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SUBJECT: PHYSIOLOGY
TOPIC: Adrenal Gland
LECTURER: DR. VIC MENDOZA
DATE: FEBRUARY 2011
Adrenal Gland Mineralocorticoids
• Remember: the blood supply of the adrenal • For regulation of water and sodium,
gland is designed in such a way that the potassium ion concentrations
blood passing through the cortex will also be • Regulation of normal acid‐base balance
the same blood that will pass through the • Main mineralocorticoid: ALDOSTERONE
medulla
o This means that the medulla is also Aldosterone
exposed to the hormones produced • A steroid hormone responsible for
by the adrenal cortex! regulating sodium reabsorption in the distal
• Embryologically tubule and the cortical collecting duct
The cortex is mesodermal, whereas the • Target cells: Principal [P] Cells
medulla is neuroectodermal in origin. • Stimulates the synthesis of Na/K‐ATPase
pump
Adrenal Cortex
• About 80‐90% of the weight of the gland
• Secretes 3 classes of steroid hormones [not
stored but synthesized as needed]
o Because there is no storage, there
are no pre‐formed hormones that
can be secreted right away.
Although it takes longer, steroid
hormones have a longer‐lasting
effect compared to other hormones
anyway.
• Glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids and sex
hormones
• Recall Histology: 3 layers of the cortex
Furthermore, ALDOSTERONE:
o Zona Glomerulosa, Fasciculata and
• Promotes the retention of sodium and water
Reticularis
[hand‐in‐hand]
o Glomerulosa: synthesis and
o Chloride is also retained together
secretion of mineralocorticoids
with bicarbonate
o Fasciculata: glucocorticoids
(This consequently affects acid‐base
o Reticularis: sex hormones balance.)
• Also, recall that the rate‐limiting step in the • Promotes the loss of potassium through the
formation of steroid hormones is the kidneys and hydrogen ion
conversion of cholesterol to pregnenolone. (These are also responsible for how Aldosterone
affects acid‐base balance)
PHYSIOLOGY: The Adrenal Gland 1
• Direct stimulators: Glucocorticoids
o Increased extracellular potassium • 3 classes of glucocorticoids:
o Decreased osmolality o Cortisol [major glucocorticoid!]
• Indirect stimulators [RAAS] o Corticosterone
o Decreased blood pressure o Cortisone
Reduction in kidney perfusion thus • CORTISOL
resulting in INCREASED Renin o A steroid hormone that is plasma
production, which acts on bound to corticosteroid binding
Angiotensinogen to eventually yield
globulin [CBG or transcortin]
Angiotensin II. This can then stimulate
o Essential for life
the adrenal cortex to produce more
o Net effects of cortisol are catabolic:
aldosterone.
prevents hypoglycemia
o Decreased macula densa blood flow
(very low glucose in the bloodstream)
• RAAS: Renin Angiotensin‐Aldosterone System
A person cannot survive for a long time
without glucocorticoids in the body.
If adrenal glands are removed, there will be a
need for exogenous supply
Net effects of cortisol are catabolic
They circulate bound to a globulin but being steroid
hormones, they are capable of crossing cell
membranes. When they detach to CBG, they can
cross the cell membrane because of receptors inside
the cell membrane. Once they enter the nucleus of
the cell, they can promote transcription.
PHYSIOLOGY: The Adrenal Gland 2
Physiological actions: Cortisol Effects:
(how it prevents hypoglycemia)
• Promotes gluconeogenesis
[primarily amino acids coming from catabolism
of skeletal muscle thus providing substrates for
gluconeogenesis]
• Promotes breakdown of skeletal muscle
protein
• Enhances fat breakdown [lipolysis]
• Suppresses immune system
[at pharmacological doses: reduces phagocytic
actions of WBCs]
• Breakdown of bone matrix
[High doses; like when exogenous glucocorticoids
had been administered. Fracture is therefore a
side‐effect of prolonged use of high dose
glucocorticoids.]
• Reduces fever
• Suppresses allergic reactions
• Widespread therapeutic use
[Primarily because it CAN suppress immune
response. Disease entities promoted by
inflammation will be affected, such as bronchial
asthma or lupus, or patients who have
undergone a transplant. Suppression of immune
system is needed so that the body will not reject
the transplanted organ.]
