Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Nations WATER
World Water
Development IN A
Report 3
CHANGING
WORLD
V E R T Y
• P O • D
E E
G M
N
A O
H G
C R
T • C I
A
E
P
T
N V
H
A
I
M
C
I
S •
C L
E R N M
R I
I S E S •
• P R
S I N G
C R
C O
I
V
L
N
A
V
S
B
O A
U
O
T E • G
M
L
P
G
• I
E O
D N
A •
R G
• T O
V E
R N A N C E
GETTING OUT OF THE BOX – SPHERE OF DECISION-MAKING ABOUT WATER. Many paths to sustainable development are
linked to water, but the decisions that determine how water resources are used or abused are not made by
water managers alone. That central theme of The United Nations World Water Development Report 3 is illustrated
in this figure (which also appears in chapter 1).
The lower section of the figure, titled Water box, is the realm of water sector management. Here, water man-
agers inside the water box and managers of other sectors oversee their own management–resource-use
interactions. Above
them are the actors who
make or influence broad
DECISION-MAKING AFFECTING WATER
socioeconomic policies
that affect water. Political
actors
requirements of people
and other species and to
create and support liveli-
box
Demand
Needed in place of this discontinuous decision-making process is one in which water managers inform the initial
decision-making and participate in planning the appropriate responses, interacting with the principal actors and
with the managers of other sectors.
The United
Nations WATER
World Water
Development IN A
Report 3
CHANGING
WORLD
Published jointly by This Report has been published on behalf of the United
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Nations World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP), with
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) the support of the following organizations:
7, place de Fontenoy, 75007 Paris, France, and
United Nations Funds and Programmes
Earthscan, Dunstan House, 14a St Cross Street,
United Nations Centre for Human Settlements
London EC1N 8XA, United Kingdom.
(UN-HABITAT)
© UNESCO 2009 United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
All rights reserved.
(UNCTAD)
UNESCO ISBN: 978-9-23104-095-5 United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Earthscan ISBN: 978-1-84407-839-4 (hardback) (UNDESA)
978-1-84407-840-0 (paperback) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
UNESCO Publishing: http://publishing.unesco.org/ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
Earthscan: www.earthscan.co.uk United Nations University (UNU)
It is well known that water is life; what this Report shows is that water also means liveli-
hoods. It is the route out of poverty for individuals and communities. Managing water is
essential if the world is to achieve sustainable development.
This challenge is even more pressing as the world confronts the triple threats of climate
change, rising food and energy costs, and the global economic crisis. All three are exacer-
bating poverty, inequality and underdevelopment.
The United Nations has responded by consolidating our work and joining with partners
who can make a difference through UN-Water, which brings together more than two
dozen UN agencies and other stakeholders. The initiative’s World Water Assessment Pro-
gramme is setting an example of system-wide cooperation based on the understanding
that water is such a central consideration that it must be an integral part of all planning
and investments.
Developing countries and countries in transition are striving to manage their water re-
sources more effectively. I call on the bilateral donors to support those efforts by increas-
ing water’s share of official development assistance above the current level of 5.4%.
This is important not only for development; it is a matter of security, too. Lack of basic
services can contribute to political instability. Armed conflicts can further disrupt these
services.
There has been a widespread failure to recognize water’s vital role in providing food, en-
ergy, sanitation, disaster relief, environmental sustainability and other benefits. This has
left hundreds of millions of people suffering from poverty and ill health and exposed to
the risks of water-related diseases.
Ban Ki-moon
Secretary-General
United Nations
With the release of this third edition of The United Nations World Water Development Re-
port, it is clear that urgent action is needed if we are to avoid a global water crisis. Despite
the vital importance of water to all aspects of human life, the sector has been plagued by
a chronic lack of political support, poor governance and underinvestment. As a result,
hundreds of millions of people around the world remain trapped in poverty and ill
health and exposed to the risks of water-related disasters, environmental degradation and
even political instability and conflict. Population growth, increasing consumption and
climate change are among the factors that threaten to exacerbate these problems, with
grave implications for human security and development.
The current Report provides a comprehensive analysis of the state of the world’s fresh-
water resources. It also, for the first time, shows how changes in water demand and
supply are affected by and affect other global dynamics. It represents a considerable col-
laborative achievement for the 26 UN agencies that make up UN-Water and are engaged
in the World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP), which leads the monitoring and
evaluation behind the Report. UNESCO is very proud to have played a pivotal role in the
launch of this flagship programme and to continue to support its work by housing the
WWAP Secretariat. I am confident that this third volume will prove crucial as a working
tool for policy-makers and other stakeholders, providing solid evidence from which to
develop an effective and sustainable approach to water issues.
The Report could not come at a more important time. We have passed the halfway point
towards the 2015 target date for achieving the Millennium Development Goals, and
despite progress, massive challenges remain. Millennium Development Goal 7 calls for
halving the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and
basic sanitation. While the world is on track to achieve the water target globally, large
regions of the world and many countries lag behind, and some risk backsliding. This
is particularly the case in sub-Saharan Africa and low-income Arab states. On current
trends the sanitation target will be missed by a wide margin in the majority of develop-
ing countries. But water is linked not only to Millennium Development Goal 7. It also
directly affects, as this Report establishes, the achievement of all eight Millennium
Development Goals, including, notably, the first goal, the eradication of extreme poverty
and hunger.
Water is a cross-cutting issue that demands a coordinated approach. Our success in avoid-
ing a global water crisis is directly linked to our ability to address other global challenges,
from poverty eradication and environmental sustainability to fluctuating food and en-
ergy costs and financial turmoil in world economies. It is therefore imperative that global
risks, including those associated with water, be dealt with in an integrated manner. We
must develop interdisciplinary tools that can take into account different drivers such as
climate change and financial markets to achieve sustainable water management. This
Water is essential to facing today’s global challenges and achieving the Millennium
Development Goals. As such, it should be a priority for the United Nations and the global
community as a whole. Be assured that UNESCO stands ready to play its part in this
process.
Koïchiro Matsuura
Director-General
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
In 1999 the United Nations system resolved to issue regular editions of The United Nations
World Water Development Report. An expert group, convened by the United Nations De-
partment of Economic and Social Affairs, developed recommendations for the objectives
and targeted audience of the report (box 1).
The first edition, The United Nations World Water Development Report: Water for People,
Water for Life, was released in March 2003 at the 3rd World Water Forum in Kyoto,
Japan. The second, Water, a Shared Responsibility, was released in March 2006 at the 4th
World Water Forum in Mexico City. The first report provided an inaugural assessment of
progress since the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
in Rio de Janeiro. Both reports were based on key challenge areas (such as water for food,
water for energy, and challenges for governance). Stand-alone assessments were prepared
by UN agencies. The assessments included pilot case studies on which the Report drew in
developing appropriate assessment methodologies and lessons learned.
This third edition embraces a holistic structure and focuses on the second objective
established by the expert group – to accelerate coverage and investments for basic
human water needs (drinking water supply, sanitation and health, food security, miti-
gation of floods and droughts and prevention of conflicts), giving priority to developing
countries.
It is recommended that The United Nations and health, food security, mitigation of floods
World Water Development Report be targeted for and droughts and prevention of conflicts),
national decision-makers and water resources giving a priority to developing countries.
managers, with two complementary objectives:
A more effective and targeted support of the in-
• To strengthen and stimulate national capaci- ternational community for such local and national
ties and cross-sector institutions in integrated efforts would also be an important objective of
water development planning and in sustain- this awareness-raising and action-oriented report.
able management of water resources at river
basin and aquifer levels. Source: United Nations Expert Group Meeting to
Examine Methodologies for the Preparation of a Bien-
• To stimulate an acceleration of coverage and nial ‘World Water Development Report’, convened and
investments, in priority, for basic human organized by the UN Department of Economic and
water needs (drinking water supply, sanitation Social Affairs, New York, 11-14 January 2000.
that evolved for the Report is on the inside front cover of the Report and in figure 1.1 in
chapter 1. The figure illustrates how developments outside the water domain influence
water management strategies and policies. The Report emphasizes that decisions in other
sectors and those related to development, growth and livelihoods should incorporate
water as an integral component, including responses to climate change, food and energy
challenges and disaster management.
At the same time, the Report’s analysis of the state of the world’s water resources is im-
bedded in a more expansive context of what can be accomplished through water man-
agement. The analysis leads to a set of responses and recommendations for action that
differ from those that have emerged from more introspective analyses of the water sector
because they incorporate the contribution of water to sustainable development.
This Report offers a holistic approach to links between water and climate change, food,
energy, health and human security. Human security, broadly conceived, includes basic
needs for food, water, health, livelihoods and a place to live – issues addressed in the
Millennium Development Goals. As the second part of the Fourth Assessment Report of
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), released in April 2007, demon-
strates, poor people are likely to suffer most from the effects of climate change.1
New processes
In keeping with the Report’s broader view on policy options, new processes were applied
in preparing this Report. Fuller treatment is given to such topics as climate change, busi-
ness and trade, financing, the role of the private sector, water transport and innovations
and new technologies.
The United Nations Expert Group recommendation to involve countries in preparing the
reports was reflected in the first edition in case studies based on 10 countries (including
10 national river basins) with different physical, climate and socioeconomic conditions.
This method was followed in the second edition and in this Report, which presents the
case studies in a companion volume to the main report. The World Water Assessment
Programme is also launching a series of supporting publications that include scientific
side papers, topic and sector reports and dialogue reports, taking the programme out of
its rigid three-year cycle.
The preparatory process for this Report has followed an inclusive, participatory approach
benefiting from opinion and feedback from the scientific, professional and decision-mak-
ing communities from within and outside the water sector.
Broader input to the Report and the World Water Assessment Programme processes in
general has been achieved through four mechanisms:
1. ‘Poor communities can be especially vulnerable, in particular those concentrated in high risk areas.
They tend to have more limited adaptive capacities and are more dependent on climate-sensitive
resources such as local water and food supplies.’ (IPCC, 2007, Summary for Policymakers. In Climate
Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, eds., M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani,
J. P. Palutikof, P. J. van der Linden and C. E. Hanson, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, p. 9).
This Report marks a transition from the first two reports – a transition from being a
report primarily for water managers to being a report for leaders at all levels of govern-
ment, the private sector and civil society, whose decisions depend on the availability of
water resources and make demands on water management. The Expert Group on Policy
Relevance consulted hundreds of such leaders to obtain their views on policy issues
relevant to the water sector. At the same time, the Report continues to provide useful
data for water managers on the state and use of this precious resource. Past reports have
looked at trends based on historical data. It is clear that change is accelerating and that
the effects of change are not easily projected from trends. To help us understand possible
futures and how to cope with their impact on water resources, the World Water Assess-
ment Programme process looks at the development of scenarios that will serve the fourth
World Water Development Report. This scenario effort takes into account the main drivers
of water, including demographics, climate change, social and economic processes and
technology, along with their interactions.
In preparing this Report new data were available to update only a third of the 60-plus
indicators that were reported in the second edition. And some indicators were found to
be no longer valid. The lack of data was echoed by the coordinators and authors of this
Report, who found that indicators and data were often not available for analysing and
reporting on issues considered important. As a consequence, a new process was devel-
oped for indicators and monitoring that aims at a better understanding of the trends
and developments, including changes, in the state of water resources, their uses and the
interface between the state and water uses and between water and other sectors. This re-
flects a recommendation of Agenda 21 – a comprehensive plan of action agreed at the Rio
Summit for all areas of human impact on the environment – that a detailed data collec-
tion for both fluxes of ‘exploitable water resources’ and of ‘associated costs and finances’
be conducted within a comprehensive plan for water development at the basin level.2
To this end, the World Water Assessment Programme established an Expert Group on
Indicators, Monitoring and Data/Metadata Bases, and UN-Water established a Task Force
on Indicators, Monitoring and Reporting, which is coordinated by the World Water
Assessment Programme. Their results will be reported by the World Water Assessment
Programme in a process leading to the fourth World Water Development Report and by UN-
Water. A table showing the status of indicators reported on in this Report is presented in
appendix 1. More detailed information may be found at www.unesco.org/water/wwap.
Few countries know how much water is being used and for what purposes, the quantity
and quality of water that is available and that can be withdrawn without serious envi-
ronmental consequences and how much is being invested in water management and
infrastructure. Despite the availability of new remote sensing and geographic information
system technologies that can simplify monitoring and reporting and despite the growing
need for such information in an increasingly complex and rapidly changing world, less is
known with each passing decade. Strengthening such information systems is vital not only
at a national scale but also at a global scale – to inform the construction of global models of
the hydrologic cycle and decisions on where interventions, including external aid, would
be most useful. Chapters 10 and 13 of the Report, in particular, treat this subject.
It is not enough to hope that the trickle-down effects of economic growth will result in
equitable distribution that includes the poor. The economic growth and poverty-reduc-
ing contributions of water resources must be made explicit and specific at the country
level. Intergovernmental efforts must support such actions and maintain the momentum
of the global commitments made since the Millennium Declaration in 2000.
2. United Nations, 1992, Agenda 21, Chapter 18, Protection of the Quality and Supply of Freshwater
Resources: Application of Integrated Approaches to the Development, Management and Use of Water
Resources, New York: Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations.
While mitigation of anthropogenic climate change is vital, the blunt reality is that all
countries – particularly developing countries that will be hit hardest and earliest – and busi-
ness sectors must also adapt to climate change. Even if greenhouse gas concentrations stabi-
lize in the coming years, some impacts from climate change are unavoidable. These include
increasing water stress in many regions, more extreme weather events, the potential for large
population migration and the disruption of international markets. These challenges cannot
be separated from the challenges of sustainable development in a complex global context.
This report provides evidence of the need for public investments in water resources infra-
structure and implementation capacity. It also provides evidence of the vital importance of
water resources and environmental sustainability to engage the private sector, civil society
and communities to invest and become involved, offering examples of how this can be done.
