Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVE: Readers will recognize and adhere to established guidelines
CREDIT
Tyler Stevens, MD Mansour A. Parsi, MD R. Matthew Walsh, MD
Digestive Disease Institute, Digestive Disease Institute, The Rich Family Distinguished Chair
Cleveland Clinic Cleveland Clinic in Digestive Diseases, Department of
Hepatic-Pancreatic-Biliary and Transplant
Surgery, Digestive Disease Institute,
Cleveland Clinic
Acute pancreatitis:
Problems in adherence to guidelines
■ ■Abstract
S everal major gastroenterological and sur-
gical societies have issued guidelines on
how to manage acute pancreatitis, based on
Although evidence-based guidelines on managing acute
pancreatitis are available, many physicians are not fol- evidence from high-quality randomized trials
lowing them. The authors identify and discuss several and nonrandomized studies as well as on ex-
problems in adherence to guidelines on testing, imaging, pert opinion.1–3 Information is limited on how
well physicians in the United States comply
and treatment.
with these guidelines, but compliance is sub-
■ ■KEY POINTS optimal in other developed countries, accord-
ing to several studies,4–8 and we suspect that
Serum amylase and lipase levels are often needlessly many US physicians are not following the
measured every day. guidelines either.
Acute pancreatitis is a frequent inpatient
diagnosis that internists, gastroenterologists,
Often, severity assessments are not performed regularly
and surgeons all confront. The most common
or acted on. causes are gallstones and heavy alcohol intake.
Its management is typically straightforward:
Often, not enough fluid is replaced, or fluid status is not intravenous fluids, analgesia, and nothing by
adequately monitored. mouth. However, treatment of severe cases
can be quite complex, particularly if multiple
In many severe cases, enteral or parenteral feeding is not organ systems are involved or if there are local
started soon enough. complications.
The primary aim of this article is to raise
awareness of recognized deviations from es-
Computed tomography is not done in many patients tablished recommendations that may lead to
with severe acute pancreatitis, or it is performed too adverse patient outcomes.
soon.
■■ Measuring ENZYME LEVELS daily
In many cases of suspected infected necrosis, fine-needle ADDs COST BUT LITTLE BENEFIT
aspiration is not done.
Problem: Serum amylase and lipase levels
Broad-spectrum antibiotics are often used inappropriate- are often needlessly measured every day.
ly in patients with mild acute pancreatitis and in patients Measuring the serum amylase and lipase lev-
els is useful in diagnosing acute pancreatitis, which
with sterile necrotizing pancreatitis who are clinically
requires two of the following three features1:
stable and have no signs of sepsis. • Characteristic abdominal pain
• Levels of serum amylase or serum lipase, or
both, that are three or more times the up-
doi:10.3949/ccjm.76a.09060 per limit of normal
CL EVEL AND CL I NI C J O URNAL O F M E DI CI NE V O L UM E 76 • NUM BE R 12 DE CE M BE R 2009 697
Acute PancreatitiS
■■ suspected infected necrosis ized trials have evaluated the benefit of giv-
ing antibiotics prophylactically for presumed
Problem: Fine-needle aspiration is not done sterile necrosis. A recent Cochrane analysis
in many cases of suspected infected necro- of five of these trials (294 patients) suggested
sis. that patients who got antibiotics had a lower
Approximately one-third of patients with risk of death (odds ratio 0.37, 95% confidence
necrotizing pancreatitis develop infected ne- interval [CI] 0.17–0.83) but no difference in
crosis. The death rate for patients with infect- the rates of pancreatic infection or surgery.30
ed pancreatic necrosis is high—30%, com- These paradoxical results suggest that antibi-
pared with 12% in those with sterile necrosis.1 otics may prevent death by preventing non-
Differentiating sterile and infected necrosis is pancreatic infections (eg, pneumonia, line in-
therefore essential. fections) rather than by preventing infection
Clinical signs such as fever are poor predic- of necrotic pancreatic tissue. The five trials
tors of infection. Signs of SIRS can be present in the meta-analysis are limited by significant
in both sterile and infected necrotizing pan- methodologic heterogeneity and by lack of
creatitis. double-blinding.