• Decreases formation of connective tissue
[Thus weakening it. Eg capillaries with CT in its
walls. High doses of glucocort can cause the
supporting CT to disappear leading to easy Regulation of Cortisol Release
bruisability]
• Cortisol release is regulated by the ACTH
• Enhance vascular responsiveness to [secreted by the anterior pituitary; pulsatile
catecholamines secretion; diurnal rhythm]
• Inhibit bone formation • Release follows a daily pattern—Circadian
• Increase GFR Since ACTH secretion is pulsatile, it follows that
[Can promote free water clearance in the cortisol seems to have a similar pattern.
kidneys]
• Negative feedback by cortisol inhibits the
• Decrease REM sleep secretion of ACTH and CRH [regulation of
[Modulates wakefulness of a particular person]
their relationship]
• Influences brain function: states of cortisol
• Cortisol also promotes negative feedback to
excess or deficiency cause mood changes
the hypothalamus
and memory and learning alterations
• CRH acts on Anterior Pituitary; it stimulates
secretion of ACTH
PHYSIOLOGY: The Adrenal Gland 3
o The hypothalamus is stimulated to
release CRH
o With high levels of CRH, it will
influence anterior pituitary to
release more ACTH which will, again,
increase secretion of cortisol from
the adrenal cortex
o Cortisol in bloodstream increases
metabolism of carbohydrate, fat,
and protein
**About 10 pulses all throughout the day. Just
o Metabolic processing alleviate the
before waking up in the morning, there is this big,
effects of stress therefore reducing
big pulse (increase in secretion). This increase in
stress
secretion represents more than half the total
secretion of ACTH in 24 hours.
**Hypothalamic‐Pituitary‐Adrenal Axis
** Levels of ACTH are actually lower during sleeping
hours, and then the big,big spike, then eventually
goes down. Though it’s generally really higher during
the day than at night.
ACTH promote secretion of glucocorticoids
• Main effects is on the rate‐limiting step:
transformation of cholesterol to
pregnenolone and from there, it proceeds
Hypothalamus will produce CRH which influences
anterior pituitary Production of ACTH then acts
on adrenal to release further cortisol and this will act
on anterior pituitary decreasing the release of ACTH
• Enhanced secretion can be caused by any
form of stress:
o Physical trauma
o Infection
o Extreme heat and cold
o Exercise to the point of exhaustion
o Extreme mental anxiety
Stress and the Adrenal Cortex
• Glucocorticoids act for the human organism
to adapt to stress
• Any form of stress are first perceived by the
brain and other sensory receptors
PHYSIOLOGY: The Adrenal Gland 4
• Addison’s Disease
o Under‐activity of the adrenal cortex
[hypoadrenalism] results in
decreased output of glucocrticoids
and aldosterone
o Results from infection, intake of
certain drugs, etc
o Adrenal cortex is unable to produce
enough hormones to supply the
needs of the body
o Plasma sodium decreases and may
lead to circulatory collapse
o Symptoms:
decreased blood sodium
skin color becomes bronze
[cross‐reaction of ACTH and
MSH; excess ACTH levels]
**MSH is responsible for pigmentation of skin
anemia [RBC deficiency]
**Please refer to the Powerpoint if figures are not weakness and fatigue
clear. increase in blood potassium
o The only way to survive is to provide
Clinical Correlation: with exogenous glucocorticoids [in
• Hyperadrenalism—Cushing’s Syndrome the form of drugs]
o Caused by exogenous o Ex: JFK’s suntan might be because of
glucocorticoids and by tumours Addison’s disease
[adrenal or pituitary] which produce
enhanced levels of glucocorticoids Gonadocorticoids
o Zg tumor increases aldosterone • Adrenal sex hormones normally have only a
Increase in sodium and very slight effect on the sex organs
blood pressure o Because the most important source
o Zr tumor increases cortisol of sex hormones are testis and
Excess protein catabolism, ovaries
redistribution of fat • Consist mainly of androgens and estrogens
o “moon‐facie” [picture] • DHEA in females are main source of
striae are blood vessels that androgens
are seen because of thinning