Bilateral donors, important in funding water investments, must avoid the temptation to
reduce their aid budgets during the current global financial and economic crises. Multilat-
eral aid could be an important source of financing for many years to come. Yet both bilat-
eral and multilateral donors appear not to recognize the contribution of the water sector
to growth: the water sector’s share of official development assistance has remained below
6% for some time. This said, the flow of official development assistance has increased in
recent years and so has the water component in dollar terms. But most of the increase has
gone to water supply (and sanitation, to a lesser degree), while aid flows to other water sec-
tors have stagnated in dollar terms and fell as a percentage of total assistance.
Like other physical infrastructure, water infrastructure deteriorates over time and needs
repair and replacement. Investment is also required in operation and maintenance and in
developing the capacity of the sector so that infrastructure meets appropriate standards
and functions efficiently.
Despite the many unknowns, we need to act now – with decisions about investments in
water infrastructure and in implementation capacity to enable environmentally sustaina-
ble economic growth and social development and with decisions on safety nets to ensure
basic services that protect the poor.
We hope that this third United Nations World Water Development Report will stimulate
decision-makers in government, the private sector and civil society to act.
This Report would not have been possible without the essential and gracious support
of many individuals. The personal support and interest of Koïchiro Matsuura, Director-
General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),
created an enabling environment. The leadership and guidance of Andras Szöllösi-Nagy,
director of the Division of Water Sciences of UNESCO, allowed the World Water Assessment
Programme (WWAP) team to mobilize its collective energy and capacity in the best way
possible. Pasquale Steduto, chair of UN-Water and chief of the Land and Water Division of
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), graciously extended his
catalytic support during a challenging process of preparation and production.
The leadership of Uri Shamir, chair of the Report’s Technical Advisory Committee and
professor of engineering at Technion-Israeli Institute of Technology, and the expertise
of the committee members helped create a product of sound scientific basis and supe-
rior quality, which was further enhanced by the work of WWAP’s Expert Groups. We
acknowledge the efforts of Gerald Galloway, professor of engineering at the University of
Maryland, in helping to reach out to hundreds of decision-makers worldwide, enabling
the Report to be policy relevant to its primary intended audience.
We acknowledge the support of the World Bank, FAO and Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development in providing the most recent data and information avail-
able, sometimes before they were published. We especially thank the Italian Ministry of
Environment, Land and Sea for its generous provision of funds; the Italian Ministry of
Foreign Affairs for its support; and the government of the Umbria Region of Italy for the
beautiful new premises that now house the WWAP at the Villa La Colombella, Perugia.
We thank the Report’s editors, Bruce Ross-Larson and Meta de Coquereaumont, and
their production team at Communications Development Incorporated – Joseph Caponio,
Amye Kenall, Allison Kerns, Christopher Trott and Elaine Wilson – for the extraordinary
support they provided.
The WWAP also thanks the following individuals and organizations from around the
world for their generous and varied contributions to the Report.
UN-Water
Pasquale Steduto, chair; Aslam Chaudhry, Johan Kuylenstierna and Frederik Pischke
UNESCO
Alice Aureli, Jonathan Baker, Jeanne Damlamian, Siegfried Demuth, Walter Erdelen,
Rosanna Karam, Shahbaz Khan, Anil Mishra, Djaffar Moussa-Elkadhum, Anna Movsisyan,
Mohan Perera, Amale Reinholt-Gauthier, Léna Salamé and Alberto Tejada-Guibert
Content coordinator
William Cosgrove
Process manager
George de Gooijer
Chapter facilitators
Richard Connor, William Cosgrove, George de Gooijer, Denis Hughes and Domitille Vallée
Graphics coordinator
Akif Altundaş
Secretariat
Olcay Ünver, coordinator; Michela Miletto, deputy coordinator; Akif Altundaş,
Floriana Barcaioli, Adriana Fusco, Lisa Gastaldin, Georgette Gobina, Simone Grego,
Shaukat Hakim, Rosanna Karam, Engin Koncagül, Lucilla Minelli, Stéfanie Néno,
Abigail Parish, Daniel Perna, Jean-Baptiste Poncelet, Astrid Schmitz, Marina Solecki,
Toshihiro Sonoda, Jair Torres, Domitille Vallée, Casey Walther and Samantha Wauchope
Expert groups
Indicators, monitoring and databases
Mike Muller and Roland Schulze, co-chairs; Joseph Alcamo, Amithirigala Jayawardena,
Torkil Jønch-Clausen, Peter C. Letitre, Aaron Salzberg, Charles Vörösmarty, Albert Wright
and Daniel Zimmer
Legal issues
Stefano Burchi and Patricia Wouters, co-chairs; Rutgerd Boelens, Carl Bruch,
Salman M. A. Salman, Miguel Solanes, Raya Stephan and Jessica Troell
Policy relevance
Gerry Galloway and Dipak Gyawali, co-chairs; Adnan Badran, Qiu Baoxing,
Antonio Bernardini, Benito Braga, Max Campos, Peter Gleick, Rajiv Gupta,
Mohammed Ait Kadi, Celalettin Kart, Juliette Biao Koudenoukpo, Juan Mayr, Jack Moss,
Mike Muller, Hideaki Oda, Marc Overmars, Victor Pochat, Jerome Delli Priscoli,
Cletus Springer, Carel de Villeneuve, Zhang Xiangwei and Jiao Yong
Scenarios
Joseph Alcamo and Gilberto Gallopin, co-chairs; Vahid Alavian, Nadezhda Gaponenko,
Allen Hammond, Kejun Jiang, Emilio Lebre la Rovere, Robert Martin, David Molden,
Mike Muller, Mark Rosegrant, Igor Shiklomanov, Jill Slinger, Narasingarao Sreenath,
Ken Strzepek, Isabel Valencia and Wang Rusong
Storage
Luis Berga and Johan Rockström, co-chairs; Alison Bartle, Jean-Pierre Chabal,
William Critchley, Nuhu Hatibu, Theib Oweis, Michel de Vivo, Arthur Walz and
Carissa Wong
Case studies
Editor
Engin Koncagül (WWAP)
Editorial team
Rebecca Brite and Alison McKelvey Clayson
Maps
AFDEC
Bangladesh
Saiful Alam, Mozaddad Faruque, Azizul Haque, Md. Anwarul Hoque,
Jalaluddin Md. Abdul Hye, Md. Azharul Islam, Andrew Jenkins, A. H. M. Kausher,
Hosne Rabbi, Md. Mustafizur Rahman, Md. Shahjahan and the Bangladesh Ministry of
Water Resources
Cameroon
Kodwo Andah and Mathias Fru Fonteh
China
Dong Wu, Hao Zhao, Jin Hai, Ramasamy Jayakumar, Liu Ke, Pang Hui, Shang Hongqi,
Song Ruipeng, Sun Feng, Sun Yangbo and Xu Jing
Estonia
Erki Endjärv, Harry Liiv, Peeter Marksoo and Karin Pachel
Italy
Beatrice Bertolo and Francesco Tornatore
Republic of Korea
Republic of Korea Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs
Netherlands
Marcel E. Boomgaard, Joost J. Buntsma, Michelle J. A. Hendriks, Olivier Hoes,
Rens L. M. Huisman, Jan Koedood, Ed R. Kramer, Eric Kuindersma, Cathelijn Peters,
Jan Strijker, Sonja Timmer, Frans A. N. van Baardwijk, Tim van Hattum and Hans Waals
Pacific Islands
Marc Overmars, Hans Thulstrup and Ian White
Pakistan
Ch. Muhammad Akram, Mi Hua and Zamir Somroo
Sri Lanka
M. M. M. Aheeyar, Sanath Fernando, K. A. U. S. Imbulana, V. K. Nanayakkara,
B. V. R. Punyawardena, Uditha Ratnayake, Anoja Seneviratne, H. S. Somatilake,
P. Thalagala and K. D. N. Weerasinghe
Sudan
Gamal Abdo, Abdalla Abdelsalam Ahmed, Kodwo Andah, Abdin Salih,
Swaziland
Kodwo Andah, E. J. Mwendera and the Swaziland Department of Water Affairs
Tunisia
Mustapha Besbes, Jamel Chaded, Abdelkader Hamdane and Mekki Hamza
Turkey (Istanbul)
Gülçin Aşkın, Zeynep Eynur, Canan Gökçen, Canan Hastürk, S. Erkan Kaçmaz, Selami Oğuz,
Gürcan Özkan, Vildan Şahin, Turgut Berk Sezgin, Aynur Uluğtekin and Aynur Züran
Uzbekistan
Abdi Kadir Ergashev, Eh. Dj. Makhmudov, Anna Paolini and Sh. I. Salikhov
Zambia
Osward M. Chanda, Hastings Chibuye, Christopher Chileshe, Peter Chola, Ben Chundu,
Adam Hussen, Joseph Kanyanga, Peter Lubambo, Andrew Mondoka, Peter Mumba,
Mumbuwa Munumi, Priscilla Musonda, Christopher Mwasile, Kenneth Nkhowani,
Imasiku A. Nyambe, Liswaniso Pelekelo, Zebediah Phiri, Friday Shisala, Lovemore Sievu
and George W. Sikuleka
Workshop on indicators, monitoring and databases – 18-20 June 2008 – Perugia, Italy
Karen Frenken, George de Gooijer, Jan Hassing, Engin Koncagül, Mike Muller, Stéfanie
Néno, Gerard Payen, Roland Schulze, Charles Vörösmarty and Casey Walther
Solicited consultations
Real-time Delphi survey on scenarios, October 2007
Joseph Alcamo, Fatma Attia, Pierre Baril, Bryon Bates, Anders Berntell,
Elias Fereres Castiel, Gilberto Gallopin, Nadezhda Gaponenko, Filipo Giorgi,
Jerome Glenn, Stela Goldenstein, M. Gopalakrishnan, Wolfgang Grabs, Dipak Gyawali,
BertJan Heij, Danielle Jacob, Pavel Kabat, Tim Kasten, Zbigniew Kundzewicz,
Peter Loucks, David Molden, David Seckler, Uri Shamir, Zekai Şen, Igor Shiklomanov,
Roland Shulze, Lazslo Somlyody, Ken Strzepek, Lucio Ubertini, Isabel Valencia,
Henk van Schaik, Wang Rusong and Albert Wright
Electronic survey for water leaders and water experts, July 2008
Sameh Mohamed Abdel-Gawad, Florence Grace Adongo, Emaduddin Ahmad,
Abdalla A. Ahmed, Fernando Alberto, Sibel Algan, Daouda Aliou, Mirtha Almada,
Hugo Pablo Amicarelli, Paula Antunes, Bayoumi Bayoumi Attia, Van Baardwijk, Banadda,
Jayanta Bandyopadhyay, Elena Benitez, Emilia Bocanegra, Lisa Bourget, John Carey,
Contributors
Altay Altinörs, Ger Bergkamp, Claire Furlong, George de Gooijer, Dipak Gyawali, Jack Moss,
Joshua Newton, Sharon Velasquez Orta, Darren Saywell, Alberto Tejada-Guibert and
James Winpenny
Special thanks
The Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Secretariat of the 5th World Water Forum
(Istanbul), the Greater Municipality of Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration and
the General Directorate of State Hydraulic Works of Turkey
We apologize for any inadvertent errors or omissions of contributors to the Report. Some
names may be incomplete because they come from participants’ own online registration
information, which may have been incomplete.
Alongside the • Water is linked to the crises of climate and disrupt the natural balance of water
change, energy and food supplies and systems.
natural forces
prices, and troubled financial markets.
affecting water Unless their links with water are ad- Economic growth, a principal driver of water
resources are new dressed and water crises around the use, is affected by a wide range of policy
world are resolved, these other crises decisions, from international trade to educa-
human activities may intensify and local water crises tion and public health, while the potential
that have become may worsen, converging into a global rate of economic growth can be affected by
water crisis and leading to political in- demographic variables such as population
the primary security and conflict at various levels. distribution (local workforce availability)
‘drivers’ of the and social characteristics (workforce capacity
Specialists and managers in water supply and and the role of women) and by the availabil-
pressures affecting sanitation, hydropower, irrigation and flood ity of new technologies. Water availability is
our planet’s control have long been aware of this. But also directly subject to the impacts of climate
they often have a narrow, sectoral perspec- change, which also can exert additional pres-
water systems tive that blinds many decisions on water. sures on the other drivers.
And they do not make the decisions on de-
velopment objectives and financial resources The result of these combined and interact-
needed to meet these broader objectives. ing forces is a continuously increasing de-
mand for finite water resources for which
Action is required now. Lives and liveli- there are no substitutes. When water re-
hoods depend on water for development. sources of acceptable quality can no longer
After decades of inaction, the problems are be provided in sustainable quantities,
enormous. And they will worsen if left un- the outcome can be overexploitation of
attended. But while the challenges are sub- aquatic ecosystems. The ultimate losers are
stantial, they are not insurmountable. The the exploited aquatic ecosystems and the
Report has examples of how some coun- organisms (including humans) dependent
tries and regional and local governments on them for survival and well-being.
have solved similar challenges. Recogniz-
ing the links between water resources and Chapter 2. Demographic, economic
other crises around the world and between and social drivers
water resources and development, leaders Human activities and processes of all types
in the water domain and decision-makers – demographic, economic and social – can
outside it must act together now to meet exert pressures on water resources and
these challenges. need to be managed. These pressures are in
turn affected by a range of factors such as
Part 1. Understanding what technological innovation, institutional and
drives the pressures on water financial conditions and climate change.
human perceptions and attitudes about the of groundwater, lack of planning, degrada- Although water is
environment, including water resources, in tion of ecosystems, weakened flood protec-
often described as
turn influencing the pressures people exert tion, urban expansion leading to heightened
on water through water demands and uses. water tensions, and other harmful effects. a ‘gift of nature’,
Changes in lifestyles represent one of the harnessing and
principal drivers of change. They reflect Finance. Although water is often described as
human needs, desires and attitudes (as il- a ‘gift of nature’, harnessing and managing managing it
lustrated in consumption and production it for the wide variety of human and ecologi- for the wide
patterns), which are influenced by such so- cal needs entail financial costs. While there
cial drivers as culture and education and by may appear to be many financing options variety of human
economic drivers and technological innova- for water resources development, govern- and ecological
tion; the rapid global rise in living standards ments still have only three basic means of
combined with population growth presents financing them: tariffs, taxes and transfers needs entail
the major threat to the sustainability of through external aid and philanthropy. financial costs
water resources and the environment.
