Fundamentals of Programming

Chapter 1: Problem solving using computers

Lecture Note
 Overview of Computer Systems
 The Evolution of Programming Languages
◦ Processing a C++ Program
◦ Programming Methodologies
 Problem Solving Concepts
◦ Problem Solving Methodologies
◦ Top-Down Design, Problem breakdown and
abstraction
◦ Algorithmic Structure
 Software Crisis
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 Many people use the Internet to look for information and to
communicate with others. This is all made possible by the
availability of different software, also known as computer programs.
Without software, a computer is useless. Software is developed by
using programming languages.
 The programming language C++ is especially well suited for
developing software to accomplish specific tasks.

 The main objective of this course is to help you learn how to write
programs in the C++ programming language. Before you begin
programming, it is useful to understand some of the basic
terminology and different components of a computer. We begin with
an Overview of Computers and Computer Programming.

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 What is Computer ?
A Computer is an electronic device that
- accepts data,
- performs computations, and
- makes logical decisions according to instructions that have
been given to it.

Then it produces meaningful information in a form that is

useful to the user.
 They have been deployed to solve different real life
problems, from the simplest game playing up to the
complex nuclear energy production.
 Computers are important and widely used in our society
because they are cost-effective aids to problem solving in
business, government, industry, education, etc. 4
 Hardware & Software

Computer Systems- is a combination of hardware and software

Hardware- is a visible part or physical component of computer where
as software- is invisible part or a set of instruction that control an
overall activities of a computer how to do and what to do.

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 Four components of a computer system:
◦ CPU - central processing unit
 Makes decisions, performs computations, and
delegates input/output requests
◦ Memory: Disk Drives, CD drives, Tape drives,
USB flash drives.
 Stores information
◦ Input devices: Keyboard, Mouse,
 Gets information from the user to the computer
◦ Output devices: monitor
 Sends information from computer to the user

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7
 Memory

Input Output
Devices Devices

CPU

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Software

Software

System Application
Software Software
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 Application software
◦ Easy-to-use programs designed to perform specific tasks
 System software
◦ Programs that support the execution and development of
other programs
◦ Two major types
 Operating systems
 Translation systems (compilers & linkers)

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 User Interface Application Programs

User Interface Operating System

User Basic Input and Output Services (BIOS)

Interface • needed for a computer to boot up

Computer Hardware

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 Application software makes computer popular and easy to
use
 Common application software:
Microsoft Word, WordPerfect
PowerPoint
Netscape, Internet Explorer
PhotoShop, Photo-Paint
Quick Time
Dreamweaver

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 Controls and manages the computing
resources
 Examples
◦ Windows, Unix, MSDOS,
 Important services that an operating system
provides:
◦ Security: prevent unauthorized users from
accessing the system
◦ Commands to manipulate the file system
◦ Input and output on a variety of devices
◦ Window management

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 A sequence of instructions

A program
An algorthm
(in computer language)
(in human language)
 A program needs to be written in a language
 There are many programming languages
◦ Low-level, understandable by a computer
◦ High-level, needs a translator!
 C++ is a high level programming language

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 Programming languages are categorized into five
generations: (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th generations)
 These programming languages can also be categorized into
two broad categories: low level and high level languages.
◦ Low level languages- are machine specific or dependent. (1st & 2nd )
◦ High level languages like, COBOL, BASIC, C, C++, JAVA are
machine independent and can run on variety of computers. (3rd, 4th
& 5th )
 Easier to understand and to use by programmers.
 Languages after the forth generation are refereed to as a
very high level languages.

