7th Term - IT & IS For Construction Management

MCM 713 : IT & IS FOR CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT.
Que : What is Programming language ?
A vocabulary and set of grammatical rules for instructing a computer to perform specific tasks. The
term programming language usually refers to high-level languages, such as BASIC, C, C++,
COBOL, FORTRAN, Ada, and Pascal. Each language has a unique set of keywords (words that it
understands) and a special syntax for organizing program instructions.
High-level programming languages, while simple compared to human languages, are more
complex than the languages the computer actually understands, called machine languages. Each
different type of CPU has its own unique machine language.
Lying between machine languages and high-level languages are languages called assembly
languages. Assembly languages are similar to machine languages, but they are much easier to
program in because they allow a programmer to substitute names for numbers. Machine
languages consist of numbers only.
A programming language is a notation for writing programs, which are specifications of a

computation or algorithm.[1] Some, but not all, authors restrict the term "programming language" to
those languages that can express all possible algorithms.[1][2] Traits often considered important for
what constitutes a programming language include:
 Function and target: A computer programming language is a language[3] used to write

computer programs, which involve a computer performing some kind of computation[4] or
algorithm and possibly control external devices such as printers, disk drives, robots,[5] and
so on. For example PostScript programs are frequently created by another program to
control a computer printer or display. More generally, a programming language may
describe computation on some, possibly abstract, machine. It is generally accepted that a
complete specification for a programming language includes a description, possibly
idealized, of a machine or processor for that language.[6] In most practical contexts, a
programming language involves a computer; consequently programming languages are
usually defined and studied this way.[7] Programming languages differ from natural
languages in that natural languages are only used for interaction between people, while
programming languages also allow humans to communicate instructions to machines.
There are thousands of computer programming languages. These are listed in various ways:
 Educational programming language

 Generational list of programming languages
 History of programming languages
 List of object-oriented programming terms
 List of programming languages
 List of programming languages by category – by general usage and context
 List of programming languages for artificial intelligence
 Non-English-based programming languages
 Timeline of programming languages
S.R.P** 7TH- TERM- IT & IS FOR CONSTRUCTION MGMT Page 1
Introduction to C Programming Language
C is a general-purpose computer programming language developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at

the Bell Telephone Laboratories for use with the Unix operating system.
Although C was designed for implementing system software, it is also widely used for developing
portable application software.
C is one of the most popular programming languages.It is widely used on many different software
platforms, and there are few computer architectures for which a C compiler does not exist. C has
greatly influenced many other popular programming languages, most notably C++, which
originally began as an extension to C.
Que : What is the concept of Operating system ?
The most important program that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose computer must have
an operating system to run other programs. Operating systems perform basic tasks, such as
recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files
and directories on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and powers. It is like a
traffic cop -- it makes sure that different programs and users running at the same time do not
interfere with each other. The operating system is also responsible for security, ensuring that
unauthorized users do not access the system.
Operating systems can be classified as follows:
multi-user : Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some
operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.
multiprocessing : Supports running a program on more than one CPU.
multitasking : Allows more than one program to run concurrently.
multithreading : Allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently.
real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems, such as
DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.
Operating systems provide a software platform on top of which other programs, called application
programs, can run. The application programs must be written to run on top of a particular
operating system. Your choice of operating system, therefore, determines to a great extent the
applications you can run. For PCs, the most popular operating systems are DOS, OS/2, and
Windows, but others are available, such as Linux.
As a user, you normally interact with the operating system through a set of commands. For
example, the DOS operating system contains commands such as COPY and RENAME for
copying files and changing the names of files, respectively. The commands are accepted and
executed by a part of the operating system called the command processor or command line
interpreter. Graphical user interfaces allow you to enter commands by pointing and clicking at
objects that appear on the screen.

Operating System Functions
At the simplest level, an operating system does two things:
1. It manages the hardware and software resources of the system. In a desktop computer,
these resources include such things as the processor, memory, disk space and more (On a
cell phone, they include the keypad, the screen, the address book, the phone dialer, the
battery and the network connection).
2. It provides a stable, consistent way for applications to deal with the hardware without
having to know all the details of the hardware.
The operating system's tasks, in the most general sense, fall into six categories:
 Processor management
 Memory management
 Device management
 Storage management
 Application interface
 User interface
While there are some who argue that an operating system should do more than these six tasks,
and some operating-system vendors do build many more utility programs and auxiliary functions
into their operating systems, these six tasks define the core of nearly all operating systems. Next,
let's look at the tools the operating system uses to perform each of these functions.
Que : What is a digital computer ?
A device that processes numerical information; more generally, any device that manipulates
symbolic information according to specified computational procedures. The term digital
computer—or simply, computer—embraces calculators, computer workstations, control computers
(controllers) for applications such as domestic appliances and industrial processes, data-
processing systems, microcomputers, microcontrollers, multiprocessors, parallel computers,
personal computers, network servers, and supercomputers.
A digital computer is an electronic computing machine that uses the binary digits (bits) 0 and 1 to
represent all forms of information internally in digital form. Every computer has a set of instructions
that define the basic functions it can perform. Sequences of these instructions constitute machine-
language programs that can be stored in the computer and used to tailor it to an essentially
unlimited number of specialized applications. Calculators are small computers specialized for
mathematical computations. General-purpose computers range from pocket-sized personal digital
assistants (notepad computers), to medium-sized desktop computers (personal computers and
workstations), to large, powerful computers that are shared by many users via a computer
network. The vast majority of digital computers now in use are inexpensive, special-purpose
microcontrollers that are embedded, often invisibly, in such devices as toys, consumer electronic
equipment, and automobiles. See also Bit; Computer programming; Embedded systems.