Policy-makers need to make political deci-
Chapter 3. Technological innovation sions on socially and environmentally
Technological innovation is driven largely acceptable trade-offs among different
by both human wants and needs. It can objectives and on who bears the costs of
create both positive and negative pressures, such compromise. Commitments have
sometimes simultaneously, resulting in been made by the donor community to in-
increased or decreased water demand, sup- crease assistance to the broad water sector,
ply and quality. One of the most unpre- but this has led mainly to an increase in
dictable drivers, technological innovation allocations for water supply and sanitation
can create rapid, dramatic and unexpected in dollar terms (although its share of total
changes, both in pressures and solutions. official development assistance has stag-
Impediments to the dissemination of nated at 4%), and the percentage of total
technology must be overcome for develop- aid allocated to the water sector remains
ing countries to benefit from innovations below 6% and has been declining.
developed in richer countries.
Chapter 5. Climate change and
Chapter 4. Policies, laws and finance possible futures
Efforts to implement water management The external drivers of change, strongly
effectively and efficiently and to prop- connected, create complex challenges
erly inform the decision-making process and opportunities for water managers and
are facilitated by the adoption of water decision-makers in government, the private
resources management laws, policies and sector and civil society. Climate change
strategies that reflect links between water and variability, while seldom the main
and the social and economic sectors. Good stressors on sustainable development, can
examples can be found in many countries. impede or even reverse development gains.
But even if all the necessary policies and Climate change. There is evidence that the
laws are in place, development of water re- global climate is changing and that some
sources will not take place without adequate of the change is human-induced. The main
funding of infrastructure and the institu- impacts of climate change on humans and
tional and human capacity of the sector. the environment occur through water.
Climate change is a fundamental driver of
Policies and laws. Effective policies and changes in water resources and an addition-
legal frameworks are necessary to develop, al stressor through its effects on external
carry out and enforce the rules and regula- drivers. Policies and practices for mitigating
tions that govern water use and protect the climate change or adapting to it can have
resource. Water policy operates within a impacts on water resources, and the way we
context of local, national, regional and glo- manage water can affect the climate.
bal policy and legal frameworks that must
all support sound water management goals. Public policy, so far dominated by mitiga-
tion, could benefit from a better balance
Legitimate, transparent and participatory between mitigation and adaptation. Carbon
processes can effectively mobilize input for is a measure of the anthropogenic causes
designing and implementing water re- of climate change – water is a measure of
sources policy and create a strong deterrent its impacts. The international community
to corruption. Corruption remains a poorly also has to balance investing for tomorrow’s
addressed governance issue in the water do- likely problems of greater climate variability
main. It can lead to uncontrolled pollution and global warming against investing for
of water sources, overpumping and depletion today’s problems of climate variability to
Steadily increasing prevent losses from droughts and floods. disease, climate shocks and environmental
While both are vital, focusing on today’s degradation. Water of the right quality can
demand for
problems can also create greater resilience improve health through better sanitation
agricultural for dealing with the problems of tomorrow. and hygiene and, when applied at the right
products to time, can enhance the productivity of land,
Possible futures. Each of the external water labour and other productive inputs. In ad-
satisfy the needs drivers is dynamic and continues to evolve, dition, healthy freshwater ecosystems pro-
of a growing as do the direct and indirect pressures they vide multiple goods and services essential
exert on water resources. Thus, it is difficult to life and livelihood.
population, and to draw a comprehensive picture of the
the desire for a future by examining each driver independ- The importance of water services is espe-
ently. Because the drivers can have even cially apparent in societies where normal
more varied diet, more of an impact on future water resources social life and political structures have
continues to be collectively than they can individually, broken down. In these fragile states the
future scenarios that consider these interac- government cannot or will not deliver core
the main driver tions offer a more holistic picture. Existing functions to most of its people, including
behind water use global water scenarios are outdated, incom- the poor. While each fragile state is fragile
plete or sectoral and do not fully incorpo- in different ways and for different reasons
rate each of the external drivers. The evolu- – war, post-conflict recovery, major natural
tion of the drivers and the logic behind catastrophe, prolonged mismanagement
their storylines need to be examined and and political r epression – a striking com-
possibly redefined in view of developments monality in reports from aid agencies is
both inside and outside the water sector the prominence of water and sanitation in
that have occurred over the past decade. relief and reconstruction programmes. The
rapid restoration of viable water services is
Part 2. Using water often a crucial ingredient of nation-build-
ing in these fragile states.
History shows a strong link between eco-
nomic development and water resources Chapter 7. Evolution of water use
development. There are abundant exam- While most of the old challenges of water
ples of how water has contributed to eco- supply, sanitation and environmental sus-
nomic development and how development tainability remain, new challenges such as
has demanded increased harnessing of adaptation to climate change, rising food
water. Steadily rising demand for agricul- and energy prices, and ageing infrastruc-
tural products to satisfy the diverse needs ture are increasing the complexity and
of growing populations (for food, fibre and financial burden of water management.
now fuel) has been the main driver behind Population growth and rapid economic
agricultural water use. development have led to accelerated fresh-
water withdrawals.
The effects of water-depleting and water-
polluting activities on human and ecosys- Trends in access to domestic water supply
tem health remain largely unreported or indicate substantial improvement in the
difficult to measure, and the need grows past decade, putting most countries on track
stronger for effective protection of eco- to achieve the water supply target of the
systems and the goods and services they Millennium Development Goals. However,
produce – on which life and livelihoods sanitation is lagging well behind, and most
depend. As competition among demands sub-Saharan African countries and many
on water increases, society will need to re- rural areas still show unsatisfactory records
spond with improved water management, for both water supply and sanitation.
more effective policies and transparent and
efficient water allocation mechanisms. Steadily increasing demand for agricultural
products to satisfy the needs of a growing
Chapter 6. Water’s many benefits population continues to be the main driver
Water has always played a key role in behind water use. While world population
economic development, and economic growth has slowed since the 1970s and is
development has always been accompanied expected to continue its downward trend,
by water development. Investment in water steady economic development, in particular
management has been repaid through live- in emerging market economies, has trans-
lihood security and reductions in health lated into demand for a more varied diet,
risks, vulnerability and ultimately poverty. including meat and dairy products, putting
Water contributes to poverty alleviation in additional pressure on water resources.
many ways – through sanitation services,
water supply, affordable food and enhanced After agriculture, the two major users of
resilience of poor communities faced with water for development are industry and
energy (20% of total water withdrawals), densely populated developing countries. Water and
which are transforming the patterns of As a result, the often serious impacts of
energy share the
water use in emerging market economies. polluting activities on the health of people
Water and energy share the same driv- and ecosystems remain largely unreported. same drivers:
ers: demographic, economic, social and Still, there are signs of progress in how demographic,
technological processes put pressure on pollution and the risks of pollution can
both energy and water. The recent accel- be mitigated and trends in environmental economic, social
eration in the production of biofuel and degradation reversed. and technological
the impacts of climate change bring new
challenges and add to the pressures on Chapter 9. Managing competition for processes put
land and water resources. water and the pressure on ecosystems pressure on both
Competition for water and shortcomings
Freshwater ecosystems provide an ex- in managing it to meet the needs of society energy and water
tensive array of vital services to support and the environment call for enhanced so-
human well-being. A variety of economic cietal responses through improved manage-
and recreational activities such as navi- ment, better legislation and more effective
gation, fisheries and pastoral activities and transparent allocation mechanisms.
depend on direct use of water in healthy
ecosystems. Yet some environmental serv- Challenges include wise planning for
ices receive inadequate policy attention water resources, evaluation of availability
and are endangered by the way develop- and needs in a watershed, possible reallo-
ment sectors use water. cation or storage expansion in existing res-
ervoirs, more emphasis on water demand
Chapter 8. Impacts of water use on management, a better balance between
water systems and the environment equity and efficiency in water use, inad-
The pattern and intensity of human activ- equate legislative and institutional frame-
ity have disrupted – through impacts on works and the rising financial burden of
quantity and quality – the role of water as ageing infrastructure.
the prime environmental agent. In some
areas depletion and pollution of economi- Water management choices should emerge
cally important river basins and associated from informed consultation and negotia-
aquifers have gone beyond the point of no- tion on the costs and benefits of all op-
return, and coping with a future without tions after considering basin interconnect-
reliable water resources systems is now a edness, relationships between land and
real prospect in parts of the world. water resources, and the consistency and
coherence of decisions with other govern-
While the intensity of groundwater use, ment policies.
partly encouraged by subsidized rural
electrification, has led to the emergence of Part 3. State of the resource
many groundwater-dependent economies,
their future is now threatened by aquifer The uneven distribution over time and
depletion and pollution. Prospects for space of water resources and their modifi-
relaxing use of these key aquifers, remedi- cation through human use and abuse are
ating water quality and restoring ground- sources of water crises in many parts of the
water services to ecosystems look remote world. In many areas hydrologic extremes
unless alternative management approaches have increased. Deaths and material dam-
are developed. age from extreme floods can be high, and
more intense droughts, affecting increas-
Our ability to maintain the environmental ing numbers of people, have been observed
services we depend on has improved but in the 21st century. Worldwide, water
remains constrained by an incomplete observation networks are inadequate for
understanding of the magnitude and im- current and future management needs and
pact of pollution, the resilience of affected risk further decline. There are insufficient
ecosystems and the social institutions that data to understand and predict the current
use and manage water resources systems. A and future quantity and quality of water
failure to monitor the negative impacts of resources, and political protocols and im-
water use on the environment and insti- peratives for sharing data are inadequate.
tutional weaknesses in many developing
countries prevent effective enforcement of Chapter 10. The Earth’s natural water
regulatory provisions. cycles
Water resources are made up of many com-
Relevant information about pollution loads ponents associated with water in its three
and changes in water quality is lacking pre- physical states (liquid, solid and gas). The
cisely where water use is most intense – in components of the water cycle (rainfall,
Most climate evaporation, runoff, groundwater, stor- glacier meltwater, the general conclusion is
age and others) therefore all differ in their that global trends are not present or cannot
scientists agree
chemical and biochemical qualities, spatial be detected at this stage, although climate
that global and temporal variability, resilience, vulner- change-related trends are evident in some
warming will ability to pressures (including land use and regions. Groundwater resources have been
climate change), susceptibility to pollution heavily used for human supply and agricul-
result in an and capacity to provide useful services and ture for many years. While many ground-
intensification, to be used sustainably. A consequence of water abstraction schemes access fossil
this variability is that while human pres- water (water unrelated to current condi-
acceleration or sures have resulted in large modifications tions), renewable groundwater resources de-
enhancement to the global hydrologic cycle, the direc- pend on highly variable recharge volumes.
tions and degrees of change are complex
of the global and difficult to ascertain. The uneven It is thus realistic to expect future recharge
hydrologic cycle, distribution of water resources over time regimes to reflect changes in the driving
and space and the way human activity is hydrologic processes (such as precipitation
and there is some affecting that distribution today are fun- and evapotranspiration) that might result
observational damental sources of water crises in many from anticipated climate changes. It is
parts of the world. Adding complexity, cli- increasingly clear that the assumption of
evidence that
mate change and variability also influence statistical stationarity is no longer a defen-
this is already the water supply, demand and buffering sible basis for water planning.
happening system, although their precise impacts can
be difficult to isolate. Among the consequences of a changing
hydrologic cycle is its interaction with
Chapter 11. Changes in the global the terrestrial carbon cycle. The terrestrial
water cycle biosphere may have taken up roughly 25%
Most climate scientists agree that global of anthropogenic carbon emissions during
warming will result in an intensification, the last century; it is unclear how long this
acceleration or enhancement of the global can continue.
hydrologic cycle, and there is some obser-
vational evidence that this is already hap- Chapter 12. Evolving hazards – and
pening. While trends in precipitation have emerging opportunities
been noted in some parts of the world, in Water-related hazards can be naturally oc-
other areas precipitation patterns have curring or anthropogenic. Hazards can re-
remained about the same within the pe- sult from too much water (floods, erosion,
riod of observed data. Changes have been landslides and so on) or too little (droughts
observed in snow cover extent and snow and loss of wetlands or habitat) and from
water equivalent and in the frequency with the effects of chemical and biological pol-
which precipitation falls as snow. More lution on water quality and in-stream eco-
than 15% of the world’s population live systems. The natural variability of water
where water resources availability depends resources and changes, whatever the cause,
heavily on snowmelt from ephemeral can provide opportunities for management
snowpacks or perennial glaciers. Despite strategies to respond to potential climate
the evidence of temperature changes, there change threats by implementing more
is little evidence of detectable changes in resource-sustainable policies and practices.
evaporation and evapotranspiration.
