an array is incorporated into the roof or walls of a building, and roof
tiles with integrated PV cells can now be purchased. Arrays can also be retrofitted into
existing buildings; in this case they are usually fitted on top of the existing roof structure.
Alternatively, an array can be located separately from the building but connected by cable
to supply power for the building.
• PV in transport: PV has traditionally been used for auxiliary power in space. PV
is rarely used to provide motive power in transport applications, but is being used
increasingly to provide auxiliary power in boats and cars.

Photon-to-Thermal-to-Electric Energy Conversion

The most developed technologies are the parabolic dish, the parabolic trough, and the
power tower. The parabolic dish is already commercially available. This system is
modular and can be used in single dish applications (with output power of the order of
25kWe) or grouped in dish farms to create large multi-megawatt plants.
Table 1. Characteristics of major solar thermal electric power systems.

• Parabolic troughs
Parabolic trough systems use single-axis tracking parabolic mirrors to focus sunlight on
thermally efficient receiver tubes that contain a heat transfer fluid (HTF). The receiver
tubes are usually metallic and embedded into an evacuated glass tube that reduces heat
losses. A special high-temperature coating additionally reduces radiation heat losses. The
working fluid (e.g. thermo oil) is heated to ~400oC and pumped through a series of heat
exchangers to produce superheated steam which powers a conventional turbine generator
to produce electricity. It is also possible to produce superheated steam directly using solar
collectors. This makes the thermo oil unnecessary, and also reduces costs because the
relatively expensive thermo oil and the heat exchangers are no longer needed.
Current research in parabolic trough systems aims at improving performance and lifetime
and at reducing manufacturing, operation, and maintenance costs with improved designs.
These activities concern all critical components of the system, namely the support and
tracking structure, the reflector (glass mirrors, polymeric reflectors and other alternative
reflectors), and the receiver tubes (absorbers, glass/metal seals, etc.).
• Power towers
In a power tower plant, hundreds of two-axis tracking heliostats are
installed around a tower where they focus sunlight with concentrations
ranging from 100 to 10,000 suns. The absorber is located on the top of
the tower and can reach temperatures from 200 C to o

3000 C. Hot air or molten salt are usually used to transport the heat
o

from the absorber to a steam generator where superheated steam is

produced to drive a turbine and an electrical generator. Power towers
are suited for large-output applications, in the 30 to 400MWe range,
and need to be large to be economical. Thermal storage can be easily
integrated with this type of solar systems, allowing the enhancement
of the annual capacity factor from 25% to 65% and the stabilization of
the power output through fluctuations in solar intensity until the stored
energy is depleted.
• Dish-engine systems
Dish-engine systems can be used to generate electricity in the kilowatts range. A
parabolic concave mirror concentrates sunlight; the two-axis tracked mirror must follow
the sun with a high degree of accuracy in order to achieve high efficiencies. At the focus
is a receiver which is heated up over 700°C. The absorbed heat drives a thermal engine
which converts the heat into motive energy and drives a generator to produce electricity.
If sufficient sunlight is not available, combustion heat from either fossil fuels or biofuels
can also drive the engine and generate electricity. The solar-to-electric conversion
efficiency of dish–engine systems can be as high as 30%, with large potential for low cost
deployment. For the moment, the electricity generation costs of these systems are much
higher than those for trough or tower power plants, and only series production can
achieve further significant cost reductions for dish–engine systems.
Photon-to-Chemical Energy Conversion
Photo conversion processes are used for producing a large variety of chemicals with clear
energetic and environmental advantages compared to conventional technical processes.
This section focuses on the synthesis of chemical fuels – e.g. ammonia, methane, or
hydrogen since this application has the largest potential in terms of energy production.
Moreover, it could partially solve one of the principle shortcomings of conventional solar
technologies, which is the lack of capacity for energy storage. Among the large variety of
identified processes and technologies, we consider here three main categories of solar-to-
chemical conversion processes: photo (electro) chemical processes, thermo chemical
processes, and photosynthetic processes in natural systems. Photochemical and photo
electrochemical systems use light-sensitive materials (in aqueous suspension or in the
form of bulk electrodes, respectively) for absorbing photon energy and producing
electrons with sufficient energy for splitting water. In thermo chemical technologies,
concentrated solar flux is used to produce the high-temperatures necessary to drive
endothermic reactions such as syngas production from natural gas, water thermal
decomposition, and water splitting through high-temperature chemical cycles. Some
biological systems (algae, bacteria, yeasts) produce hydrogen in their metabolic activities.
Research in this field aims at overcoming the oxygen sensitivity of the hydrogen-
evolving enzyme systems and at increasing the hydrogen production yield. In parallel,
biomimetic systems are being investigated. These systems are capable of absorbing light,
separating charges, and acting as catalysts for water redox.

CONCLUSION
Solar energy has a large potential to be a major fraction of a future carbon-free energy
portfolio. The deployment of solar technologies for energy production at a large scale
requires the involvement of both political and economical players, but also further
improvements in the conversion efficiency and reduction of manufacturing cost. A large
ongoing research effort aims to find innovative solutions to overcome these barriers. In
the last decade, photovoltaic technologies have experienced an astonishing evolution that
led to the increase of the efficiency of crystal-silicon solar cells up to 25% and of thin-
film devices up to 19%. Recently, nano-technology, innovative deposition and growth
techniques, and novel materials opened routes for reaching higher performances and for
developing very low-cost devices such as organic-based PVs. All these technologies face
comparable fundamental issues related to the steps involved in the conversion of photon
energy into electricity. Their ability to overcome the intermittency problem using
hybridization and thermal storage renders these technologies particularly suitable for
large-scale electricity production. Direct production of chemicals fuels, and particularly
hydrogen, from solar energy is a promising alternative to using fossil fuels for the
development of a sustainable carbon-free fuel economy. Thermo chemical and biological
conversion processes are promising technologies with potential for high efficiency.

REFERENCES
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Opportunities”, Technical Assessment Report, Global Climate & Energy Project
Energy Assessment Analysis, 2006, STANFORD UNIVERSITY.

2. IEA, “World Energy Outlook 2004”, International Energy Agency, Paris,

IEA/OECD, 2004.

3. Renewable resource data center (http://rredc.nrel.gov/).

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aspects of organic photovoltaics and their impact on the
commercialization of devices”, MRS bulletin, 30, 2005, p. 50
(www.mrs.org/publications/bulletin).

5. Stirling Energy Systems Inc. (http://www.stirlingenergy.com/).

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(http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumerinfo/tech_reports.html).