The main data-processing elements of a computer reside in a small number of electronic
integrated circuits (ICs) that form a microprocessor or central processing unit (CPU). Electronic
technology allows a basic instruction such as ―add two numbers‖ to be executed many millions of
times per second. Other electronic devices are used for program and data storage (memory
circuits) and for communication with external devices and human users (input-output circuits).
Nonelectronic (magnetic, optical, and mechanical) devices also appear in computers. They are
used to construct input-output devices such as keyboards, monitors (video screens), secondary
memories, printers, sensors, and mechanical actuators.
Functions of digital computer
A general purpose computer has four main components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control
unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts are
interconnected by busses, often made of groups of wires.
All digital computers, no matter what size or shape, have certain similarities in the way they are
organized. A computer must be able to read or accept instructions and data, remember the
problem solved and the data to use, perform arithmetical calculations and logical manipulations on
the data, read out the results, and control the entire operation.
Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned
off or on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit (binary digit) of information
so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" (in positive logic
representation). The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may
control the state of one or more of the other circuits.
The control unit, ALU, registers, and basic I/O (and often other hardware closely linked with these)
are collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many
separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single
integrated circuit called a microprocessor.
1.Control unit
Diagram showing how a particular MIPS architecture instruction would be decoded by the control
system.
The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer's
various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them
into a series of control signals which activate other parts of the computer. [24] Control systems in
advanced computers may change the order of some instructions so as to improve performance.
A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register)
that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from .

The control system's functions is as follows—note that this is a simplified
description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different
order depending on the type of CPU:
1. Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program
counter.
2. Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or
signals for each of the other systems.
3. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
4. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps
from an input device). The location of this required data is typically stored
within the instruction code.
5. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
6. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct
the hardware to perform the requested operation.
7. Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or
perhaps an output device.
8. Jump back to step (1).
2.Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)
The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.
The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to adding and
subtracting or might include multiplying or dividing, trigonometry functions (sine, cosine, etc.) and
square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point
to represent real numbers—albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of
performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex
operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to
perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not
directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth
values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is
64 greater than 65?").
3. Memory
Magnetic core memory was the computer memory of choice throughout the 1960s, until it was
replaced by semiconductor memory.
A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read.
Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be
instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in cell
1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595". The information stored
in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can
be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different

types of information, it is the software's responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees
as nothing but a series of numbers.
The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to
much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred
registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data
items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. As data is constantly
being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the
ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.
Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties: random-access memory or RAM and
read-only memory or ROM. RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but
ROM is pre-loaded with data and software that never changes, so the CPU can only read from it.
ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents
of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data
indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates
loading the computer's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the
computer is turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives,
all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called
firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the
distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is
typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to
applications where high speed is unnecessary.
4.Input/output (I/O)
Hard disk drives are common storage devices used with computers.
I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside
world.[29] Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called
peripherals.[30] On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like
the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer. Hard
disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output
devices. Computer networking is another form of I/O.
Often, I/O devices are complex computers in their own right with their own CPU and
memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that
perform the calculations necessary to display graphics, Modern desktop computers
contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/O.
“It’s ridiculous to live 100 years and only be able to remember 30 million bytes. You know, less than a compact disc. The human condition
is really becoming more obsolete every minute.”

Que : Types of Information Systems
Information systems differ in their business needs. Also depending upon different levels in
organization information systems differ. Three major information systems are
1. Transaction processing systems

2. Management information systems
3. Decision support systems
The information needs are different at different organizational levels. Accordingly the information
can be categorized as: strategic information, managerial information and operational information.
Strategic information is the information needed by top most management for decision making. For
example the trends in revenues earned by the organization are required by the top management
for setting the policies of the organization. This information is not required by the lower levels in
the organization. The information systems that provide these kinds of information are known as
Decision Support Systems.
The second category of information required by the middle management is known as managerial
information. The information required at this level is used for making short term decisions and
plans for the organization. Information like sales analysis for the past quarter or yearly production
details etc. fall under this category. Management information system (MIS) caters to such
information needs of the organization. Due to its capabilities to fulfill the managerial information
needs of the organization, Management Information Systems have become a necessity for all big
organizations. And due to its vastness, most of the big organizations have separate MIS
departments to look into the related issues and proper functioning of the system.
The third category of information is relating to the daily or short term information needs of the
organization such as attendance records of the employees. This kind of information is required at
the operational level for carrying out the day-to-day operational activities. Due to its capabilities to
provide information for processing transaction of the organization, the information system is known
as Transaction Processing System or Data Processing System. Some examples of information
provided by such systems areprocessing of orders, posting of entries in bank, evaluating overdue
purchaser orders etc.
Transaction Processing Systems
TPS processes business transaction of the organization. Transaction can be any activity of the
organization. Transactions differ from organization to organization. For example, take a railway
reservation system. Booking, canceling, etc are all transactions. Any query made to it is a
transaction. However, there are some transactions, which are common to almost all organizations.
Like employee new employee, maintaining their leave status, maintaining employees accounts,
etc.
This provides high speed and accurate processing of record keeping of basic operational
processes. These include calculation, storage and retrieval.
Transaction processing systems provide speed and accuracy, and can be programmed to follow
routines functions of the organization.

Management Information Systems
These systems assist lower management in problem solving and making decisions. They use the
results of transaction processing and some other information also. It is a set of information
processing functions. It should handle queries as quickly as they arrive. An important element of
MIS is database.
A database is a non-redundant collection of interrelated data items that can be processed through
application programs and available to many users.
Decision Support Systems
These systems assist higher management to make long term decisions. These type of systems
handle unstructured or semi structured decisions. A decision is considered unstructured if there
are no clear procedures for making the decision and if not all the factors to be considered in the
decision can be readily identified in advance.
These are not of recurring nature. Some recur infrequently or occur only once. A decision support
system must very flexible. The user should be able to produce customized reports by giving
particular data and format specific to particular situations.
Summary of Information Systems

Catagories of Information System Characteristices
Transaction Processing System Substitutes computer-based processing for manual

procedures.
Deals with well-structured processes. Includes

record keeping applications.
Management information system Provides input to be used in the managerial decision

process. Deals with supporting well structured
decision situations. Typical information requirements
can be anticipated.
Decision support system Provides information to managers who must make

judgements about particular situations. Supports
decision-makers in situations that are not well
structured.
“Most software today is very much like an Egyptian pyramid with millions of bricks piled on top of each other, with no structural
integrity, but just done by brute force and thousands of slaves.”