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 First Generation (Machine languages, 1940’s)
◦ Difficult to write applications with.
◦ Dependent on machine languages of the specific computer being used.
◦ Allow the programmer to interact directly with the hardware, and it can
be executed by the computer without the need for a translator.
◦ Is more powerful in utilizing resources of the computer.
◦ Gives power to the programmer.
◦ execute very quickly and use memory very efficiently.
 Second Generation (Assembly languages, early 1950’s)
◦ Uses symbolic names for operations and storage locations.
◦ A system program called an assembler translates a program written in
assembly language to machine language.
◦ Programs written in assembly language are not portable. i.e., different
computer architectures have their own machine and assembly
languages.
◦ They are highly used in system software development.
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 3rd Generation (1950’s to 1970’s):
◦ Uses English like instructions and mathematicians were able
to define variables with statements such as Z = A + B
◦ Such languages are much easier to use than assembly
language.
◦ Programs written in high level languages need to be
translated into machine language in order to be executed.
◦ The use of common words (reserved words) within
instructions makes them easier to learn.
◦ They are procedural languages.
 In procedural languages, the programmer is expected to
specify what is required and how to perform it
Example: PASCAL, C, C++
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 Fourth Generation (since late 1970’s):
◦ They have a simple, English like syntax rules; commonly
used to access databases.

◦ They are object oriented languages (non-procedural languages)

◦ The programmer have less control over how each task is actually
performed.

◦ Programmers concentrate on defining the input and output rather

than the program steps required.
◦ They have a minimum number of syntax rules.
◦ Some examples of 4GL are structured query languages (SQL),
report generators, application generators, JAVA, C++,

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 Fifth Generation (1990’s):
◦ These are used in artificial intelligence (AI) and expert systems;
also used for accessing databases.

◦ They are “natural” languages whose instruction closely

resembles human speech. E.g. “get me Almaz’s grade averages
for the 2005 academic year”.

◦ They require very powerful hardware and software because

of the complexity involved in interpreting commands in human
language.

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Machine binary language Low-level assembly High-level

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 Translator: a program that converts one or more
languages to another language. There are three types of
translators, namely assembler, Compiler & interpreter.
◦ Compiler: a program that translates source program into object
code
◦ Examples: C, C++, Visual Basic, etc.
 Assembler: a program that translates assembly languages into
machine code.
◦ Interpreters: another type of program that translates source
program into machine code. translate each statement and execute
it immediately.
◦ Examples: BASIC, JAVA, etc.

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A program written in high-level programming language
(for example, C++ program)

COMPILER (for example, Dev)

A low-level (machine language) program that is

understandable by a computer (for example, a
PC)
Examples of compilers:
◦ Microsoft Visual C++, Eclipse, g++, Dev C++

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 Set of programs used to develop software
 Types of translators:
Compiler
Linker
 Examples
◦ Microsoft Visual C++, Eclipse, g++

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 Major activities
Editing (writing the program)
Compiling (creates .obj file)
Linking with compiled files
(creates .exe file) Source Program

 Object files Compile

 Library modules Library routines
Loading and executing Edit Link

Testing the program Other object files

Think Load

Execute
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 Combine all of the capabilities that a programmer would
want while developing software (VC++ 2008, Eclipse, Dev
C++)
Editor
Compiler
Linker
builder
Loader
Debugger
Viewer

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 Software crisis is a term used in the early days of computing science
for the difficulty of writing useful and efficient computer programs in
the required time.
 The causes of the software crisis were linked to the overall
complexity of hardware and the software development process.
 The crisis manifested itself in several ways:
Projects running over-budget
Projects running over-time
Software was very inefficient
Software was of low quality
Software often did not meet requirements
Projects were unmanageable and code difficult to maintain
Software was never delivered

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 Various processes and methodologies have been developed over the last
few decades to improve software quality management such as procedural
programming and object-oriented programming. However, software
projects that are large, complicated, poorly specified, or involve
unfamiliar aspects, are still vulnerable to large, unanticipated problems.
 What are the example of software crises?
In 1996, Arian-5 space rocket, developed at the cost of $7000 million
over a period of 10 years was destroyed within less than a minute after
its launch. The crash occurred because there was a software bug in the
rocket guidance system.
 General issues that affect most software:
◦ Heterogeneity,
◦ Business and social change.
◦ Security and trust
◦ Scales
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 There are three main programming paradigms exist:
◦ Procedural Programming.
 It is a programming paradigm based upon the concept of procedure call.
 Possible benefits: the ability to re-use the same code (function or
procedure) at different places, an easier way to keep track of program
flow than a collection of “GO TO” or “JUMP” statements.
◦ Structured Programming.
 Process of writing a program in small, independent parts.
 Structured programs are built up from units called modules, which
normally correspond to single procedures or functions.
 It can be seen as a subset or sub discipline of procedural programming.
◦ Object-Oriented Programming.
 a computer program is composed of a collection of individual units, or
objects as opposed to traditional view in which a program is a list of
instructions to the computer.
 It is claimed to give more flexibility, easing changes to programs.
 This approach is often simpler to develop and maintain. 29
 A problem
◦ an undesirable situation that prevents the organization
from fully achieving its purpose, goals and objectives.
◦ the gap between the existing and the desired situation
where problem solving will try to fill.
 Problem solving
◦ the process of transforming the description of a problem
into the solution by using our knowledge of the problem
domain and by relying on our ability to select and use
appropriate problem-solving strategies, techniques, and
tools.