In many places climate-related water events
Climate change is being superimposed on have become more frequent and more
an already complex hydrologic landscape, extreme. In developing countries extreme
making its signal difficult to isolate, and yet floods can result in many deaths, while
making its influence felt throughout the in developed countries they can result in
water supply, demand and buffering system. billions of dollars in damages. More intense
Data limitations in record length, continu- droughts in the past decade, affecting an
ity and spatial coverage contribute to the increasing number of people, have been
uncertainty, while natural climate variabil- linked to higher temperatures and de-
ity and multiyear variability associated with creased precipitation but are also frequently
large-scale atmospheric circulation patterns a consequence of the mismanagement of
influence the interpretation of many trends resources and the neglect of risk manage-
in ways that are not yet fully understood. ment. The increased exposure to potential
climate change hazards has led to more
Despite the limitations of global datasets, awareness of water resources management.
many studies have shown changes in
runoff and streamflow. Many have focused Changes in flow and inputs of chemical
on low (drought) or high (flood) extremes. and biological waste from human activ-
Except in regions with flows affected by ity have altered the water quality and
ecological functioning of many of the be done! But there is no one-size-fits-all Worldwide, water
world’s rivers. Global warming is expected solution. The best mix of responses to a
observation
to have substantial effects on energy flows country’s development objectives and
and matter recycling through its impact policy priorities to meet its water challeng- networks provide
on water temperature, resulting in algal es depends on the availability of water in incomplete and
blooms, increases in toxic cyanobacteria space and in time and the country’s tech-
bloom and reductions in biodiversity. nical, financial, institutional and human incompatible data
capacities – its culture, political and regula- on water quantity
In areas of increasing water stress ground- tory frameworks, and markets.
water is an important buffer resource, and quality for
capable of responding to increased water Options within the water domain are properly managing
demands or of compensating for the de- distinct from those outside it. Leaders in
clining availability of surface water. the water domain can inform the proc- water resources
esses outside their domain and implement and predicting
Chapter 13. Bridging the decisions for the water domain; but it is the
observational gap leaders in government, the private sector
future needs – and
Worldwide, water observation networks and civil society who determine the direc- these networks
provide incomplete and incompatible data tions that will be taken. Responses outside
are in jeopardy of
on water quantity and quality for properly the water domain strongly affect the macro
managing water resources and predicting changes that influence how water is used further decline
future needs – and these networks are in and allocated. They also make water adap-
jeopardy of further decline. Also, no com- tation measures more (or less) effective and
prehensive information exists on wastewa- less (or more) costly.
ter generation and treatment and receiving
water quality on a regional or global scale. Many countries face multiple challenges
While new technologies based on satel- but have limited financial and natural
lite remote sensing and modelling present resources and implementation capaci-
opportunities, their value is limited by our ties. Countries need to fully use synergy
ability to ground-truth and validate the opportunities and to make trade-offs
simulated information. and difficult decisions on how to allocate
among uses and users to protect their water
Management of the world’s water resources resources. To achieve results, many actors
requires reliable information about the need to participate in these decisions.
state of the resource and how it is chang-
ing in response to external drivers such as Chapter 14. Options inside the water
climate change and water and land use. box
There is little sharing of hydrologic data, There are many practical examples of
due largely to limited physical access to solutions within the water domain. Some
data, policy and security issues; lack of options show particular promise. Prepar-
agreed protocols for sharing; and commer- ing institutions to deal with current and
cial considerations. This hampers regional future challenges requires support for
and global projects that have to build on institutional development through such
shared datasets for scientific and applica- reforms as decentralization, stakeholder
tions-oriented purposes, such as seasonal participation and transparency, increased
regional hydrologic outlooks, forecasting, corporatization where feasible and fair,
disaster warning and prevention, and partnerships and coordination (public-
integrated water resources management in private, public-public, public-civil society),
transboundary basins. and new administrative systems based on
shared benefits of water, including when
Improving water resources management water crosses borders. Decision-makers
requires investments in monitoring and need to consider the influence of water
more efficient use of existing data, includ- law, both formal and customary, including
ing traditional ground-based observations regulations in other sectors that influence
and newer satellite-based data products. the management of water resources.
Most countries, developed and developing,
need to give greater attention and more Decision-making is improved by consulting
resources to monitoring, observations with stakeholders and ensuring account-
and continual assessments of the status of ability in planning, implementation and
water resources. management as well as building trust
within the water and related sectors and
Part 4. Responses and choices fighting corruption and mismanagement.
Strengthening organization structures and
We have many of the answers. Across the improving the operating efficiency of water
planet we have already shown that it can supply utilities will help to improve service
unsustainable quality and increase the coverage and development objectives and to sustain
density of connections, while also boosting development. Water resources, properly
management and
revenues and creating a more viable finan- managed, are critical to the survival and
inequitable access cial base to attract further investment. well-being of individuals. They can ensure
to water resources equity and security in water and sanitation
Innovation and research are critical for de- for families, businesses and communities.
cannot continue. veloping appropriate solutions. And greater And they can ensure adequate water for
We might not have institutional capacity and human capacity food, energy and the environment as well
are needed, both within the water domain as protection from floods and droughts.
all the information and in areas or sectors outside the water
we would like domain. Capacity development can occur Decision-making on water requires seeking
through traditional forms of education, synergies and selecting appropriate trade-
to have before on-the-job training, e-learning, public offs. It also requires distinguishing between
acting, but we do awareness raising, knowledge management short-term ‘fire-fighting’ – responding to
and professional networks. the urgent issues of the day – and long-term
know enough now strategic development. Developing multi-
to begin to take Sound management accountability and purpose water schemes and reusing water
good governance within the water sector wherever feasible can lessen the need for
significant steps
contribute to creating a favourable invest- trade-offs by enabling the same volumes of
ment climate. This should include new scarce water to deliver multiple outcomes.
approaches such as payment for environ-
mental services. The donor community can incorporate
water into the broader frameworks of
Chapter 15. Options from beyond the development aid and focus assistance on
water box areas where it is needed most – in sub-
Dealing with risk and uncertainty has long Saharan Africa, in Asian and Latin Ameri-
been a routine challenge for water re- can slums and in states recovering from
sources managers and policy-makers across conflict. Recent G-8 efforts in this direc-
sectors and the world. However, issues like tion are promising.
climate change and demographic dynam-
ics have made the risks greater and the task The chief executives of the UN agencies,
more complex. Risk management is now following the example of their joint discus-
much more important – indeed essential – sions of and collective responses to climate
to analysis and decision-making. change, can convene to examine the role
of water, water systems and water manage-
Drivers and policies outside the water sector ment in development and environmental
have more impact on water management services, providing direction to agencies
than do many policies championed and im- and advice to member countries.
plemented by water-related ministries. Iden-
tifying trade-offs and synergies between The World Water Assessment Programme
water and other policy sectors can enhance and its partners are working to help reduce
policy impacts in all sectors and avoid some uncertainty, facilitate decision-making and
adverse effects on water. Because govern- accelerate investment by highlighting the
ments, civil society and business leaders links between socioeconomic development
make decisions every day that can affect and investment in water management ca-
water, it is important to identify where such pacity and infrastructure in other sectors.
decisions can also lead to improvements in
water sector management and in water sec- The challenges are great, but unsustain-
tor and environmental services. able management and inequitable access
to water resources cannot continue. We
Examples of win-win situations abound – might not have all the information we
whether created by governments, commu- would like to have before acting, but we do
nities or businesses – that point to promot- know enough now to begin to take signifi-
ing deliberate cooperation between water cant steps. Actions must include increased
and non-water actors and integrating water investment in water infrastructure and
issues into external decisions. International capacity development. Leaders in the water
organizations, notably the UN system, can domain can inform the processes outside
provide support and expertise to govern- their domain and manage water resources
ments, help civil society build capacity and to achieve agreed socioeconomic objectives
catalyse leadership in the private sector. and environmental integrity. But leaders
in government, the private sector and civil
Chapter 16. The way forward society will determine the direction that
Water and water systems must be man- actions take. Recognizing this responsibil-
aged to achieve social and economic ity, they must act now!
Chapter 1
Coordinator
Olcay Ünver
Chapter (WWAP)
Chapter 1
Getting out of
the box – linking
water to decisions for
sustainable development
Authors: Andy Bullock, William Cosgrove, Wim van der Hoek, James Winpenny
Contributors: Gerry Galloway, BertJan Heij, Molly Hellmuth, Jack Moss, Monica Scatasta
Coordinator: Olcay Ünver (WWAP)
Facilitator: William Cosgrove
Key messages
The ‘water box’ dilemma must be resolved. Leaders in the water sector
– in water supply and sanitation, hydropower, irrigation and flood
control – have long been aware that water is essential to sustainable
development, but they do not make the decisions on development
objectives and the allocation of human and financial resources to
meet them. These decisions are made or influenced by leaders in gov-
ernment, the private sector and civil society, who must learn to rec-
ognize water’s role in obtaining their objectives.
Water is linked to the crises of climate change, energy and food sup-
plies and prices, and troubled financial markets. Unless their links
with water are addressed and water crises around the world are re-
solved, these other crises may intensify and local water crises may
worsen, converging into a global water crisis and leading to political
insecurity and conflict at various levels.
The media today are full of talk of crises and rehabilitation, both physical and
– in climate change, energy and food institutional.
supplies and prices, and troubled financial
markets. These global crises are linked to Specialists and managers in water supply
each other and to water resources. Unless and sanitation, hydropower, irrigation
resolved, they may lead to increasing po- and flood control have long been aware
litical insecurity and conflict at local and that water is essential to sustainable de-
national levels. velopment. But they often have a narrow,
sectoral perspective that blinds many
These crises arise against a background of decisions on water. And they do not make
continuing poverty for much of the world. the decisions on development objectives
Managing water resources is essential to and the allocation of human and financial
social and economic development, poverty resources needed to meet these broader
reduction and equity and to achieving the objectives. These decisions are made or
Millennium Development Goals. Sustain- influenced by leaders in government,
able development depends on managing the private sector and civil society. These
the costs of service provision using exist- leaders must learn to recognize water’s
ing infrastructure along with additional role in attaining their objectives and act
investments in new water infrastructure accordingly.
Chapter 1G
an understanding And they must act in a changing world, a at a regional, state (provincial) or local
world driven by forces that they often do (municipal) government level. The role of
of water issues
not control – forces of demography, the these government structures is critical in
and of the global economy, changing societal values water management.
support needed and norms, technological innovation,
international law, financial markets and In many countries government directly
for investments, climate change. controls only a small fraction of invest-
institutions, ments in the economy, but it determines
Opening the water box the conditions that will attract or dis-
incentives, courage investment. To be most effective,
information Until the 1990s (and continuing in some decisions should be taken through an
countries) water subsectors generally interactive process that involves leaders in
and capacity worked independently, with specialists in business (finance, industries, commerce)
inside the ‘water water supply and sanitation, hydropower, and civil society (community-based or-
irrigation, flood control and so on inter- ganizations and other non-governmental
sector’ requires acting very little.1 As population growth organizations).
partnerships and other pressures on water (‘water driv-
ers’) brought more and more basins near Ideally, government, business and civil
between those
closure (the allocation of all of the water society leaders would work together in the
responsible for in a basin), the need to manage water interest of society. Because of the implica-
the economy- across subsectors at the basin level became tions of their decisions for water use, an
evident. Water management was expanded understanding of water issues and of the
wide benefits of during the 1990s to incorporate efficient support needed for investments, institu-
water and those water use, equitable sharing of benefits, tions, incentives, information and capacity
and environmental sustainability – what inside what has traditionally been consid-
responsible for came to be called integrated water resourc- ered the ‘water sector’ requires partner-
managing water es management. And in 2002 the World ships between those responsible for the
Summit on Sustainable Development in economy-wide benefits of water and those
Johannesburg set for all countries the goal responsible for managing water. Leaders
to develop integrated water resources man- in the water sector must thus ensure that
agement plans by 2005. these leaders outside the ‘water box’ know
the constraints and options for water
Many countries are applying integrated resources and help them implement their
water resources management at the basin decisions efficiently and effectively.
level. But management is still largely con-
fined to the water sector, where it is well Among the decisions that affect water the
understood that water is essential to all life most are those relating to how a country
on the planet (human and other species) meets its objectives for energy and food
and to human livelihoods. The sector is security, employment, disaster prepared-
beginning to recognize that decisions by ness, environmental sustainability and
people outside the water sector determine other societal goals. These decisions are
how water will be used, but the other made in broader political frameworks and
sectors are seen as cross-cutting in water not by water managers, who subsequently
management. The approach within the deal with their implications for water and
sector has been to invite those working in with other outcomes that touch on water.
other socioeconomic sectors to join in in- Figure 1.1 illustrates this process.
tegrated water resources management. But
the societal and political questions that Outside the water sector is an area of syn-
determine the real allocation and manage- ergy, tradeoffs, coordination and integra-
ment of water resources also need to take tion, involving higher-level, multisectoral
into account the technological aspects of decision-making processes. Water profes-
integrated water resources management. sionals, stakeholders and individuals can
inform and influence decisions in this
The sphere of decision-making and area, affecting outcomes. But they need
the water box to have a seat at the decision-making
Within government, water use is decided table and to respond by implementing
by the interaction of decision-makers in water management effectively and ef-
the main socioeconomic sectors – health, ficiently and by properly informing the
education, agriculture, housing, industry, decision-making process. These efforts are
energy, economic development and envi- facilitated in the many countries that have
ronment. In many countries this interac- adopted water resources management laws,
tion occurs through a cabinet of ministers policies or strategies that reflect links be-
presided over by the prime minister or tween water and the social and economic
president. Parallel mechanisms may exist sectors.