In spite of the overall lower death rate ob-
Recommendation: served in the meta-analysis, the prophylactic
Fine-needle aspiration of necrosis use of antibiotics in sterile necrosis remains
For the reasons given above, the findings of controversial. One concern is that patients
necrosis on CT and persistent SIRS should given long prophylactic courses of antibiot-
prompt consideration of fine-needle aspira- ics may develop resistant bacterial or fungal
tion with Gram stain and culture to differ- infections. However, the Cochrane and other
entiate sterile and infected necrosis (ACG meta-analyses have not shown a higher rate of
guideline, level of evidence III).1 If infection fungal infections in those given antibiotics.31
is confirmed, surgical debridement should be
strongly considered. Other less-invasive ap- Recommendation:
Prophylactic use proaches such as endoscopic debridement can No routine antibiotics for mild cases
of antibiotics in be used in selected cases. The AGA guidelines recommend against
Fine-needle aspiration of necrosis is too routinely giving antibiotics in mild acute
sterile necrosis often neglected. In a cohort of German sur- pancreatitis and do not provide strict recom-
is controversial geons, only 55% complied with International mendations for prophylactic antibiotic use in
Association of Pancreatology recommenda- necrotizing acute pancreatitis.2 The guidelines
tions to perform biopsy to differentiate sterile state that antibiotics can be used “on demand”
from infected necrosis in patients with signs of based on clinical signs of infection (eg, high
sepsis.29 fevers, rising leukocytosis, hypotension) or
worsening organ failure.
■■ Broad-spectrum antibiotics If a purely prophylactic strategy is used,
only patients at high risk of developing in-
Problem: Broad-spectrum antibiotics are fection (eg, those with necrosis in more than
often used inappropriately in patients with 30% of the pancreas) should receive antibiot-
mild acute pancreatitis and in patients with ics. Antibiotics with high tissue-penetration
sterile necrotizing pancreatitis who are clini- should be used, such as imipenem-cilastin
cally stable and have no signs of sepsis. (Primaxin IV) or ciprofloxacin (Cipro) plus
Antibiotics are not indicated in mild acute metronidazole (Flagyl).
pancreatitis. A limited course of antibiotics is Adherence to these guidelines is not op-
typically indicated in severe cases with sus- timal. For example, in an Italian multicenter
pected or proven infected necrosis (in con- study, 9% of patients with mild acute pancrea-
junction with surgical necrosectomy). How- titis were treated with antibiotics.19 Moreover,
ever, the use of antibiotics in sterile necrosis many patients with proven infected necrosis
has been very controversial. received antibiotics that do not penetrate the
At least six small, nonblinded, random- pancreatic tissue very well.
702 CLEV ELA N D C LI N I C JOURNAL OF MEDICINE VOL UME 76 • N UM BE R 12 DE CE M BE R 2009
Stevens and Colleagues
■■ ERCP in severe biliary screen for bile duct stones before proceeding
ACUTE PANCREATITIS to ERCP.
The ACG guidelines suggest urgent ERCP
Problem: Endoscopic retrograde cholan- (preferably within 24 hours) for those with se-
giopancreatography (ERCP) often is per- vere biliary pancreatitis complicated by organ
formed inappropriately in mild biliary acute failure or those with suspicion of cholangitis.