What is DBMS ?(DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM)
As one of the oldest components associated with computers, the database management
system, or DBMS, is a computer software program that is designed as the means of
managing all databases that are currently installed on a system hard drive or network.
Different types of database management systems exist, with some of them designed for
the oversight and proper control of databases that are configured for specific purposes.
Here are some examples of the various incarnations of DBMS technology that are
currently in use, and some of the basic elements that are part of DBMS software
applications.
As the tool that is employed in the broad practice of managing databases, the DBMS is
marketed in many forms. Some of the more popular examples of DBMS solutions include
Microsoft Access, FileMaker, DB2, and Oracle. All these products provide for the creation
of a series of rights or privileges that can be associated with a specific user. This means
that it is possible to designate one or more database administrators who may control each
function, as well as provide other users with various levels of administration rights. This
flexibility makes the task of using DBMS methods to oversee a system something that can
be centrally controlled, or allocated to several different people.
There are four essential elements that are found with just about every example of DBMS
currently on the market. The first is the implementation of a modeling language that serves
to define the language of each database that is hosted via the DBMS. There are several
approaches currently in use, with hierarchical, network, relational, and object examples.
Essentially, the modeling language ensures the ability of the databases to communicate
with the DBMS and thus operate on the system.
Second, data structures also are administered by the DBMS. Examples of data that are
organized by this function are individual profiles or records, files, fields and their definitions,
and objects such as visual media. Data structures are what allows DBMS to interact with
the data without causing and damage to the integrity of the data itself.
A third component of DBMS software is the data query language. This element is involved
in maintaining the security of the database, by monitoring the use of login data, the
assignment of access rights and privileges, and the definition of the criteria that must be
employed to add data to the system. The data query language works with the data
structures to make sure it is harder to input irrelevant data into any of the databases in use
on the system.
Last, a mechanism that allows for transactions is an essential basic for any DBMS. This
helps to allow multiple and concurrent access to the database by multiple users, prevents
the manipulation of one record by two users at the same time, and preventing the creation
of duplicate records.

Que: APPROACHES TO SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
Learning Objectives
• Explain the purpose and various phases of the systems development life cycle
(SDLC)
• Explain the differences between predictive SDLC and adaptive SDLC
• Explain the differences between a model, a tool, a technique, and a methodology
• Describe the two overall approaches used to develop information systems: the
traditional method and the object-oriented method
The Systems Development Lifecycle
u Systems development life cycle (SDLC)
l Provides overall framework for managing systems development process
u Two main approaches to SDLC
I. Predictive approach – assumes project can be planned out in advance
II. Adaptive approach – more flexible, assumes project cannot be planned out in
advance
u All projects use some variation of SDLC
Choosing the Predictive vs. Adaptive Approach to the SDLC
I.Traditional Predictive Approach to the SDLC

u Project planning – initiate, ensure feasibility, plan schedule, obtain approval for project
u Analysis – understand business needs and processing requirements
u Design – define solution system based on requirements and analysis decisions
u Implementation – construct, test, train users, and install new system
u Support – keep system running and improve

“Waterfall model” Approach to the SDLC
Basic Principles:
1. Project is divided into sequential phases, with some overlap and splashback acceptable
between phases.
2. Emphasis is on planning, time schedules, target dates, budgets and implementation of an
entire system at one time.
3. Tight control is maintained over the life of the project through the use of extensive written
documentation, as well as through formal reviews and approval/signoff by the user and
information technology management occurring at the end of most phases before eginning
the next phase.
Strengths:
1. Ideal for supporting less experienced project teams and project managers, or project teams
whose composition fluctuates.
2. The orderly sequence of development steps and strict controls for ensuring the adequacy of
documentation and design reviews helps ensure the quality, reliability, and maintainability
of the developed software.
3. Progress of system development is measurable.
4. Conserves resources.
Weaknesses:
1. Inflexible, slow, costly and cumbersome due to significant structure and tight controls.
2. Project progresses forward, with only slight movement backward.
3. Little room for use of iteration, which can reduce manageability if used.
4. Depends upon early identification and specification of requirements, yet users may not be
able to clearly define what they need early in the project.
5. Requirements inconsistencies, missing system components, and unexpected
developmentneeds are often discovered during design and coding.
6. Problems are often not discovered until system testing.
7. System performance cannot be tested until the system is almost fully coded, and under-
capacity may be difficult to correct.
8. Situations where most appropriate:
9. Project is for development of a mainframe-based or transaction-oriented batch system.
10. Project is large, expensive, and complicated.
11. Project has clear objectives and solution.
12. Pressure does not exist for immediate implementation.
13. Project requirements can be stated unambiguously and comprehensively.
14. Project requirements are stable or unchanging during the system development life cycle.
15. User community is fully knowledgeable in the business and application.
II . Newer Adaptive Approaches to the SDLC

• Based on spiral model
o Project cycles through development activities over and over until project is complete
o Prototype created by end of each cycle
o Focuses on mitigating risk
• Iteration – Work activities are repeated
o Each iteration refines previous result
o Approach assumes no one gets it right the first time
o There are a series of mini projects for each iteration
The Spiral Life Cycle Model
This is a recent model that has been proposed by Boehm. As the name suggests, the activities in
this model can be organized like a spiral. The spiral has many cycles. The radial dimension
represents the cumulative cost incurred in accomplishing the steps dome so far and the angular
dimension represents the progress made in completing each cycle of the spiral. The structure of
the spiral model is shown in the figure given below. Each cycle in the spiral begins with the
identification of objectives for that cycle and the different alternatives are possible for achieving the
objectives and the imposed constraints.
The next step in the spiral life cycle model is to evaluate these different alternatives based on the
objectives and constraints. This will also involve identifying uncertainties and risks involved. The
next step is to develop strategies that resolve the uncertainties and risks. This step may involve

activities such as benchmarking, simulation and prototyping. Next, the software is developed by
keeping in mind the risks. Finally the next stage is planned.
The next step is determined by remaining risks. For example, its performance or user-interface
risks are considered more important than the program development risks. The next step may be
evolutionary development that involves developing a more detailed prototype for resolving the
risks. On the other hand, if the program development risks dominate and previous prototypes have
resolved all the user-interface and performance risks; the next step will follow the basic waterfall
approach.
The risk driven nature of the spiral model allows it to accommodate any mixture of specification-
oriented, prototype-oriented, simulation-oriented or some other approach. An important feature of
the model is that each cycle of the spiral is completed by a review, which covers all the products
developed during that cycle, including plans for the next cycle. The spiral model works for
developed as well as enhancement projects.
Spiral Model Description
The development spiral consists of four quadrants as shown in the figure above
Quadrant 1: Determine objectives, alternatives, and constraints.
Quadrant 2: Evaluate alternatives, identify, resolve risks.
Quadrant 3: Develop, verify, next-level product.
Quadrant 4: Plan next phases.
Although the spiral, as depicted, is oriented toward software development, the concept is equally
applicable to systems, hardware, and training, for example. To better understand the scope of
each spiral development quadrant, let’s briefly address each one.
Quadrant 1: Determine Objectives, Alternatives, and Constraints
Activities performed in this quadrant include:
1. Establish an understanding of the system or product objectives—namely performance,

functionality, and ability to accommodate change.
2. Investigate implementation alternatives—namely design, reuse, procure, and procure/
modify
3. Investigate constraints imposed on the alternatives—namely technology, cost, schedule,
support, and risk. Once the system or product’s objectives, alternatives, and constraints are
understood, Quadrant 2 (Evaluate alternatives, identify, and resolve risks) is performed.