Getting out of the box – linking water to decisions for sustainable development
Political
actors
Water
Impact
box
Demand
Chapter 1G
Getting out of the box – linking water to decisions for sustainable development
for individuals to be productive and Box 1.1 Commitment of African heads of state to
creative.6 water as a key to sustainable development
Asian Water Development Outlook 2007 high- It has little in the way of a detailed roadmap
lights the significant global development for water resources development, however.
challenge this represents.7 That report em-
phasizes a ‘multidisciplinary and multi-sec- Benefits from investing in water
tor perspective [on water] around the Asia Many water investments have been evalu-
and Pacific region’ in facing the challenges ated by the rate of return of single-purpose
of sustaining growth. It highlights schemes without considering the addi-
tional benefits possible from multipurpose
important topics that have been projects.8 Increasingly, evidence is emerg-
neglected or are being inadequately ing of the direct economy-wide benefits
considered in most countries of of investments in water (see chapter 6).
the region. Among these is the For example, there is evidence that local
urgent need to address the inherent action on water management in China
interrelationships between water has delivered measurable improvements
and other important development- in local GDP.9 In the 335 counties in
related sectors, like energy, food, China with primary electrification from
and the environment. hydropower, annual average income per
Chapter 1G
Figure 1.2 The costs of disasters as a share of GDP are farmer rose 8.1% a year, nearly 3 percent-
much higher in poor countries than rich age points more than the national average.
countries In those communities 30 million people
upgraded their livelihoods from margin-
Total economic costs (US$ billions) Costs as share of GDP (percent) alized farming to off-farm labourers in
the industrial and services sector with-
700 14
out any negative impact on agricultural
600 12 production.
500 10
Evidence is also growing of the macro
400 8 economic returns to investments in water
300 6 management – and the costs of failures to
invest. Disasters such as floods (resulting
200 4
from typhoons and hurricanes and from
100 2 rainfall exceeding the carrying capacity of
0 0 channels) and droughts hurt poor econo-
Richest countriesa Poorest countriesb mies more than wealthy ones, which are
better prepared to cope with such disasters
a. Annual GDP per capita above $9,361.
b. Annual GDP per capita below $760.
(figure 1.2).
Source: Delli Priscoli and Wolf 2009.
Investments in environmental sustain-
ability and water management to prevent
water-related disasters can have large
Figure 1.3 US government investments in water payoffs, so countries need not wait to in-
infrastructure during 1930-96 yielded $6 in vest until they have achieved middle- or
damages averted for each $1 invested high-income status. Investments in water
infrastructure by the US Army Corps of
Investment in water infrastructure Engineers between 1930 and 1999, for
(1999 US$ billions, adjusted using Construction Cost Index)
example, yielded returns of $6 for each
800 $1 spent and controlled flood damage
700 despite rising population numbers and
Cumulative benefits
600
property value at risk over the period
(figure 1.3). The World Health Organiza-
500
tion (WHO) estimates returns of $3-$34,
400 depending on the region and technol-
300 ogy, for each $1 invested in safe drinking
200 water and basic sanitation.10 There is thus
Cumulative expenditures a strong case that improved coverage of
100 Annual benefits drinking water and sanitation contributes
0 to economic growth. Policy-makers can
1928 1934 1940 1946 1952 1958 1964 1970 1976 1982 1988 1994 1999
use these data to justify their actions,
identify areas of deficiency and better
Source: Based on Delli Priscoli and Wolf 2009. prioritize actions.11
Getting out of the box – linking water to decisions for sustainable development
costs of lack of access to adequate sanita- Box 1.3 Estimated costs of restoring essential
tion facilities for four South-East Asian ecosystems in the United States
countries.
The following are estimates for restor- by 2050 (www.coast2050.
Environmental degradation from water ing major essential ecosystems in gov/2050reports.htm).
pollution and excessive withdrawals also the United States. The cost exceeds
has negative economic impacts. For ex- $60 billion, and the total is likely to • Restoration of Chesapeake Bay:
ample, the damage cost of environmental be higher still as more information $19 billion for the Chesapeake Bay
degradation in the Middle East and North becomes available. Program (www.chesapeakebay.
Africa has been estimated at some $9 bil- net/fundingandfinancing.aspx
lion a year, or 2.1%-7.4% of GDP.14 Indus- • Everglades Restoration: $10.9 ?menuitem=14907).
trial countries are learning the enormous billion. Groundwork laid for
costs associated with restoring essential Everglades restoration, but • Restoration of Great Lakes: $8
projects are experiencing delays billion for Great Lakes restoration
ecosystems. In the United States the costs
(www8.nationalacademies. and protection priorities (www.
have been estimated at more than $60 bil- org/onpinews/newsitem. cglg.org/projects/priorities/
lion and continue to rise as more becomes aspx?RecordID=11754). PolicySolutionsReport12-10-04.
known (box 1.3). pdf).
• Restoration of the Upper Mis-
Investing in water sissippi River: $5.3 billion for a • Restoration of California Bay
Investment flows to uses with the highest 50-year ecosystem restoration Delta: $8.5 billion (first seven
economic rate of returns. Currently, water plan (www.nationalaglawcenter. years) for large-scale ecosystem
often gives very low returns for very long org/assets/crs/RL32470.pdf). restoration initiatives (www.
payback periods primarily because of the nemw.org/calfed.htm).
• Restoration of Coastal Loui-
way it is governed (see chapter 4). Much
siana: $14 billion towards a • Restoration of Missouri River – to
political interaction in the water sector Sustainable Coastal Louisiana be determined.
drives operations to ‘structural bankrupt-
cy’. It is not surprising that new investors
are not eager to enter the water sector. Figure 1.4 Water investment requires a holistic approach
Yet public investment in infrastructure is – links between pricing, financing and
declining. And so the needs of the water stakeholders
sector go unmet.
Investment • Objectives Financial
The challenges in financing water serv- plans • Technology requirements
Costs
needs/gap
ices have been well described in recent
years. Proposed solutions and innovative
responses are presented in the reports
of the World Panel on Financing Water Pricing strategies
Realistic finance • Part of sustainable cost recovery
Infrastructure15 and the Task Force on strategies • Trade-offs: financial, social, economic, environmental
Financing Water for All.16 Ultimately, there sustainability
are only three sources of financing: user • Leveraging effects: sources and skills
Ultimate sources • Payment schemes? Leveraging beneficiaries’
tariffs, public expenditure and external (filling the gap) willingness to pay
aid (official or philanthropical). Recourse • Users and beneficiaries
• Public budgets Financing mechanisms (bridging the gap)
to these sources should be preceded and • External aid • Payment schemes leveraging beneficiaries’
accompanied by efficiency measures to willingness to pay
control operating costs and by careful Leveraging • Attract funds and build appropriate finance packages
• To fill the gap (cost of capital)
project selection and design to ensure the • Increase users’
best return to scarce resources. willingness to pay
(services, efficiency,
reforms) Maximizing contributions to sector sustainability by
Many studies have attempted to estimate • To bridge the gap different stakeholders, including the private sector
the total investments that would be re- • Attract private • Increase efficiency: reduce cost, reduce gap
funds • Improve service: increase users’ willingness to pay
quired to provide adequate infrastructure • Integrate finance • Clarify roles and provide stability: attract funds
for water supply and sanitation. Typically packages • Elicit users’ needs: reduce cost/gap, increase
presented as global or regional estimates, willingness to pay
they often ignore the essential precondi-
tion of investments in institutions, reform, Source: Authors’ construction.
and implementation and management
capacities and in replacement of ageing
infrastructure. Because water can be man- attract loans or external aid to supplement
aged only locally, investments must also their own sources of capital.
be managed locally. Investing in water
requires a holistic approach (figure 1.4). Nonetheless, many developing countries,
Sound financial management, as illus- having applied all of the measures implied
trated in figure 1.4, will make it possible by such a process, will still lack the capital
for water authorities and governments to required to meet basic needs through
Chapter 1G
Today, poverty water resources development and service trade balances, accelerator impacts on
delivery. In those cases it is relevant to capital investment, business confidence
reduction
question how much external aid is avail- and the stock market.
strategies still offer able, where it is applied and whether the
only the prospect amount can or should be increased. In India water development evened out
the seasonal demand for labour, resulting
of aligning action Distributing the benefits of growth in major gains for the country.18 Fore-
on water with The 2007 U.K. Department for Interna- casts by the New Partnership for Africa’s
tional Development policy paper ‘Growth Development concerning African agricul-
poverty reduction, and Infrastructure’ stated that ‘Growth is ture’s contribution to growth and poverty
as few current the single most important way of pulling reduction are founded on the economic
people out of poverty’.17 It cites empiri- justifications of reduced food import bills,
poverty reduction cal literature attributing more than 80% more predictable import profiles, increased
strategies give of recent poverty reduction worldwide to export revenues and reduced poverty at
growth and less than 20% to redistribu- the household level.19
anything but tion (social protection). It gives the exam-
superficial ples of China, where 450 million people To attract development-oriented finance,
have been lifted out of poverty since 1979, the growth-increasing and poverty-
attention to
helped by exceptionally high growth reducing contributions of water resources
action on water rates, and Viet Nam, which experienced must be made explicit and specific at the
the most rapid reduction in poverty rates country level. Such specifics will influence
on record, from 75% in the late 1980s to the sources, costs, viability, sustainability
less than a third in 2002, thanks to high and instruments of finance. National,
growth rates. basin and local action plans are needed to
align water resources, economic growth
That poverty reduction is the overrid- and poverty reduction. Making such align-
ing policy concern is evidenced by the ments and other essential connections
primacy of poverty reduction strategies will be more successful within frameworks
and national development plans as the such as a round of poverty reduction
governing mechanisms for partnerships strategies, public expenditure reviews and
and finance from the international com- national development plans.
munity. As of mid-2008, 59 countries had
prepared full poverty reduction strategies Reducing poverty, which limits
and 11 more had completed preliminary access to water
poverty reduction strategies. This rep- The world must acknowledge the crisis of
resents a significant change. For many persistent underdevelopment and poverty.
years action on water that could deliver Since the end of the Second World War
benefits to the poor lacked government more than 3 billion people have ben-
frameworks that prioritized poverty efited from economic development, but
reduction and mobilization of financing. at least 2 billion people remain in need.
Today, poverty reduction strategies still Some 1.4 billion people lived in ‘absolute
offer only the prospect of aligning action poverty’ in 2005,20 a number that does not
on water with poverty reduction, as few take into account the recent wave of in-
current poverty reduction strategies give creases in energy and food prices.21 These
anything but superficial attention to ac- women, men and children daily face the
tion on water. consequences of poverty – disease, malnu-
trition and hunger. They have no capac-
Public expenditure reviews are another ity to prepare for natural disasters, such
tool to help decision-makers allocate as earthquakes and floods, or to respond
public funds. These reviews of government when they strike. The world community
spending can boost efficiency and equity, has set the Millennium Development
development impact and the accountabil- Goal target of halving the proportion of
ity of public spending. They can also in- people living in poverty by 2015. But we
crease the accountability and transparency are far from being on track, particularly in
of results and support governance reforms regions where the need is highest.
and anticorruption programs.
Human Development Report 2006 consid-
Economic justification for water invest- ers the experience of water and sanitation
ments come from their translation into as reinforcing the ‘long-standing human
economy-wide growth through employ- development lesson’ that rates of coverage
ment, capital and labour productivity, in access to water and sanitation rise with
taxes, government expenditure, revenue income on average (figure 1.5).22 Global
control, debt, purchasing power, balance Monitoring Report 2005 notes that in South
of payments, foreign exchange reserves, Asia an improving investment climate and
Getting out of the box – linking water to decisions for sustainable development
stronger policies, along with gains in basic Figure 1.5 Access to water and sanitation rises with
service delivery, have sustained rapid eco- income
nomic growth since 1990 and contributed
significantly to poverty reduction and to Population with sustainable access to improved drinking water source, 2006 (percent)
in many developed countries. About 340 Source: Based on data from WHO Statistical Information System (www.who.int/whosis/en/).
million Africans lack access to safe drink-
ing water, and almost 500 million lack
access to improved sanitation facilities. Figure 1.6 Poverty remains high in sub-Saharan Africa
The First African Water Week, convened
in Tunis in March 2008, opened with Share of population living below the poverty line (percent)
a call for greater efforts to ensure water
100
security nationally and regionally. Donald
Kaberuka, president of the African Devel-
$2.00
opment Bank Group, emphasized that 75
$1.25
it is no longer acceptable that the
50
African continent continues to uti-
lize only 4% of its water resources, $1.00
when a huge proportion of the 25
people do not have access to safe
water, and when large populations
0
are faced with frequent floods and
1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005
drought, in addition to food and
energy shortages. Action is urgently Note: Poverty lines in 2005 prices.
needed.24 Source: Based on Chen and Ravallion 2008, p. 41.
Chapter 1G
Table 1.1 Summary of scaling-up opportunities related to achieving the Millennium Development
Goals in Africa
Box 1.4 Progress in meeting the Millennium These links served as an important advo-
Development Goal target on water supply cacy instrument during the International
and sanitation Year of Sanitation in 2008. High-profile in-
ternational attention has focused on basic
The world is on track to meet the Mil- by only 8 percentage points. With-
services in recent years, including decla-
lennium Development Goal target on out an immediate acceleration in rations at Brasilia (2003), Beppu (2007),
drinking water. Current trends suggest progress, the world will not achieve eThekwini (2008), Tunis (2008) and Sharm
that more than 90% of the global even half the sanitation target by el-Sheik (2008). Gaps in drinking water
population will use improved drinking 2015. Based on current trends, the and sanitation, in particular, have attract-
water sources by 2015. total population without improved ed political attention at the highest levels.
sanitation in 2015 will have de-
The world is not on track to meet creased only slightly, from 2.5 billion Development partnerships are helping
the Millennium Development Goal to 2.4 billion. countries that are off track for achieving
sanitation target. Between 1990 and
the Millennium Development Goals get
2006 the proportion of p eople with- Source: WHO and UNICEF Joint Monitoring
out improved sanitation decreased Programme 2008, pp. 8 and 23.
back on track. Intergovernmental efforts
are working to maintain the momentum
of the global commitments made since the
being made towards the provision of safe Millennium Declaration and of water-
drinking water, the sanitation target is far specific processes such as the G-8 Evian
from being met (box 1.4). Action Plan28(box 1.5). New initiatives,
such as the 2007 launch of the Millen-
And despite progress, the scale of the chal- nium Development Goal Africa Initiative
lenge remains massive. While the water by the UN system, have sought to reinvig-
supply target is being attained at a global orate the efforts of countries that are off
level, large regions of the world and many track in their progress towards achieving
countries are far from the target, and the Millennium Development Goals.
some risk backsliding. This is particularly
the case in sub-Saharan Africa and low- Sustaining the environment
income Arab states. In many places the Environmental sustainability, broadly,
sanitation targets will be missed by a wide refers to the ability of the environment
margin. to continue to support progressive social
and economic development and to provide
Both the drinking water and sanitation many types of ecosystem services (table
targets are vitally important. The contri- 1.2). Multistakeholder processes, such as
bution of improved drinking water and the World Commission on Dams, have
sanitation to the achievement of all the seen environmental sustainability rise
Millennium Development Goals is now in prominence as a factor influencing
well established.26 This report demon- water development decisions. And such
strates this link throughout; others have international conventions as the United
elaborated the direct and indirect contri- Nations Convention to Combat Desertifi-
butions of water management across all cation and the United Nations Convention
the Millennium Development Goals.27 on Biodiversity have made water a global
Figure 1.7 depicts these links graphically. issue.