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 There is no perfect method for solving all problems.
 There is no problem-solving computer to which we could
simply describe a given problem and wait for it to provide
the solution.
 Problem solving is a creative act and cannot be completely
explained.
 However, we can still use certain accepted procedures to
structure our thinking and help us solve problems.
 Three methods of problem solving are prominent:
1. Analytic Method.
2. Algorithmic Method.
3. Software Engineering Method.

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 All problem solving methodologies shares four
problem solving processes/steps:
1. Define and analyze the problem.
2. Develop a solution: write down the solution steps in
detail.
3. Test the solution and revise if necessary.
4. Document and maintain the solution.

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 Analytic problem solving has roots in mathematics, physics,
engineering, chemistry, and a host of other areas in science
and technology.
 Example
Problem
The sum of two numbers is s and their product is p. Find
the 2 numbers.
Reasoning
Let us call the first number x and the second one y.
Therefore, x + y = s and x * y = p.
From the first equation we get: y = s - x.
Substituting y from the first equation into the second equation, weget:
x * (s - x) = p or
x2 - sx + p = 0.
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 Solution
The solution to this problem is the solution to the quadratic
equation: x2 - sx + p = 0, provided that s2 - 4p  0.
◦ This solution is known from the field of mathematics.
 Testing
To check the correctness of the above solution we calculate x + y and
x * y.
 Limitations of the Analytic Approach
◦ Some problems cannot be solved analytically even with the most
sophisticated technique. For example, mathematicians have proven
that no analytic method can find the roots of a fifth-degree
polynomial equation of the form:
ax5 + bx4 + cx3 + dx2 + ex + f = 0 for arbitrary coefficients.

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 Algorithmic Problem
◦ It is any problem whose solution can be expressed as a list
of executable instructions.
 By executable we mean that an independent executor
(human or machine) should be able to carry out the
instructions in a step-by-step manner.

Examples of Algorithmic Problems

1. Taking the sum of a finite list of numbers.
2. Sorting a finite list of names.
3. Playing Tic-Tac-Toe.
4. Baking a cake.
5. Knitting a sweater.

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 It is a finite set of well-defined instructions for accomplishing
some task which, given an initial state, will terminate in a
corresponding recognizable end-state.
 It should be:
◦ Precise and unambiguous
◦ Simple
◦ Correct
◦ Efficient
Phases of Algorithmic Problem Solving
1. Understand the problem.
2. Devise a plan for solving the problem.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Evaluate the solution for accuracy and for its potential as a tool
for solving other problems.

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 Software Engineering.
◦ It is the profession/discipline that creates and maintains software
applications by applying technologies and practices from computer
science, project management, engineering, application domain and
other fields.

◦ The method used in solving problems in computer science and/or

information systems is called the software development life cycle
(SDLC).
 It is a conceptual model used in project management that describes
the stages involved in a computer system development project
 from an initial feasibility study through maintenance of the
completed application.
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 Feasibility study-which includes e.g. the following components:
Organizational Feasibility
Economic Feasibility
Technical Feasibility
Operational Feasibility
◦ identify a need for the new system.
 Problem Analysis - (Correct Problem)
 Identify data objects
 Determine Input / Output data
 Constraints on the problem
 Design
 Decompose into smaller problems
 Top-down design (divide and conquer)
 Develop Algorithm (Desk check)
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 Implementation
◦ The real code is written here.
◦ Systems implementation is the construction of the new system
and its delivery into production or day-to-day operation.
◦ Writing the algorithm using a programming language (ex. C++)
 Testing
 Verify the program meets requirements
 System Integration and Unit testing
 Documentation
 Key part in the development process
 Maintenance
◦ What happens during the rest of the software's life: changes,
correction, additions, moves to a different computing platform
and more.
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 Reliability
◦ An unreliable life-critical system can be fatal
 Understandability
◦ Future development becomes very difficult if software is hard to
understand
 Cost Effectiveness
◦ Cost to develop and maintain should not exceed profit
 Adaptability
◦ System that is adaptive is easier to alter and expand
 Reusability
◦ Improves reliability and maintainability, and reduces development
costs