pancreatitis or is not performed urgently in The level of evidence is I, ie, “strong evi-
severe cases. dence from at least one published systematic
In most cases of mild biliary pancreatitis, review of multiple well-designed randomized
the stones pass spontaneously, as verified by controlled trials.”1
cholangiography done during laparoscopic Elective ERCP is recommended for those
cholecystectomy. Ongoing ampullary obstruc- who are poor surgical candidates. ERCP is
tion by impacted biliary stones can perpetuate also recommended for those with rising liver
pancreatic inflammation and delay recovery. enzyme values or imaging findings suggesting
Two early randomized trials showed a ben- a retained common bile duct stone (including
efit from early ERCP (within 72 hours) with intraoperative cholangiography). Endoscopic
sphincterotomy and stone extraction, primar- ultrasonography or MRCP is recommended
ily in those with severe biliary acute pancreati- for those with slow clinical resolution, who
tis or ascending cholangitis,32,33 but a third trial are pregnant, or in whom uncertainty exists
failed to reveal a benefit.34 A Cochrane meta- regarding the biliary etiology of pancreatitis.
analysis of these three trials failed to show a Compliance rates with these and similar
lower death rate with ERCP in mild or severe guidelines are not adequate. In an audit of ad-
biliary pancreatitis.35 However, early ERCP did herence to the British Society of Gastroenter-
prevent complications in severe biliary pan- ology guidelines, early ERCP was performed
creatitis (odds ratio 0.27, 95% CI 0.14–0.53). in only 25% of patients with severe biliary
Later, a fourth randomized trial was re- acute pancreatitis.6
stricted to patients with suspected biliary pan-
creatitis, evidence of biliary obstruction, and ■■ laparoscopic cholecystectomy If the
no signs of cholangitis36: 103 patients were FOR mild biliary pancreatitis gallbladder is
randomized to undergo either ERCP within
72 hours or conservative management. No Problem: Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is not removed,
difference was observed in rates of death or not done at admission or within 2 weeks in biliary
organ failure or in the CT severity index. many patients with mild biliary pancreati-
tis.
pancreatitis
Recommendation: If the gallbladder is not removed, biliary may recur
ERCP for suspected retained stones pancreatitis may recur in up to 61% of pa- in up to 61%
ERCP has a limited role in patients with bil- tients within 6 weeks of hospital discharge.37
iary pancreatitis, being used to clear retained This is the basis for guideline recommenda- of patients
bile duct stones or to relieve ongoing biliary tions for surgery (or a confirmation of a sur-
obstruction. gery date) prior to hospital discharge.
The decision to perform ERCP before The International Association of Pancre-
surgery should be based on how strongly one atology recommends early cholecystectomy
suspects retained stones. ERCP is most appro- (preferably during the same hospitalization)
priate if the suspicion of retained stones and for patients with mild gallstone-associated
the likelihood of therapeutic intervention are acute pancreatitis.38 In severe gallstone-as-
high (eg, if the serum bilirubin and alkaline sociated acute pancreatitis, cholecystectomy
phosphatase levels are rising and ultrasonog- should be delayed until there is sufficient
raphy shows a dilated bile duct). If there is resolution of the inflammatory response and
moderate suspicion, a safer and less-invasive clinical recovery. The AGA guidelines advo-
imaging study such as magnetic resonance cate cholecystectomy as soon as possible and
cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) or en- in no case later than 4 weeks after discharge
doscopic ultrasonography can be done to to prevent relapse. ERCP with biliary sphinc-
CL EVEL AND CL I NI C J O URNAL O F M E DI CI NE V O L UM E 76 • NUM BE R 12 DE CE M BE R 2009 703
Acute PancreatitiS
terotomy may also protect against relapse in compliance audit in Germany revealed that
those who are not fit to undergo surgery. cholecystectomy was performed during the
Recommendations for definitive manage- initial hospital stay in only 23% of cases.7 In
ment of gallstones (laparoscopic cholecystecto- a New Zealand study, a regular compliance
my or ERCP, or both) are not always followed. audit with feedback to surgeons resulted in an
For example, a British study showed 70% com- increase in the early cholecystectomy rate from
pliance with this recommendation.4 A similar 54% to 80%.8 ■
704 CLEV ELA N D C LI N I C JOURNAL OF MEDICINE VOL UME 76 • N UM BE R 12 DE CE M BE R 2009