Getting out of the box – linking water to decisions for sustainable development
Figure 1.7 Cause-effect chains and links between water and the Millennium Development Goals
Horizontal
Terrestrial ecosystems
expansion
Today, water management crises are de- Box 1.5 High-Level Event on the Millennium
veloping in most of the world. UN-Water Development Goals, United Nations, New
reports that in just one week in mid- York, 25 September 2008: Extract from
November 2006 national media sources compilation of partnership events and
reported local but high-profile shortages commitments
in parts of Australia, Botswana, Canada,
China, Fiji, Kuwait, Liberia, Malawi, Paki- The event [Water and Sanitation for Force’ to reach [Millennium Develop-
stan, Philippines, South Africa, Uganda, All] reiterated the strong political ment Goal 7], and to make one annual
the United Arab Emirates and the United and diplomatic support for inter- global progress report and to hold one
States. 29 national efforts needed to address annual high-level review meeting.
the water and sanitation issues and
Generally regional phenomena, water enhance human security. It promoted Japan committed to establish a Water
crises can emerge as water shortages and good water cycle management and Security Action Team for Africa to pro-
the application of Integrated Water vide safe drinking water for 6.5 million
droughts, floods or both, now aggravated
Resources Management. It reaffirmed people and implement a water supply
by the consequences of climate change. the importance of formulation and capacity-building program that would
They may be natural or caused by de- implementation of national assistance train 5,000 people over the next five
mands that exceed supply, lack of infra- strategies building on the ‘Paris Dec- years. Tajikistan said it would host the
structure or poor water management. They laration on Aid Effectiveness’, while International Freshwater Forum in
may be the result of waste or abuse result- considering the specific needs and 2010 as a venue for a preliminary dis-
ing in pollution. Together they threaten resources of the recipient countries. cussion of achievements, challenges
the lives and livelihoods of billions of and experiences within the Interna-
people and risk irrevocably altering the The event emphasized the importance tional Decade Water for Life, 2005-15.
planet’s ecosystems. of mobilizing adequate international
and national financial resources for the The Netherlands said it would help
implementation of the national strate- provide access to safe drinking water
Every year in developing countries an es- gies and the need to strive towards and sanitation for at least 50 million
timated 3 million people die prematurely using sector-wide approaches; and de- people by 2015 having already signed
from water-related diseases. The largest veloped partnerships with civil society various agreements that will benefit
proportion of these deaths are among organizations, local authorities and the almost 30 million people, at a cost of
infants and young children, followed by private sector to implement national around €1.3 billion. Germany will con-
women, from poor rural families who lack strategies and action plans to improve tinue to train Central Asian water ex-
access to safe water and improved sani- the accessibility and quality of water perts. The Netherlands and the United
tation (box 1.6).30 More than 1 million and sanitation services as well as initia- Kingdom committed €106 million in
people die annually from malaria, the vast tives to establish a ‘Framework for Ac- joint funding for water and sanitation
tion’ to focus on the off-track countries, initiatives in developing countries over
majority in poverty-stricken Africa. Anoth-
including the possible consideration the next five years.
er 1 million people die from air pollution for a ‘Fast Track Initiative’ with catalytic
in urban areas. And everywhere the poor funding to install a High-Level ‘Task Source: UN 2008.
suffer most.
Chapter 1G
Table 1.2 Types of ecosystem services The value of water goes well beyond its
productive value (box 1.7). Citizens who
Cultivated/ realize this are calling for action to protect
Forests Oceans agricultural lands water, joined by business people who
Environmental • Food • Food • Food recognize the importance of protecting
goods • Freshwater • Fuel • Fuel the sources of the water on which they
• Fuel • Fibre depend. Many are even paying for such
• Fibre protection.31
Regulating • Climate regulation • Climate • Climate
services • Flood regulation regulation regulation Also to be considered is the impact of
• Disease regulation • Disease • Water climate change on environmental sustain-
• Water purification regulation purification ability. At the High-Level Event on the
Supporting • Nutrient cycling • Nutrient cycling • Nutrient cycling Millennium Development Goals at the
services • Soil formation • Primary • Soil formation United Nations in September 2008 discus-
production sion focused on the need for new adapta-
Cultural • Aesthetic • Aesthetic • Aesthetic tion strategies and for climate-resilient
services • Spiritual • Spiritual • Educational national development plans, especially for
• Educational • Educational the least developed countries:
• Recreational • Recreational
Getting out of the box – linking water to decisions for sustainable development
drivers include rural-urban migration and data. But when the information is avail- the world is facing
migration in response to political conflict able, it will be possible to calculate the
global crises in
and environmental crises. country’s water balance and the water
footprints (volume of water used) of vari- energy, food, and
Other external forces that may create ous users. Using this information, water climate change and
either positive or negative pressures on managers can advise decision-makers in
water resources include pricing policies and other sectors of the feasibility of their global warming
subsidies for water and water-related goods, plans and the implications for water. that cannot
trade patterns, developments in science
and technology, consumption patterns, The Report provides ample evidence of adequately be
evolution of policies and laws, social move- all these facts. This is not the first time addressed without
ments and global and national politics. that professionals in the water sector have
attempted to bring them to the world’s considering the
Except for climate change, these forces attention. But this time the effort may role of water
will not create pressures directly (or only) be more successful, because this time the
on water management. The pressures will world is facing other global crises – in
be felt first at the level of sector ministers, energy, food and climate change and
whose responses will translate into strate- global warming – that cannot adequately
gies that affect the water sector. These be addressed without considering the role
ministers will have to make decisions of water.
under conditions of risk and uncertainty.
The better informed they are, the more Water for energy
likely they are to make the right decisions. Demand for energy – for heat, light, power
For water managers this means being able and transportation – is increasing rapidly
to provide reliable information about (see chapter 7). The price of energy com-
where and when water is available, of what modities has been rising as well. Volatile,
quality, where and how it is used, what the nominal price of oil – the benchmark
happens to wastewater, how much water commodity – rose from less than $25 a
leaves the country in exports of goods barrel eight years ago to about $100 early
that use water in their production (virtual in 2008 and more than $140 in June 2008.
water) and how much enters the country Within two months it fell below levels
in imports. This will be a challenge for projected for the longer term by the Energy
water managers in most countries, which Information Administration of the U.S. De-
lack the necessary measurements and do partment of Energy and was at $35 a barrel
not systematically collect the necessary on December 19, 2008 (figure 1.8). Energy
Figure 1.8 Historical and projected energy demand and oil prices show steadily rising demand and
rapidly rising prices
250 250
Projections Projections
Liquids
Coal
200 200
High price
150 150
Natural gas
Reference
100 100
Low price
Renewables
50 50
Nuclear
0 0
1980 1990 2000 2005 2010 2020 2030 1980 1990 2000 2007 2020 2030
Note: The reference case assumes average GDP growth of 2.4% a year, the high case assumes 3.0% a year, and the low case assumes 1.8% a year.
Source: Based on EIA 2005, 2008a.
Chapter 1G
The number of prices, particularly the oil prices that drive chapter 7). The recent steep rise in food
them, earlier reflected rising world de- prices (figure 1.9) has severely hurt many
countries without
mand and constraints. The recent financial food-importing countries. Rising demand
enough water crisis, which has slowed economic growth for food caused by growing populations
to produce their throughout the world, reducing anticipated and shifting diets, production shortfall in
demand, was largely responsible for the some countries, increased costs for key ag-
food is rising. low price of oil at the end of 2008. ricultural inputs such as fertilizers (driven
The situation can in turn by energy costs), bioenergy-related
The combination of high prices and a incentives in some countries and possible
be remedied by desire to substitute other sources of fuel financial speculation have all contributed
investing in water led to the recent increase in the produc- to the problem. The High-Level Conference
tion of bioenergy, which has potentially on World Food Security: The Challenges of
infrastructure, important impacts on water quality and Climate Change and Bioenergy, a Food and
markets, credit, availability. Hydropower may be a renew- Agriculture Organization summit in Rome
able and non-polluting source of energy on 3 June 2008, adopted a declaration ac-
agricultural in some countries. Water for cooling is knowledging ‘an urgent need to help devel-
technology and needed for all thermal sources of power, oping countries and countries in transition
including nuclear. In the United States expand agriculture and food production,
extension services
water withdrawn for cooling (39%) and to increase investment in agriculture,
equals agriculture’s share of water use. At agribusiness and rural development, from
the same time energy is required to lift both public and private sources’.34 It calls
groundwater, pump it through pipes and on donors to provide balance of payments
treat both groundwater and wastewater. and budget support to low-income food-
An estimated 7% of all energy produced importing countries.
is used for such purposes.33 Increased
demand for water through desalination At the summit Robert B. Zoellick, presi-
may increase energy demand in some dent of the World Bank, said that the Bank
countries, although marginally on a global recognizes that the energy-food nexus
scale. means that food prices will stay high and
that the ‘task is two-fold, to handle today’s
Water for food danger to those for whom securing food
Agriculture is by far the largest consumer has become a daily struggle, and turn
of freshwater – about 70% of all freshwater higher food prices into an opportunity
withdrawals go to irrigated agriculture (see for developing world agriculture, and
Figure 1.9 Wheat and rice prices have risen sharply in recent years
Wheat Rice
US$ per tonne US$ per tonne
800 1,500
Projections Projections
Real price
1,250
Real price
600
1,000
400 750
500
200
250
Nominal price
Nominal price
0 0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2017 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2017
Getting out of the box – linking water to decisions for sustainable development
for farmers in developing countries’.35 While other factors may also have contrib- Few countries
The summit highlighted the strong links uted to these lower levels of investment,
know how much
among food security, economic develop- economic uncertainty is a major factor.
ment, climate change, markets, develop- Uncertainty about the policy environ- water is being
ment assistance and energy and how ment in developing and emerging market used and for
actions have implications for other sectors. economies has always been a concern, but
While the role of water in agriculture was its influence has strengthened in the cur- what purposes,
discussed at the summit, the final declara- rently highly competitive global markets.38 the quantity and
tion did not mention water and water’s
strong links with these and many other The impact on developing countries will quality of water
issues. vary. Budgetary spending on infrastruc- that is available
ture is often cut during periods of finan-
Water scarcity may limit food production cial tightening, although for governments and that can
and supply, putting pressure on food prices that can afford it, investing in infrastruc- be withdrawn
and increasing countries’ dependence on ture can help counter an economic slow-
food imports. The number of countries and down. Private investment may also suffer,
without serious
regions without enough water to produce but since the private sector’s contribution environmental
their food is rising as populations increase. to the water sector has been relatively
consequences and
The situation can be remedied in many small, the sector is less exposed to any
developing countries by investing in water financial tightening. Countries depend- how much is being
infrastructure, markets, credit, agricultural ent on aid face uncertain times. Bilat- invested in water
technology and extension services. eral donors, important in funding water
investments, may be tempted to reduce management and
Underinvestment in water their aid budgets. Multilateral aid could be infrastructure
The energy and food crises are taking an important source of financing for the
place during a time of global financial cri- next few years, especially following recent
sis. A credit crunch has followed the finan- record multiyear replenishments of the
cial crises that began in the United States International Development Association,
and Europe in 2007 and spread around the African Development Fund and European
globe. The credit crunch has resulted in a Development Fund. Yet both bilateral and
slowdown in economic growth around the multilateral aid donors still appear not to
world. The International Monetary Fund recognize the contribution of the water
forecast in January 2009 that all industrial sector to growth, as indicated by the sec-
countries would face a period of reces- tor’s small share of total official develop-
sion and that some developing countries ment assistance in recent years (less than
are more at risk than others (box 1.8).36 4%; see table 4.4 in chapter 4).
According to the Commission on Growth
and Development ‘developing countries Inadequate information on water
are most vulnerable to sudden stoppages and water crises
of credit and sudden switches of interna- Managing water is made more difficult by
tional custom or supply.’37 the lack of knowledge and information re-
quired for decision-making and long-term
Developing countries most at risk include planning. Few countries know how much
those exporting directly to crisis-affected water is being used and for what purposes,
countries, those whose exports are expe- the quantity and quality of water that is
riencing falling world prices and those available and that can be withdrawn with-
whose exports have high income elasticity out serious environmental consequences
(luxury goods, including tourism). Declin-
ing tourism revenues and employment Box 1.8 International Monetary Fund updated
will directly affect the poor. Countries economic forecast for 2009
dependent on foreign direct investment,
remittances and development funds to
World growth is projected to fall to will likely continue to be difficult until
finance the current account deficit will 0.5 % in 2009, its lowest rate since forceful policy actions are imple-
also be at risk. Oil-importing countries World War II. Despite wide-ranging mented to restructure the financial
have already been hard hit by the period policy actions, financial strains remain sector, resolve the uncertainty about
of high oil prices. acute, pulling down the real economy. losses, and break the adverse feedback
A sustained economic recovery will loop with the slowing real economy.