Quadrant 2: Evaluate Alternatives, Identify, Resolve Risks
Engineering activities performed in this quadrant select an alternative approach that best satisfies
technical, technology, cost, schedule, support, and risk constraints. The focus here is on risk
mitigation. Each alternative is investigated and prototyped to reduce the risk associated with the
development decisions. Boehm describes these activities as follows:
. . . This may involve prototyping, simulation, benchmarking, reference checking,

administering user
questionnaires, analytic modeling, or combinations of these and other risk resolution
techniques.
The outcome of the evaluation determines the next course of action. If critical operational
and/or technical issues (COIs/CTIs) such as performance and interoperability (i.e., external
and internal) risks remain, more detailed prototyping may need to be added before
progressing to the next quadrant. Dr. Boehm notes that if the alternative chosen is
―operationally useful and robust enough to serve as a low-risk base for future product
evolution, the subsequent risk-driven steps would be the evolving series of evolutionary
prototypes going toward the right (hand side of the graphic) . . . the option of writing
specifications would be addressed but not exercised.‖ This brings us to Quadrant 3.
Quadrant 3: Develop, Verify, Next-Level Product
If a determination is made that the previous prototyping efforts have resolved the
COIs/CTIs, activities to develop, verify, next-level product are performed. As a result, the
basic ―waterfall‖ approach may be employed—meaning concept of operations, design,
development, integration, and test of the next system or product iteration. If appropriate,
incremental development approaches may also be applicable.
Quadrant 4: Plan Next Phases
The spiral development model has one characteristic that is common to all models—the
need for advanced technical planning and multidisciplinary reviews at critical staging or
control points. Each cycle of the model culminates with a technical review that assesses
the status, progress, maturity, merits, risk, of development efforts to date; resolves critical
operational and/or technical issues (COIs/CTIs); and reviews plans and identifies
COIs/CTIs to be resolved for the next iteration of the spiral.

Que :ACTIVITIES OF EACH SDLC PHASE (SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE)
1. Predictive or adaptive approach use SDLC

2. Activities of each ―phase‖ are similar
3. Phases are not always sequential
4. Phases can overlap
1. Activities of Planning Phase of SDLC

a. Define business problem and scope
b. Produce detailed project schedule
c. Confirm project feasibility
i. Economic, organizational, technical, resource, and schedule
d. Staff the project (resource management)
e. Launch project à official announcement
2. Activities of Analysis Phase of SDLC

a. Gather information to learn problem domain
b. Define system requirements
c. Build prototypes for discovery of requirements
d. Prioritize requirements
e. Generate and evaluate alternatives
f. Review recommendations with management
3. Activities of Design Phase of SDLC

a. Design and integrate the network
b. Design the application architecture
c. Design the user interfaces
d. Design the system interfaces
e. Design and integrate the database
f. Prototype for design details
g. Design and integrate system controls
4. Activities of Implementation Phase of SDLC

a. Construct software components
b. Verify and test
c. Convert data
d. Train users and document the system
e. Install the system
5. Activities of Support Phase of SDLC

a. Maintain system
i. Small patches, repairs, and updates
b. Enhance system
i. Small upgrades or enhancements to expand system capabilities
ii. Larger enhancements may require separate development project
c. Support users
i. Help desk and/or support team

What are Methodologies?
• Comprehensive guidelines to follow for completing every SDLC activity
• Collection of models, tools, and techniques
What Are Models?

• Representation of an important aspect of real world, but not the same as real thing
• Abstraction used to
separate out aspect
• Diagrams and charts
• Project planning and
budgeting aids
Some Models Used in System

Development
What Are Tools?

• Software support that helps create models or other required project components
• Range from simple drawing
programs to complex CASE
tools to project management
software
What Are Techniques?

• Collection of guidelines that help analysts complete a system development activity or task
• Can be step-by-step
instructions or just
general advice

Two Approaches to System Development ?
u Traditional approach
l Also called structured system development
l Structured analysis and design technique (SADT)
l Includes information engineering (IE)
u Object-oriented approach
l Also called OOA, OOD, and OOP
l Views information system as collection of interacting objects that work together to
accomplish tasks
TRADITIONAL APPROACH
1.Structured System Development
I. Structure Programming
II. Top-down Programming
III. Structured Design
IV. Structured Analysis
I. Structured Programming
a. Improves computer program quality
b. Allows other programmers to easily read and modify code
c. Each program module has one beginning and one ending
d. Three programming constructs (sequence, decision, repetition)
II. Top-Down Programming
a. Divides complex programs into hierarchy of modules
b. The module at top controls execution by ―calling‖ lower level modules
c. Modular programming
i. Similar to top-down programming
d. One program calls other programs to work together as single system
III. Structured Design
a. What the set of programs should be
b. What each program should accomplish
c. How the programs should be organized into a hierarchy

2.Structured Analysis
• Define what system needs to do (processing requirements)
• Define data system needs to store and use (data requirements)
• Define inputs and outputs
• Define how functions work together to accomplish tasks
• Data flow diagrams (DFD) and entity relationship diagrams (ERD) show results of
structured analysis
Data Flow Diagram (DFD)
Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD)
3.Information Engineering (IE)

• Refinement to structured development
• Methodology with strategic planning, data modeling, automated tools focus
• More rigorous and complete than SADT
• Industry merged key concepts from structured development and information
engineering approaches into traditional approach
“Every operating system out there is about equal… We all suck.”