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 Extract the relevant object properties while ignoring inessentials
◦ Defines a view of the object
 Example – car
◦ Car dealer views a car from selling features standpoint
 Price, length of warranty, color, …
◦ Mechanic views a car from systems maintenance standpoint
 Size of the oil filter, type of spark plugs, …

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 Generally, there are two approaches of problem
solving:
◦ Top down design
 A systematic approach based on the concept that the structure
of the problem should determine the structure of the solution and
what should be done in lower level.
 This approach will try to disintegrate a larger problem into more
smaller and manageable problems to narrow the problem
domain.
◦ Bottom up design
 The reverse process where the lowest level component are built
first and the system builds up from the bottom until the whole
process is finally completed.

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 A program is divided into a main module and its related
modules. Each module is in turn divided into sub-modules
until the resulting modules are understood without further
division.

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 An algorithm is written as a finite step-by-step procedure
(sequence) in which choices can be made where necessary
(selection), and all or part of the algorithm can be repeated
(repetition).
 The basic structures of an algorithm are classified as:
1. Sequence
2. Selection
3. Repetition
Algorithm Representation
There are commonly used tools or methods to help to document
program logic (the algorithm). The three methods to represent an
algorithm are:
 Pseudo code
 Flow Chart
 Programming Languages(structured chart)
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 It is an English language like notion that can be used to express an
algorithm for a given problem
 It is used during the early stages of algorithm development resemble
but is less formal than a programming language.

 Original Program Specification:

Example1: Write an algorithm using pseudocode that
determine the area of a triangle.
step1: INPUT base, height
step2: area := base*height/2
step3: OUTPUT area
step4: STOP

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  Original Program Specification:
 Write a program that obtains two integer numbers
from the user. It will print out the sum of those
numbers.

Pseudocode
Prompt the user to enter the first integer
Prompt the user to enter a second integer
Compute the sum of the two user inputs
Display an output prompt that explains the answer as the sum
Display the result

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 It is a graphical way of expressing the steps needed to
solve a given problem.
 It is a schematic (diagrammatic description) representation
of a process.

Basic flow
charting
symbols

Circle: on page
Connector
Home base: off page

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 Example: Write an algorithm using flowchart that
determine the area of a triangle.
Start

Input base, height

Area = base * height/2

Print area

End

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 Write an algorithm description and draw a flow chart to
check a number is negative or not.
Algorithm description.
 Read a number x
 If x is less than zero write a message negative
 else write a message not negative

 The flow chart is:

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 It depicts the logical functions to the solution of the problem using
a chart.

 It provides an overview that confirms the solution to the problem

without excessive consideration to detail.
 It is high-level in nature.

 Example: Write a program that asks the user to enter a temperature

reading in centigrade and then prints the equivalent Fahrenheit
value.

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Input Process Output
Centigrade  Prompt for centigrade value Fahrenheit
 Read centigrade value
 Compute Fahrenheit value
 Display Fahrenheit value

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 Define and analyze the problem.
◦ What is the input & output?
◦ What other information is necessary?
 Develop an algorithm.
◦ What steps must be done?
 Implement a program.
 Compile, test, and debug the program.
 Document and maintain the program.

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 It is the set of design and implementation processes
that yield well-structured programs.
 It is a disciplined approach to programming
 It follows top-down design approach
 It is based on step-wise refinement using a restricted
set of program structures
◦ The set of program structures used in structured
programming is:
 Sequence
 Selection
 Repetition

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 An algorithm that is based on the notion of
sequence, which is the ordering of statements.
 Step n cannot be started until step n-1 is
complete.
 Problem1: Develop an algorithm that
calculates and prints the area of a trapezoid
when the values of the bases and height are
given as input.
Input: base1, base2, height
Output: area
Algorithm1:
step1: INPUT base1, base2, height
step2: area := (base1+base2)*height/2
step3: OUTPUT area
step4: STOP

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 Selection is the choice of alternate paths (branches) depending on a
condition that may arise in the logical flow of the algorithm.