The high rates of global savings and strong not be possible until the financial In emerging economies, financing
productivity growth in the three decades sector’s functionality is restored and conditions will likely remain acute for
before the financial crisis – when the stock credit markets are unclogged. some time – especially for corporate
of financial assets grew three times faster sectors that have very high rollover
Financial markets are expected to re- requirements.
than GDP – were not accompanied by
main strained during 2009. In the ad-
investments in physical assets, and their vanced economies, market conditions Source : IMF 2009, pp. 1-2.
levels are below those in the last decade.
Chapter 1G
Scarcity – low and how much is being invested in water Mozambique and the United States, parts
management and infrastructure (see chap- of the country may experience damaging
available water per
ter 13). intensive rainfalls while other parts suffer
capita – is forecast prolonged drought. These variations matter
to worsen where Underfunding of observation, monitoring most where they affect large populations.
and information systems leads to weak- Scarcity – low available water per capita
population growth nesses in infrastructure, research and – is forecast to worsen where population
is still high, as in development, and training and to reduced growth is still high, as in sub-Saharan
efficiencies. Less is known with each pass- Africa, South Asia and some countries in
sub-Saharan Africa, ing decade, despite the availability of new South America and the Middle East.
South Asia and remote sensing and geographic informa-
tion system technologies that can simplify Adapting to climate change adds a critical
some countries in monitoring and reporting and despite the challenge to this picture for all countries,
South America and growing need for such information in an particularly for developing countries,
increasingly complex and rapidly changing whose capacity to adapt is low, and for
the Middle East world. Such information is vital not only at cities in coastal areas (see chapter 5). Even
a national scale but also at a global scale – if greenhouse gas concentrations stabilize
to inform the construction of global mod- in the coming years, some impacts from
els of the hydrologic cycle and decisions climate change are unavoidable. These in-
on where interventions, including external clude growing water stress, more extreme
aid, would be most useful. One move in weather events, higher levels of migration
that direction is the United Nations Eco- and the disruption of international mar-
nomic Commission for Europe Convention kets. Climate models show that extremes
on the Protection and Use of Transbound- of rainfall are likely to worsen, resulting
ary Watercourses and International Lakes, in more floods and droughts in regions
which requires signatories to exchange already affected – often regions with
data on water quality and quantity and low income levels per capita, widespread
pollution sources and the environmental absolute poverty, high population growth
conditions of transboundary waters. and rapid urbanization. If climate change
brings significant shifts in the availabil-
Climate change and water ity of water resources, patterns of human
Some parts of the world have no short- migration could be affected.
age of water. Others, such as North and
Southern Africa, the Middle East and parts These challenges cannot be separated from
of South Asia, South-East Asia and South the challenges of sustainable develop-
America, suffer scarcity because of low ment. For some developing countries the
annual rainfall. Others suffer seasonal incremental costs of adapting to climate
scarcity. Yet others suffer from extreme change will soon approach the current
rainfall, causing floods. Some suffer from value of aid inflows. The leaders of the
both low and extreme rainfall, at differ- G-8, meeting in Hokkaido, Japan, in July
ent times. In some large countries, such as 2008, committed to accelerating action
on technology development, transfer,
Box 1.9 Extracts from Declaration of Leaders Meeting financing and capacity building to support
of Major Economies on Energy Security and adaptation (box 1.9). Such action must
Climate Change at the G-8 Hokkaido, Toyako, include water resources, which will be
summit, 9 July 2008 most affected by climate change. A recent
United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate change is one of the great countries, particularly the most vulner- Climate Change document on adaptation
global challenges of our time. Con- able ones, to adapt to climate change. noted that:
scious of our leadership role in meet- This includes the development and
ing such challenges, we, the leaders dissemination of tools and methodolo- sector-specific adaptation planning
of the world’s major economies, both gies to improve vulnerability and adap- and practices were discussed in the
developed and developing, commit to tation assessments, the integration of areas of agriculture and food secu-
combat climate change in accordance climate change adaptation into overall rity, water resources, coastal zones
with our common but differentiated development strategies, increased im- and health. Those sectors were
responsibilities and respective capa- plementation of adaptation strategies,
selected based on their importance
bilities and confront the interlinked increased emphasis on adaptation
challenges of sustainable develop- technologies, strengthening resil-
to Parties and organizations as
ment, including energy and food ience and reducing vulnerability, and highlighted in their submissions.39
security, and human health. consideration of means to stimulate
investment and increased availability The world is right to be concerned about
We will work together in accordance of financial and technical assistance. climate change, which poses major threats
with our Convention commitments to to humans and ecosystems. The 2007
strengthen the ability of developing Source: G-8 2008. United Nations Climate Change Confer-
ence in Bali, Indonesia, acknowledged that
Getting out of the box – linking water to decisions for sustainable development
even the minimum predicted shifts in existing conflict, poverty and unequal while the world
climate for the 21st century, at more than access to resources, weak institutions, food
appears motivated
twice the 0.6° Celsius increase that has insecurity and incidence of diseases such
occurred since 1900, would be significant as HIV/AIDS.’41 He outlined ‘alarming, to respond to
and disruptive. The intergovernmental though not alarmist’ scenarios, includ- the impacts of
response has focused primarily on mitiga- ing limited or threatened access to energy
tion of climate change, embracing wide- increasing the risk of conflict, a scarcity future climate
ranging measures, including reducing of food and water transforming peaceful change, it remains
greenhouse gas emissions, transferring competition into violence, and floods and
clean technologies and protecting forests. droughts sparking massive human migra- unmotivated to act
These measures may slow climate change. tions, polarizing societies and weakening on water crises that
They will not halt or reverse it. the ability of countries to resolve conflicts
peacefully. are with us today
It will be two generations before these
measures begin to have an effect. And In Africa alone by 2020, 75-250 million
even if successful, they imply a consider- people may be exposed to increased water
ably changed future climate. (They are stress due to climate change. If coupled
not aimed at reversing changes already with increased demand, this will hurt live-
under way.) In the meantime people must lihoods and exacerbate water-related prob-
be protected from the consequences of lems.42 Research centres such as the Ox-
global climate change through adaptation ford Research Group43 are underpinning
measures. Adaptation, as embodied in the the security concerns of the United Na-
Nairobi Work Programme of the United tions, the European Union44 and national
Nations Framework Convention on Cli- governments45 about climate change and
mate Change, is based on gaining a better its impacts on water. The forces at work are
understanding of the impacts of climate global in scale, the aggregate result of the
change and making informed decisions on behaviour of all countries. Dealing with
practical measures.40 them will require international coopera-
tion and coordination. Yet at the same
The water situation and the vulnerability time national leaders must continue to act
of poor communities present a strong case and make decisions at a national level.
for action on climate change. Projections
warn of changes in water availability and As climate change and adverse water im-
quality that could have disastrous conse- pacts increase in politically charged areas,
quences. Water is the principal medium conflicts will likely intensify, requiring
through which climate change will affect new and rapid adaptive security strate-
economic, social and environmental con- gies. Hydrologic shocks that may occur
ditions. Changes in water availability will through climate change increase the risk
have economy-wide impacts. of major national and international secu-
rity threats, especially in unstable areas
Yet while the world appears motivated to (box 1.11). Adverse changes in internal,
respond to the impacts of future climate interjurisdictional and transboundary wa-
change, it remains unmotivated to act on ters can put food, social, health, economic,
the water crises that are with us today. political and military security at risk.
Even without climate change, development
is threatened in many regions by factors Some fragile states (map 1.1) have ex-
that we have already failed to address time perienced widespread conflict that has
and again. The Intergovernmental Panel resulted in the destruction of economic
on Climate Change’s April 2008 report on
water points this out clearly (box 1.10).
Box 1.10 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Security and water Technical Report on Water and Climate Change
Climate change, especially its implications
for scarce water resources, is a matter of Current water management practices information about current climate
collective security in a fragile and increas- may not be robust enough to cope variability into water-related man-
ingly interdependent world. At a 2007 UN with the impacts of climate change agement would assist adaptation to
Security Council debate on the impact of on water supply reliability, flood longer-term climate change impacts.
risk, health, agriculture, energy and Climatic and non-climatic factors,
climate change on peace and security UN
aquatic ecosystems. In many loca- such as growth of population and
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon noted that
tions, water management cannot damage potential, would exacerbate
climate change has implications for peace satisfactorily cope even with current problems in the future. (very high
and security, as well as serious environ- climate variability, so that large flood confidence)
mental, social and economic implications, and drought damages occur. As a
especially ‘in vulnerable regions that face first step, improved incorporation of Source: IPCC 2008.
multiple stresses at the same time – pre-
Chapter 1G
Box 1.11 UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon warns example, rehabilitation of damaged irriga-
that water shortages are increasingly driving tion infrastructure and expansion of water
conflicts supply and sanitation formed a significant
part of the 2006 Somali Rehabilitation and
‘The challenge of securing safe and the rains failed and water became
Reconstruction Plan.46 Similarly, rehabili-
plentiful water for all is one of the scarce. tation of infrastructure after major natural
most daunting challenges faced by disasters provides an opportunity to ad-
the world today. ‘Today everyone knows Darfur. More dress long-standing infrastructure deficits.
than 200,000 people have died. Sev-
‘Until only recently, we generally as- eral million have fled their homes. The need for action – now
sumed that water trends do not pose
much risk to our businesses. While ‘There are many factors at work in Water has remained too low on the list of
many countries have engaged in this conflict, of course. But almost political priorities for too long, a situation
waste-water treatment and some con- forgotten is the event that touched it
that cannot be allowed to continue. Action
servation efforts, the notion of water off – drought. A shortage of life’s vital
sustainability in a broad sense has not resource.
is required now. Lives and livelihoods de-
been seriously examined. pend on water for development. Changes
‘We can change the names in this sad in human behaviour and activity are ac-
‘Our experiences tell us that environ- story. Somalia. Chad. Israel. The occu- celerating, affecting demand for water and
mental stress due to lack of water may pied Palestinian territories. Nigeria. Sri its supply. Because investments have been
lead to conflict and would be greater Lanka. Haiti. Colombia. Kazakhstan. neglected, development is lagging, people
in poor nations. All are places where shortages of water are suffering and the environment is dete-
contribute to poverty. They cause riorating. The resources needed to address
‘Ten years ago – even five years ago – social hardship and impede develop- the problems of water management are
few people paid much attention to the ment. They create tensions in conflict-
minuscule compared with the financial
arid regions of western Sudan. Not prone regions. Too often, where we
many noticed when fighting broke out need water we find guns. . . .’
resources that have been pledged and se-
between farmers and herders, after cured to deal with carbon emissions or the
Source: Ban Ki-moon 2008. current financial crisis. After decades of
inaction, the problems are enormous. And
they will worsen if left unattended.
infrastructure. The vulnerability of affect-
ed populations is worsened by the state’s Although substantial, the challenges are
loss of control over the forces of law and not insurmountable. In part 4 the Report
order and ultimately by its loss of political shows how some countries and regional
legitimacy. Installing infrastructure and and local governments have solved similar
renewing institutional capacity following challenges. The decisions on development
conflict have the potential to set post- objectives and the allocation of human
conflict nations on a path to recovery. For and financial resources needed to meet
Territory of
Kosovo Uzbekistan
Afghanistan
Note: Fragile states are low-income countries that score below a threshold on the International Development Association’s Country Policy and Institu-
tional Assessment, a tool used to assess the quality of country policies. The list is prepared annually.
Source: Based on IDA 2007.
Getting out of the box – linking water to decisions for sustainable development
them are made or influenced by leaders Part 3 explores the state of water resources. The decisions
in government, the private sector and The uneven distribution over time and
on development
civil society. They are the ones who must space of water resources, and how that
recognize the role of water in attaining distribution is being modified, are funda- objectives and
their objectives – and demonstrate the will mental sources of the water crisis. Global the allocation
to act now. warming is expected to result in an inten-
sification, acceleration or enhancement of of human and
Structure of the Report the global hydrologic cycle. There is some financial resources
observational evidence that this is already
The Report has four parts. Part 1 exam- happening. In many places climate ex- needed to meet
ines water drivers – or what drives the tremes have become more frequent or more them are made
pressures on water. Externalities, mostly intense, with droughts and floods affecting
human-induced, create pressures on water. increasing numbers of people. Worldwide, or influenced
Human activities and processes of all types water observation networks are inadequate by leaders in
– demographic, economic and social – can for current needs and are at risk of further
exert pressures on water resources that decline. The data to understand and predict
government, the
need to be managed. These pressures are water quantity and quality are lacking. private sector and
affected by a range of factors such as tech-
civil society – not
nological innovation, climate change, and Part 4 is on responses and choices. It
policies, laws and financial conditions shows that we can do what it takes to man- by water managers
age water resources properly to avert crises or specialists
Part 2 is about using water. History shows and promote sustainable socioeconomic
strong, mutual links between economic development. Others have already shown
development and water development. the way. But there is no one-size-fits-all
Steadily increasing demand for agricul- solution. The best mix of responses to a
tural products to satisfy the diverse needs specific country’s development objectives
of a growing population (for food, fibre and policy priorities to meet various water
and now fuel) has long been the main challenges depends on the availability of
driver behind agricultural water use. In a water of acceptable quality for its intended
situation of tight balance between food use and the country’s technical, financial,
supply and demand, climate events – institutional and human capacities and its
droughts in particular – have an increas- culture, political and regulatory frame-
ingly strong impact on food price volatil- works and markets.
ity. There is a growing need to protect
ecosystems and the goods and services Leaders within the water domain can
they produce and on which life and live- inform the processes outside their domain
lihoods depend. As competition among and manage water resources to achieve
demands on water increases, society will agreed socioeconomic objectives. But it
need to respond more effectively through is the leaders in government, the private
improved water management, policies sector and civil society who determine
and transparent and efficient water al- the directions that development will take.
location mechanisms. Recognizing this, they must act now!