out of connective tissue *note the different layers: remember Endocrine
Histology
*Glucocorticoids have some sodium‐retaining
capability [like Mineralocorticoids]
PHYSIOLOGY: The Adrenal Gland 5
*Mineralocoritcoids have some glucocorticoid
properties RECEPTORS
o Effectors on which epinephrine and
*PTH is essential to life! norepinephrine act and can be grouped
based on their response to each hormone
ADRENAL MEDULLA o Effector organs may contain their cell
• Embryologically derived from membranes
pheochromoblasts [neruoectodermal in o alpha receptors
origin] o beta receptors
• Differentiate into modified neuronal cells o or both
o More of a gland than nerve o Even though epinephrine or norepinephrine
o Chromaffin cells bind to alpha and beta receptors, they do
• Acts like sympathetic ganglion not evoke same response
• Extension of the sympathetic nervous o Beta receptor activation linked to
system [SNS] stimulating cAMP
• Acts as peripheral amplifier of SNS o Alpha receptor activation is linked to
• Activated by same stimuli as the SNS inhibiting cAMP
o Ex: exercise, cold, stress,
hemorrhage Receptor Response
• Cells of adrenal medulla synthesize, store, • Norepinephrine interacts predominantly
and secrete two types of catecholamines with alpha receptors
o Main neurotransmitter in adrenal • Beta receptors have higher affinity for
medulla is epinephrine epinephrine
o 80% of secretion of adrenal medulla • Response of cell haing alpha receptors may
is in the form of epinehphrine be different completely from the response
o Norepinephrine of cells with beta receptors for the same
o Small amount of dopamine can also transmitters or hormones
be secreted by the medulla [but is
not really counted as one of the GENRAL RULE:
types of cathecolamines] • Tansmitters trigger the receptors, but it is
• The hormones produce effects similar to the receptor that defines the nature of the
stimulation by the sympathetic nervous response!
system.
• Conversion of norepinephrine to EFFECTS OF CATECHOLAMINES
epinephrine requires another See Figure 1 Last Page
hormone/substance which is cortisol!
• Cortisol enhances phenylethanolamine‐N‐
methyltransferase [PNMT] which is an
enzyme that converts norepinephrine to
epinephrine
• Influences blood vessels in the same way
that the peripheral nervous system affects
the vessels
PHYSIOLOGY: The Adrenal Gland 6
Catecholamine Synthesis Other effects:
• Blood pressure rises
• Heart rate increases
• Blood clotting time reduces
• RR increase
• Bronchioles dilate
• Enzymes in liver
• Release of epinephrine favors survival of
body
Elimination of Catecholamines
**The figure above shows integrated responses to
stress mediated by the sympathetic nervous system
and the hypothalamo‐pituitary‐adrenocortical axis.
**Negative feedback by cortisol can limit an over‐
Stress and Adrenal Medulla [See ppt!]
response that might be harmful to humans.
• Fright, fight, or flight response
• Secretion of epinephrine causes intense CLINICAL:
effects that last a very short time Pheochromocytoma
o liver enzymes inactivate • A catecholamine‐secreting tumour of
epinephrine in about 3 minutes chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla
• Adrenal pheochromocytoma (90%)
After epinephrine has been released: • Paraganglioma – a catecholamine secreting
• Some blood vessels constrict and others tumour of the sympathetic paraganglia
dilate redistributing blood to the brain and • Extra‐adrenal pheochromocytoma
muscles Signs and Symptoms:
• Digestion is halted during the emergency by • Treatment resistant hypertension (95%)
the diversion of blood from the stomach and • Headache
intestines to the skeletal muscle • Sweating Classic Triad!
• Palpitations
• Chest pain
• Anxiety
PHYSIOLOGY: The Adrenal Gland 7
• Glucose intolerance
• Increased metabolic rate
Diagnosis and Treatment:
• Diagnosed by high plasma catecholamines
and increased metabolites in urine
• Glucagon stimulation causes a 3‐fold
increase of plasma catecholamines
• No test for adrenal or extra‐adrenal
treatment is surgical resection
—END OF TRANSCRIPTION—
Actions of Catecholamine Hormones:
PHYSIOLOGY: The Adrenal Gland 8