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Problem2: Write an algorithm that accepts a number representing either a Fahrenheit
or a Celsius temperature scale and converts it to the other scale.
Input: temperature, scale (Fahrenheit or Celsius)
Output: newTemp (Converted Temperature)
Algorithm2:
step1:INPUT scale, temperature
step2:IF scale = 'f' THEN
newTemp := 5/9*(temperature - 32)
ELSE
newTemp := 9/5*temperature + 32
step3:OUTPUT newTemp
step4:STOP
 The above algorithm has introduced IF...THEN...ELSE, which is called a
selection structure. This statement reads "IF it is true that the scale equals f
(Fahrenheit) THEN convert the input temperature to Celcius ELSE convert it to
Fahrenheit".
 In an IF...THEN...ELSE statement, if the logical condition after IF is true, the
statements after THEN are executed; otherwise, the statements after ELSE are
executed.
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Problem3: Assume that a salesperson is paid a commission based on the number of sales made
during the week. The salesperson is paid 8% per sale for fewer than the established quota of
15 sales, 12% per sale if the quota is reached, and 16% per sale if the quota is exceeded.
Input: sales (i.e., number of sales)
Output: commission
Algorithm3:
step1: INPUT sales
step2: IF sales < quota THEN
rate := 8
ELSE IF sales = quota THEN
rate := 12
ELSE
rate := 16
step3: commission := rate * sales
step4: OUTPUT commission
step5: STOP
 Observe that rate must be calculated before the commission can be computed.
 This algorithm has introduced multiple selection based on the value of sales. Multiple
selections can be achieved by the repeated use (or nested use) of ELSE IF.
 The last ELSE of the nested IF becomes the default or catchall case that is considered if
none of the other possibilities is true.

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 Repetition or looping provides for the repeated execution of part of the
algorithm.

 Syntax
while (condition)
action
false
 How it works: condition
◦ if condition is true then execute
action
◦ repeat this process until condition
evaluates to false true
 action is either a single statement or a
group of statements within braces. action

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 Syntax
for (initialization; condition; update)
action initialization

 How it works:
◦ execute initialization statement
◦ while condition is true condition
 execute action
 execute update true false

action

update

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 Syntax
do action
while (condition)
action
 How it works:
◦ execute action
◦ if condition is true then
execute action again
◦ repeat this process until true
condition evaluates to false. condition

 action is either a single

false
statement or a group of
statements within braces.

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Problem4: Reconsider the sales commission problem for many salespeople.
Input: number of sales people, number of sales for each salesperson.
Output: commission for each salesperson.
Algorithm4:
step1: INPUT numSalesPeople
step2: LOOP numSalesPeople
a: INPUT sales
b: IF sales < quota THEN
rate := 8
ELSE IF sales = quota THEN
rate := 12
ELSE
rate := 16
c: commission := rate * sales
d: OUTPUT commission
step3: STOP
 A loop is used to repeatedly read the data for each salesperson and compute the associated
commission.
 The word LOOP here means that the following sequence of steps (2a to 2d in this example) is to be
repeated for a specific number of iterations (numSalesPeople in this example).
 The LOOP construct is only appropriate if the number of iterations can be predetermined as it is in
the above algorithm.
 For many situations, however, it is not possible to predetermine the number of iterations and a
more flexible looping structure is required. 61
1. What is programming?
2. Why do we need to learn computer programming?
3. What is programming language?
4. What skills do we need to be a programmer?
5. Write the algorithmic description and draw a flow chart
to check whether the number is even or odd number
6. Write the algorithmic description and draw a flow chart for
student marks:
if mark is >80 display A
if mark is >60 and <=80 display B
if mark is>40 anx<=60 display C
else display fail
7. Calculate and print the average of three numbers: 5, 10, and 15 by:
a) Pseudocode
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b) Flowchart