Object-Oriented Approach
1. Completely different approach to information systems

2. Views information system as collection of interacting objects that work together to accomplish
tasks
o Objects – things in computer system that can respond to messages
o Conceptually, no processes, programs, data entities, or files are defined – just objects
3. OO languages: Java, C++, C# .NET, VB .NET
Terminologies of O-O Approach
1. Object-oriented analysis (OOA)
2. Object-oriented design (OOD)
3. Object-oriented programming (OOP)
1. Object-oriented analysis (OOA)
a. Defines types of objects users deal with
b. Shows use cases are required to complete tasks
2. Object-oriented design (OOD)
a. Defines object types needed to communicate with people and devices in system
b. Shows how objects interact to complete tasks
c. Refines each type of object for implementation with specific language of environment
3. Object-oriented programming (OOP)
• Writing statements in programming language to define what each type of object does

MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM ( MIS) CONCEPT
The concept of the MIS has evolved over a period of time comprising many different facets of the
organizational function. MIS is a necessity of all the organizations.
The initial concept of MIS was to process data from the organization and present it in the for of
reports at regular intervals. The system was largely capable of handling the data from collection
to processing. It was more impersonal, requiring each individual to pick and choose the
processed data and use it for his requirements. This concept was further modified when a
distinction was made between data and information. The information is a product of an analysis of
data. This concept is similar to a raw material and the finished product. What are needed are
information and not a mass of data. However, the data can be analyzed in a number of ways,
producing different shades and specifications of the information as a product. It was,
therefore, demanded that the system concept be an individual- oriented, as each individual
may have a different orientation. Towards the information. This concept was further
modified, that the system should present information in such a form and format that it creates
an impact on its user, provoking a decision or an investigation. It was later realized then even
though such an impact was a welcome modification, some sort of selective approach was
necessary in the analysis and reporting. Hence, the concept of exception reporting was imbibed in
MIS.
MIS DEFINITION
The Management Information System (MIS) is a concept of the last decade or two. It has
been understood and described in a number ways. It is also known as the Information
System, the Information and Decision System, the Computer- based information System.
The MIS has more than one definition, some of which are give below.
1. The MIS is defined as a system which provides information support for decision making in
the organization.
2. The MIS is defined as an integrated system of man and machine for providing the information
to support the operations, the management and the decision making function in the
organization.
3. The MIS is defined as a system based on the database of the organization evolved for the
purpose of providing information to the people in the organization.
4. The MIS is defined as a Computer ñ based Information System.
ROLE OF THE MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM
The role of the MIS in an organization can be compared to the role of heart in the body. The
information is the blood and MIS is the heart. In the body the heart plays he role of supplying
pure blood to all the elements of the body including the brain. The heart works faster and
supplies more blood when needed. It regulates and controls the incoming impure blood,
processes it and sends it to the destination in the quantity needed. It fulfills the needs of blood
supply to human body in normal course and also in crisis.

The MIS plays exactly the same role in the organization. The system ensures that an appropriate
data is collected from the various sources, processed, and sent further to all the needy
destinations. The system is expected to fulfill the information needs of an individual, a group
of individuals, the management functionaries: the managers and the top management.
The MIS satisfies the diverse needs through a variety of systems such as Query Systems,
Analysis Systems, Modeling Systems and Decision Support Systems the MIS helps in
Strategic Planning, Management Control, Operational Control and Transaction Processing.
The MIS helps the clerical personnel in the transaction processing and answers their queries
on the data pertaining to the transaction, the status of a particular record and references on a
variety of documents. The MIS helps the junior management personnel by providing the
operational data for planning, scheduling and control, and helps them further in decision making
at the operations level to correct an out of control situation. The MIS helps the middle
management in short them planning, target setting and controlling the business functions. It is
supported by the use of the management tools of planning and control. The MIS helps the top
management in goal setting,
strategic planning and evolving the business plans and their implementation.
Implementation of MIS
The choice of the system or the sub-system depends on its position in the total MIS plan, the size
of the system, the user understands of the system and the complexity and its interface with other
systems.
The designer first develops systems independently and starts integrating them with other systems,
enlarging the system scope and meeting the varying information needs.
Determining the position of the system in the MIS is easy. The real problem in the degree of
structure, and formalization in the system and procedures which determine the timing and duration
of development of the system. Higher the degree of structured ness and formalization, greater is
the stabilization of the rules, the procedures, decision making and the understanding of the overall
business activity. Here, it is observed that the user’s and the designer interaction are smooth, and
each other’s need are clearly understood and respected mutually. The development becomes a
methodical approach with certainty in input-process and outputs.
MIS is generally used by medium and larger scale organizations. However, small organizations
are yet to understand its application. There is dire need to build up computer culture by properly
disseminating information about computer applications and its benefits.
Implementation of MIS can be achieved by using any of the methods such as direct, parallel,
modular or phase in.

Direct Approach
Direct installation of the new system with immediate discontinuance of the old existing system is
reffered as ―cold turnkey‖ approach. This approach becomes useful when these factors are
considered.
1. The new system does no replace the existing system.

2. Old system is regarded absolutely of no value
3. New system is compact and simple.
4. The design of the new system is inexpensive with more advantages and less risk involved.
Parallel Approach
The selected new system is installed and operated with current system. This method is expensive
because of duplicating facilities and personal to maintain both the systems. In this approach a
target date must be fixed when the operations of old system cease and new one will operate on its
own.
Modular Approach
This is generally recognized as ―Pilot approach‖, means the implementation of a system in the
Organization on a piece-meal basis.
This has few advantages / merits

1. The risk of systems failure is localized
2. The major problem can be easily identified and corrected before further implementation.
3. Operating personal can be trained before system is installed in a location.
Phase-in-Implementation
This approach is similar to modular method but it differs because of segmentation of system,
however, not the organization. It has advantages that the rate of changes in a given Organization
can be totally minimized and the data processing resource can be acquired gradually over a
period of time. System exhibits certain disadvantages such as limited applicability, more costs
incurred to develop interface with old system and a feeling in the Organization that system is never
completed.

Implementation Procedures
• Planning the Implementation
After designing the MIS it is essential that the organization should plan carefully for
implementation. The planning stage should invariably include the following:
1. Identification of tasks of Implementation

Planning the implementation activities, acquisition of facilities, procedures development,
generating files and forms, testing the system and evaluating and maintenance of the system.
2. Relationship establishment among the activity
Network diagram must be prepared to correlate concurrent and sequential activities.
3. Establishing of MIS
For monitoring the progress of implementation and for proper control of activities, efficient
information system should be developed.
4. Acquisition of Facilities
For installation of new system or to replace current system the manager should prepare a
proposal for approval from the management by considering space requirement movement of
personal and location for utility outlets and controls.
5. Procedure Development
This is an important stop for implementation of the system including various activities such as
evaluation selection of hardware, purchase or development of software, testing and
implementation strategies.
6. Generating Files and Forms

The MIS manager should generate files and formats for storing actual date. This requires checklist
data, format date storage forms and other remarks in data base.
7. Testing of the System

Test should be performed in accordance with the specifications at the implementation stage
consisting of component test sub system test and total system test.

Evaluation and maintenance of MIS system
The performance should e evaluated in order to find out cost effectiveness and efficacy of the
system with minimum errors due to designs environmental changes or services.
Software Maintenances
The proper maintenance is the enigma of the system development and it holds software industry
captive lying up programming resources. There are some problems in maintenance such as
regarding it as non rewarding non availability of technicians and tools no cognizance of users
about maintenance problem and cost lack of standard procedures and guidelines. Most
programmers feel maintenance as low level drudgery. If proper attentions is paid over a period of
time eventually less maintenance is required.
Types of Maintenance
The maintenance of system are classified into corrective/adaptive/perfective. Corrective
maintenance means repairing process or performance failures. Adaptive maintenance means
changing the programming function whereas perfective maintenance deals with enhancing the
performance or modifying the program.
Primary Activities of a Maintenance Procedure

Documentation is major part of maintenance in system development. Maintenance staff receives
requests from the authorized user. Programming library should be maintained.
Reduction in Maintenance Costs

Several organizations having MIS generally go in for reducing maintenance costs and it consists of
three major phases.
1. Maintenance management audit through questionnaires and interviews.

2. Software system audit.
3. Software modification.
Evaluation Methods
Evaluation of the MIS in an organization is integral part of the control processes. There are several
evaluation approaches such as quality assurance review compliance of audits budget
performance review computer personal productivity assessment computer performance evaluation
service level monitoring user audit survey post installation review and cost benefit analysis.
Evaluation performance measurement can be classified into two classes as effectiveness and
efficiency. The relationship between effectiveness and efficiency is that the format is a measure of
goodness of out put and the latter is a measure of the resources required to achieve the output.

ISO-OSI 7-Layer Network Architecture
This lecture introduces the ISO-OSI layered architecture of Networks. According to the ISO
standards, networks have been divided into 7 layers depending on the complexity of the
fucntionality each of these layers provide. The detailed description of each of these layers is given
in the notes below. We will first list the layers as defined by the standard in the increasing order of
function complexity:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Physical Layer
This layer is the lowest layer in the OSI model. It helps in the transmission of data between two machines
that are communicating through a physical medium, which can be optical fibres,copper wire or wireless etc.
The following are the main functions of the physical layer:
1. Hardware Specification: The details of the physical cables, network interface cards, wireless
radios, etc are a part of this layer.
Coaxial Cable Hybrid Cable Wireless Card Network Card
2. Encoding and Signalling: How are the bits encoded in the medium is also decided by this layer.
For example, on the coppar wire medium, we can use differnet voltage levels for a certain time
interval to represent '0' and '1'. We may
use +5mV for 1nsec to represent '1' and -
5mV for 1nsec to represent '0'. All the
issues of modulation is dealt with in this
layer. eg, we may use Binary phase shift
keying for the representation of '1' and '0'
rather than using different volatage levels
if we have to transfer in RF waves.
Binary Phase Shift Keying

3. Data Transmission and Reception: The transfer of each bit of data is the responsibility of this
layer. This layer assures the transmissoin of each bit with a high probability. The
transmission of the bits is not completely reliable as their is no error correction in this layer.
4. Topology and Network Design: The network design is the integral part of the physical
layer. Which part of the network is the router going to be placed, where the switches will be
used, where we will put the hubs, how many machines is each switch going to handle, what
server is going to be placed where, and many
such concerns are to be taken care of by the
physical layer. The variosu kinds of
netopologies that we decide to use may be
ring, bus, star or a hybrid of these topologies
depending on our requirements.
Data Link Layer

This layer provides reliable transmission of a packet by using the services of the physical layer
which transmits bits over the medium in an unreliable fashion. This layer is concerned with :
1. Framing: Breaking input data into frames (typically a few hundred bytes) and caring about
the frame boundaries and the size of each frame.
2. Acknowledgment : Sent by the receiving end to inform the source that the frame was
received without any error.
3. Sequence Numbering : To acknowledge which frame was received.
4. Error Detection : The frames may be damaged, lost or duplicated leading to errors.The
error control is on link to link basis.
5. Retransmission : The packet is retransmitted if the source fails to receive
acknowledgment.
6. Flow Control : Necessary for a fast
transmitter to keep pace with a slow
receiver.
Data Link Layer

Network Layer
Its basic functions are routing and congestion control.
Routing: This deals with determining how packets will be routed (transferred) from source to destination. It
can be of three types :
 Static : Routes are based on static tables that are "wired into" the network and are rarely changed.
 Dynamic : All packets of one application can follow different routes depending upon the topology of
the network, the shortest path and the current
network load.
 Semi-Dynamic : A route is chosen at the start of
each conversation and then all the packets of the
application follow the same route.
Routing
The services provided by the network can be of two

types :
 Connection less service: Each packet of an application is treated as an independent

entity. On each packet of the application the destination address is provided and the packet
is routed.
 Connection oriented service: Here, first a connection is established and then all packets
of the application follow the same route. To understand the above concept, we can also
draw an analogy from the real life. Connection oriented service is modeled after the
telephone system. All voice packets go on the same path after the connection is
established till the connection is hung up. It acts like a tube ; the sender pushes the objects
in at one end and the receiver takes them out in the same order at the other end.
Connection less service is modeled after the postal system. Each letter carries the
destination address and is routed independent of all the others. Here, it is possible that the
letter sent first is delayed so that the second letter reaches the destination before the first
letter.
Congestion Control: A router can be connected to 4-5 networks. If all the networks send packet
at the same time with maximum rate possible then the router may not be able to handle all the
packets and may drop some/all packets. In this context the dropping of the packets should be
minimized and the source whose packet was dropped should be informed. The control of such
congestion is also a function of the network layer. Other issues related with this layer are
transmitting time, delays, jittering.
Internetworking: Internetworks are multiple networks that are connected in such a way that they
act as one large network, connecting multiple office or department networks. Internetworks are
connected by networking hardware such as routers, switches, and bridges.Internetworking is a
solution born of three networking problems: isolated LANs, duplication of resources, and the lack
of a centralized network management system. With connected LANs, companies no longer have
to duplicate programs or resources on each network. This in turn gives way to managing the
network from one central location instead of trying to manage each separate LAN. We should be

able to transmit any packet from one network to any other network even if they follow different
protocols or use different addressing modes.
Network Layer does not guarantee that the packet will reach its intended destination. There are
no reliability guarantees.
Transport Layer
Its functions are :
 Multiplexing / Demultiplexing : Normally the transport layer will create distinct network
connection for each transport connection required by the session layer. The transport layer
may either create multiple network connections (to improve throughput) or it may multiplex
several transport connections onto the same network connection (because creating and
maintaining networks may be expensive). In the latter case, demultiplexing will be required
at the receiving end. A point to note here is that communication is always carried out
between two processes and not between two machines. This is also known as process-to-
process communication.
 Fragmentation and Re-assembly : The data accepted by the transport layer from the
session layer is split up into smaller units (fragmentation) if needed and then passed to the
network layer. Correspondingly, the data provided by the network layer to the transport
layer on the receiving side is re-assembled.
 Types of service : The transport layer also decides the type of service that should be
provided to the session layer. The service may be perfectly reliable, or may be reliable
within certain tolerances or may not be reliable at all. The message may or may not be
received in the order in which it was sent. The decision regarding the type of service to be
provided is taken at the time when the connection is established.
 Error Control : If reliable service is provided then error detection and error recovery
operations are also performed. It provides error control mechanism on end to end basis.
 Flow Control : A fast host cannot keep pace with a slow one. Hence, this is a mechanism
to regulate the flow of information.
 Connection Establishment / Release : The transport layer also establishes and releases
the connection across the network. This requires some sort of naming mechanism so that a
process on one machine can indicate with whom it wants to communicate.

Session Layer
It deals with the concept of Sessions i.e. when a user logins to a remote server he should be
authenticated before getting access to the files and application programs. Another job of session
layer is to establish and maintain sessions. If during the transfer of data between two machines
the session breaks down, it is the session layer which re-establishes the connection. It also
ensures that the data transfer starts from where it breaks keeping it transparent to the end user.
e.g. In case of a session with a database server, this layer introduces check points at various
places so that in case the connectoin is broken and reestablished, the transition running on the
database is not lost even if the user has not committed. This activity is called Synchronization.
Another function of this layer is Dialogue Control which determines whose turn is it to speak in a
session. It is useful in video conferencing.
Presentation Layer
This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. In order to
make it possible for computers with different data representations to communicate data structures
to be exchanged can be defined in abstract way alongwith standard encoding. It also manages
these abstract data structres and allows higher level of data structres to be defined an exchange.
It encodes the data in standard agreed way(network format). Suppose there are two machines A
and B one follows 'Big Endian' and other 'Little Endian' for data representation. This layer ensures
that the data transmitted by one gets converted in the form compatibale to othe machine. This
layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.In order to make it
possible for computers with different data representations to communicate data structures to be
exchanged canbe defined in abstract way alongwith standard encoding. It also manages these
abstract data structres and allows higher level of data structres to be defined an exchange. Other
functions include compression, encryption etc.
Application Layer
The seventh layer contains the application protocols with which the user gains access to the
network. The choice of which specific protocols and their associated functions are to be used at
the application level is up to the individual user. Thus the boundary between the presentation layer
and the application layer represents a separation of the protocols imposed by the network
designers from those being selected and implemented by the network users.For example
commonly used protocols are HTTP(for web browsing), FTP(for file transfer) etc.

What is Network Layer?
The network layer is concerned with getting packets from the source all the way to the destination.
The packets may require to make many hops at the intermediate routers while reaching the
destination. This is the lowest layer that deals with end to end transmission. In order to achieve its
goals, the network layer must know about the topology of the communication network. It must also
take care to choose routes to avoid overloading of some of the communication lines while leaving
others idle. The network layer-transport layer interface frequently is the interface between the
carrier and the customer, that is the boundary of the subnet. The functions of this layer include :
1. Routing - The process of transferring packets received from the Data Link Layer of the
source network to the Data Link Layer of the correct destination network is called routing.
Involves decision making at each intermediate node on where to send the packet next so
that it eventually reaches its destination. The node which makes this choice is called a
router. For routing we require some mode of addressing which is recognized by the
Network Layer. This addressing is different from the MAC layer addressing.
2. Inter-networking - The network layer is the same across all physical networks (such as
Token-Ring and Ethernet). Thus, if two physically different networks have to communicate,
the packets that arrive at the Data Link Layer of the node which connects these two
physically different networks, would be stripped of their headers and passed to the Network
Layer. The network layer would then pass this data to the Data Link Layer of the other
physical network..
3. Congestion Control - If the incoming rate of the packets arriving at any router is more than
the outgoing rate, then congestion is said to occur. Congestion may be caused by many
factors. If suddenly, packets begin arriving on many input lines and all need the same
output line, then a queue will build up. If there is insufficient memory to hold all of them,
packets will be lost. But even if routers have an infinite amount of memory, congestion gets
worse, because by the time packets reach to the front of the queue, they have already
timed out (repeatedly), and duplicates have been sent. All these packets are dutifully
forwarded to the next router, increasing the load all the way to the destination. Another
reason for congestion are slow processors. If the router's CPUs are slow at performing the
bookkeeping tasks required of them, queues can build up, even though there is excess line
capacity. Similarly, low-bandwidth lines can also cause congestion.

Intranet vs Internet vs Extranet
Intranet, internet and extranet are the three main enterprise network topologies today. The Internet
is a network of computers which uses standard protocols for the purpose of sharing data and
binds computers running on various platforms by making use of web browsers. The development
of intranet and extranet which use internet protocols for data sharing from one computer to
another has become possible only due to the popularity of web browsers. I now take a look at
each of the three of them in short and then differentiate between them.
What is Intranet?
Intranet literally means internal internet

and is used to signify a collection of
private computer networks within an
organization; be it a school, a non-profit
group or a company, which allows easy
communication between people and
sharing of data within work groups.
Intranets incorporate standard software
technologies and network hardware like
Wi-Fi and Ethernet. It allows internet access but is firewalled in such a way that external
computers cannot penetrate into its network.
Uses of Intranet – Intranets have a very easy-to-use interface and find varied applications in
delivering tools and applications to enhance workforce productivity. It is also being used as a
corporate culture-changing platform which results in new ideas, increasing abilities of employees
to perform faster and better and with confidence which fosters a high growth rate. Private
communication is also made possible through intranet by special security provisions, encryption
and decryption methods to connect one computer to another.
Benefits of Intranet – It is cost effective and promotes a common corporate culture by being used
as a platform for development of applications to support business operations. Another added
benefit is collaboration enhancement which means that team work is enabled due to information
sharing. Intranet is also capable of linking different platforms together like Windows, Mac and
UNIX by standard web browsers.
What is Internet?
The internet is a global connection of interlinked networks which links computers all over by using
many electronic and networking technologies. Basically, it uses the internet protocol suite to
accomplish this. The internet is free of central governance in both technological implementation
and policies for access and usage because every network has its own standards.
Uses and benefits of Internet – The Internet allows flexibility in working hours and location due
to availability of high-speed connections, web applications and owing to the fact that internet can
be accessed by many wireless means like mobiles, data cards, cellular routers etc. from
anywhere.

The Internet and the World Wide Web have proved to be a boon for promoting education due to
low cost sharing of knowledge, ideas and skills. Similarly, businesses can grow as people can
work effectively as a team due to sharing of documents and other information, ease of accessing
other computers with or without use of security, authentication and encryption techniques. Also a
secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) connection through the internet extends the secure
perimeter of a corporate network into the private network of employees’ homes.
What is Extranet?
Extranet is a private computer network which uses internet technology and allows controlled
access from outside. It uses the public telecommunication system to securely and privately share
part of a business’s information with suppliers, buyers, partners and customers by effective
firewall, the use of digital certificates and other similar means of authentication and encryption as
well as the use of VPNs which tunnel through public networks.
Uses and benefits of Extranet – It is used for sharing of large amount of information and
exclusive product catalogues using Electronic Data Interchange. It is also used in the process of
collaboration with different companies during joint development as well as for sharing data which
is of common interest to partner companies. A major advantage of extranets is that they can be
used to provide services that are provided by a company to other companies like online banking.
Intranet vs Internet vs Extranet
Intranet and extranet are communication tools developed for easy information sharing within
workgroups. Extranet is an extension to intranets and opens the required firewall to provide
controlled access to outsiders. Therefore to summarize, internet access is public, intranet access
is private and that of extranet is semi-private. Everyone can use the internet but intranet is
restricted to an organization and extranet is used for the purpose of data sharing between closely
trusted organization. The data is fragmented in the internet, proprietary in intranet and is held in
trusted circles in extranet.
“That’s what’s cool about working with computers. They don’t argue, they remember everything, and they don’t drink all your beer.” –
Shreedhar.

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MCM 713 : IT & IS FOR CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT.

Que : What is Programming language ?

A programming language is a notation for writing programs, which are specifications of a

 Function and target: A computer programming language is a language[3] used to write

 Educational programming language

C is a general-purpose computer programming language developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at

Que : What is the concept of Operating system ?

Operating systems can be classified as follows:

S.R.P** 7TH- TERM- IT & IS FOR CONSTRUCTION MGMT Page 2

At the simplest level, an operating system does two things:

Que : What is a digital computer ?

S.R.P** 7TH- TERM- IT & IS FOR CONSTRUCTION MGMT Page 3

Functions of digital computer

S.R.P** 7TH- TERM- IT & IS FOR CONSTRUCTION MGMT Page 4

2.Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)

S.R.P** 7TH- TERM- IT & IS FOR CONSTRUCTION MGMT Page 5

S.R.P** 7TH- TERM- IT & IS FOR CONSTRUCTION MGMT Page 6

1. Transaction processing systems

Transaction Processing Systems

S.R.P** 7TH- TERM- IT & IS FOR CONSTRUCTION MGMT Page 7

Decision Support Systems

Summary of Information Systems

Transaction Processing System Substitutes computer-based processing for manual

Deals with well-structured processes. Includes

Management information system Provides input to be used in the managerial decision

Decision support system Provides information to managers who must make

S.R.P** 7TH- TERM- IT & IS FOR CONSTRUCTION MGMT Page 8

S.R.P** 7TH- TERM- IT & IS FOR CONSTRUCTION MGMT Page 9

• Explain the differences between predictive SDLC and adaptive SDLC

• Explain the differences between a model, a tool, a technique, and a methodology

The Systems Development Lifecycle

u Systems development life cycle (SDLC)

l Provides overall framework for managing systems development process

u Two main approaches to SDLC

I. Predictive approach – assumes project can be planned out in advance

u All projects use some variation of SDLC

Choosing the Predictive vs. Adaptive Approach to the SDLC

I.Traditional Predictive Approach to the SDLC

u Analysis – understand business needs and processing requirements

u Design – define solution system based on requirements and analysis decisions

u Implementation – construct, test, train users, and install new system

u Support – keep system running and improve

S.R.P** 7TH- TERM- IT & IS FOR CONSTRUCTION MGMT Page 10

II . Newer Adaptive Approaches to the SDLC

The Spiral Life Cycle Model

S.R.P** 7TH- TERM- IT & IS FOR CONSTRUCTION MGMT Page 12

Spiral Model Description

Quadrant 1: Determine objectives, alternatives, and constraints.

Quadrant 2: Evaluate alternatives, identify, resolve risks.

Quadrant 3: Develop, verify, next-level product.

Quadrant 4: Plan next phases.

Quadrant 1: Determine Objectives, Alternatives, and Constraints

Activities performed in this quadrant include:

1. Establish an understanding of the system or product objectives—namely performance,

S.R.P** 7TH- TERM- IT & IS FOR CONSTRUCTION MGMT Page 13

. . . This may involve prototyping, simulation, benchmarking, reference checking,

Quadrant 3: Develop, Verify, Next-Level Product

Quadrant 4: Plan Next Phases

S.R.P** 7TH- TERM- IT & IS FOR CONSTRUCTION MGMT Page 14

1. Predictive or adaptive approach use SDLC

1. Activities of Planning Phase of SDLC

2. Activities of Analysis Phase of SDLC