Notes
10. Hutton and Haller 2004. 24. Kaberuka 2008.
1. There were exceptions, such as the de-
11. Schuster-Wallace et al. 2008. 25. MDG Africa Steering Group 2008.
velopment of the Tennessee River in the
United States beginning in the 1930s 12. UN-Water 2008. 26. WELL 2005.
under the Tennessee Valley Authority. 27. Poverty-Environment Partnership 2006.
13. WHO 2006.
2. Commission on Growth and Develop- 28. G-8 2003.
14. Hussein 2008.
ment 2008.
15. Winpenny 2003. 29. UN-Water 2007.
3. Phumpiu and Gustafsson 2007.
16. van Hofwegen 2006. 30. World Bank 2008.
4. See www.pap.org.mz.
17. DfID 2007, p. 2. 31. Worldwatch Institute 2008, pp. 117-21.
5. Speaking at the session Re-Thinking So-
18. World Bank 2003. 32. United Nations 2008.
cial Responsibility on 25 January 2008,
as cited in Maidmont 2008. 19. NEPAD 2002. 33. Hoffman 2004.
6. Commission on Growth and Develop- 20. Originally defined as $1.00 per day 34. FAO 2008.
ment 2008, p. 1. and revised to $1.25 in 2005 to reflect 35. Zoellnick 2008.
7. ADB 2007, p. vi. evolving purchasing power parity 36. IMF 2009.
8. The benefits of investing in water are 21. Chen and Ravallion 2008. 37. Commission on Growth and Develop-
presented in greater detail in chapter 6. 22. UNDP 2006, p. 6. ment 2008, p. 103.
9. SIWI 2005. 23. World Bank 2005. 38. Rajan 2006.
Chapter 1G
39. UNFCCC 2007. Alam, Dewan S., Geoffrey C. Marks, Ab- activities/diplomacy/gfsp/documents/
40. UNFCCC 2005. dullah H. Baqui, M. Yunus, and George Solana_security_report.pdf.
J. Fuchs. 2000. Association between FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization
41. UN Security Council 2007.
Clinical Type of Diarrhoea and Growth of of the United Nations). 2006. Rapid
42. IPCC 2008. Children under 5 Years in Rural Bangla- Growth of Selected Asian Economies: Les-
43. The Oxford Research Group, in a desh. International Journal of Epidemiology sons and Implications for Agriculture and
briefing paper on sustainable secu- 29 (5): 916-21. Food Security. Synthesis Report. Bangkok:
rity, argues that the effects of climate Ban Ki-moon. 2008. Address by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization of the
change – displacement of peoples, food Secretary-General to the session “Time United Nations.
shortages, social unrest – have long- is Running Out on Water,” of the Davos ———. 2008. Declaration of the High-Level
term security implications far greater World Economic Forum, 24 January Conference on World Food Security:
than those of terrorism and notes that 2008, in Davos, Switzerland. www. The Challenges of Climate Change and
the U.S. Department of Defense’s Office un.org/apps/news/infocus/sgspeeches/ Bioenergy. High-Level Conference on
of Net Assessment takes the same view search_full.asp?statID=177. World Food Security, 3-5 June, Rome.
(Abott, Rogers, and Sloboda 2006,
Bergkamp, G., and C. W. Sadoff. 2008. www.un.org/issues/food/taskforce/
p. 7).
Water in a Sustainable Economy. In State declaration-E.pdf.
44. Such as the statement by the European of the World: Innovations for a Sustainable G-8. 2003. Water: A G8 Action Plan. G8
Commission and the Secretary General/ Economy. Washington, DC: Worldwatch Summit, 1-3 June, Evian, France.
High Representative for Foreign and Se- Institute.
curity Policy Javier Solana (2006, p. 2): ———. 2008. Declaration of Lead-
Chen, Shaohua, and Martin Ravallion. ers Meeting of Major Economies on
‘Investment in mitigation . . . as well
2008. The Developing World Is Poorer than Energy Security and Climate Change.
as ways to adjust to the unavoidable
We Thought, but No Less Successful in Hokkaido Toyako Summit, 9 July, Toyako,
should go hand in hand with addressing
the Fight against Poverty. Policy Research Hokkaido, Japan. www.mofa.go.jp/
the international security threats created
Working Paper 4703. World Bank, Wash- policy/economy/summit/2008/doc/
by climate change.’
ington, DC. doc080709_10_en.html.
45. Such as U.K. Foreign Secretary Marga-
Commission on Growth and Develop- Hoffman, Allan R. 2004. The Connec-
ret Beckett’s statement in the 2007 UN
ment. 2008. The Growth Report: Strate- tion: Water and Energy Security. Energy
Security Council debate on the impact
gies for Sustained Growth and Inclusive Security, 13 August. Institute for Analysis
of climate change on peace and secu-
Development. Conference Edition. Wash- of Global Security. www.iags.org/
rity that climate change exacerbates
ington, DC: World Bank. n0813043.htm.
many threats (UN Security Council
2007) and the testimony of Deputy Comprehensive Assessment of Water Man- House Permanent Select Committee
Director of National Intelligence for agement in Agriculture. 2007. Water on Intelligence and House Select
Analysis (NIA) Thomas Finger before for Food, Water for Life: A Comprehensive Committee on Energy Independence
a Joint House committee that an NIA Assessment of Water Management in Agri- and Global Warming. 2008. National
assessment found that sub-Saharan culture. London: Earthscan, and Colombo: Intelligence Assessment on the National
Africa, the Middle East and Central and International Water Management Institute. Security Implications of Global Climate
South-East Asia are most vulnerable to Cosgrove, W. J. 2006. Water for Growth Change to 2030: Statement for the
warming-related drought, flooding, and Security. In Water Crisis: Myth or Re- Record of Dr. Thomas Fingar, Deputy
extreme weather and hunger (House ality?: Marcelino Botin Water Forum 2004. Director of National Intelligence for
Permanent Select Committee on Intel- Peter Rogers, M. Ramon Llamas, and Analysis and Chairman of the National
ligence and U.S. House Select Com- Louis Martinez-Cortina, eds. London: Intelligence Council, 25 June 2008. U.S.
mittee on Energy Independence and Taylor and Francis. Congress, Washington, DC.
Global Warming 2008, p.13). Delli Priscoli, J., and A. T. Wolf. 2009. Man- Hussein, M. A. 2008. Costs of Environ-
46. UNDP and World Bank 2007. aging and Transforming Water Conflicts. mental Degradation: An Analysis in the
International Hydrology Series. Cam- Middle East and North Africa Region.
bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Management of Environmental Quality 19
References DfID (Department for International (3): 305-17.
Abott, Chris, Paul Rogers, and John Slo- Development). 2007. Growth and In- Hutton, Guy, and Laurence Haller. 2004.
boda. 2006. Global Responses to Global frastructure Policy Paper. Department for Evaluation of the Costs and Benefits of
Threats Sustainable Security for the 21st International Development, London. Water and Sanitation Improvements at
Century. Oxford, UK: Oxford Research EIA (Energy Information Administration). the Global Level. Geneva: World Health
Group. 2005. International Energy Annual 2005. Organization.
ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2007. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Hutton, Guy, Laurence Haller, and Jamie
Asian Water Development Outlook 2007: Energy. www.eia.doe.gov/iea. Bartram. 2007. Economic and Health
Achieving Water Security for Asia. Manila: ———. 2008a. Annual Energy Outlook 2008 Effects of Increasing Coverage of Low
Asian Development Bank. (DOE/EIA 0383/2008). Washington, DC: Cost Household Drinking-water Supply
U.S. Department of Energy. and Sanitation Interventions to Countries
African Union. 2008. Sharm El-Sheikh
Off-track to Meet MDG Target 10. Back-
Commitments for Accelerating the ———. 2008b. World Energy Projections Plus. ground paper for Human Development
Achievement of Water and Sanitation Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Report 2006, World Health Organization,
Goals in Africa. Declaration I. Assembly Energy. Public Health and the Environment,
of the African Union, Eleventh Ordi- European Commission and the Secretary- Geneva.
nary Session, 30 June-1 July, Sharm General/High Representative for
el-Sheikh, Egypt. www.africa-union. IDA (International Development Associa-
Foreign and Security Policy. 2006.
org/root/au/Conferences/2008/ tion). 2007. List of Fragile States. The
Report on Climate Change and Interna-
june/summit/dec/ASSEMBLY%20 International Development Association of
tional Security to the European Council,
DECISIONS%20193%20-%20207%20 the World Bank, Washington, DC. http://
3 March 2006. Council of the European
(XI).pdf. web.worldbank.org/.
Union, Brussels. www.envirosecurity.org/
Getting out of the box – linking water to decisions for sustainable development
IMF (International Monetary Fund). 2009. World Health Organization. www.who. to the High-Level Event on the Millen-
World Economic Outlook Update. January. int/quantifying_ehimpacts/publications/ nium Development Goals. High-Level
Washington, DC: International Monetary preventingdisease/en/index.html. Event on the Millennium Development
Fund. www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/ Rajan, Raghuram G. 2006. Investment Goals: Committing to Action: Achieving
weo/2009/update/01/index.htm. Restraint, the Liquidity Glut and Global the Millennium Development Goals, 25
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- Imbalances. Remarks by the Economic September, New York.
mate Change). 2008. Technical Paper Counsellor and Director of Research, UN-Water. 2007. Outcome of Seminar Cop-
on Climate Change and Water. IPCC- International Monetary Fund, at the Con- ing with Water Scarcity. Outcome of the
XXVIII/Doc. 13, Intergovernmental Panel ference on Global Imbalances organized Seminar on Coping with Water Security,
on Climate Change, Geneva. www.ipcc. by the Bank of Indonesia in Bali, Indone- 23 August, Stockholm. www.unwater.
ch/meetings/session28/doc13.pdf. sia, November 16, 2006. www.imf.org/ org/www-seminar2.html.
Kaberuka, Donald. 2008. Opening State- external/np/speeches/2006/111506.htm. ———. 2008. Sanitation Is Vital for Health.
ment. African Development Group First Schuster-Wallace, Corinne J., Velma I. Factsheet 1. International Year for Sanita-
African Water Week: Accelerating Water Grover, Zafar Adeel, Ulisses Con- tion, New York.
Security for Socio-Economic Develop- falonieri, and Susan Elliott. 2008. Safe van Hofwegen, Paul, and Task Force on Fi-
ment of Africa, 26-28 March, Tunis. Water as the Key to Global Health. Ham- nancing Water for All. 2006. Enhancing
Maidmont, Paul. 2008. Re-thinking ilton, Canada: United Nations University Access to Finance for Local Governments.
Social Responsibility. Forbes 25 International Network on Water, Environ- Financing Water for Agriculture. Chaired
(January). www.forbes.com/lead- ment and Health. by Angel Gurría. Marseille, France: World
ership/citizenship/2008/01/25/ SIWI (Stockholm International Water Water Council.
davos-corporate-responsibility-lead Institute). 2005. Making Water a Part WELL. 2005. Supporting the Achievement of
-cx_pm_0125notes.html. of Economic Development: The Economic the MDG Sanitation Target. WELL Briefing
Manning, Nick. 1999. Strategic Decision- Benefits of Improved Water Management Note for CSD-13, WELL, Leicestershire.
making in Cabinet Government: Insti- and Services. Stockholm: Stockholm
International Water Institute. WHO (World Health Organization). 2006.
tutional Underpinnings and Obstacles. Economic and Health Effects of Increas-
Washington, DC: World Bank. UN Security Council. 2007. Security Coun- ing Coverage of Low Cost Water and
MDG Africa Steering Group. 2008. Achiev- cil Holds First-ever Debate on Impact Sanitation Interventions. UNHDR Occa-
ing the Millennium Development Goals of Climate Change on Peace, Security, sional Paper, World Health Organization,
in Africa: Recommendations of the MDG Hearing over 50 Speakers. UN Secu- Geneva.
Africa Steering Group. New York: United rity Council 5663rd meeting, 17 April
2007. United Nations Security Council, WHO (World Health Organization) and
Nations. UNICEF (United Nations Children’s
Department of Public Information, News
MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment). Fund) Joint Monitoring Programme.
and Media Division, New York, 17 April.
2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: 2008. Progress on Drinking Water and
www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2007/
Wetlands and Water Synthesis. Washing- Sanitation: Special Focus on Sanitation.
sc9000.doc.htm.
ton, DC: World Resources Institute. New York and Geneva: World Health
UNDP (United Nations Development Organization.
NEPAD (New Partnership for Africa’s De-
Programme). 2006. Human Develop-
velopment). 2002. Comprehensive Africa Winpenny, James. 2003. Financing Water
ment Report 2006. Beyond Scarcity. Power,
Agriculture Development Programme. New for All. Report of The World Panel on Fi-
Poverty and the Global Water Crisis. New
Partnership for Africa’s Development, nancing Water Infrastructure, chaired by
York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Midrand, South Africa. Michel Camdessus. Kyoto: World Water
UNDP (United Nations Development Council, 3rd World Water Forum, and
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-
Programme) and World Bank. 2007. Global Water Partnership.
operation and Development) and FAO
Somalia Reconstruction and Develop-
(Food and Agriculture Organization of World Bank. 2003. Water Resources Sector
ment Programme: Deepening Peace
the United Nations). 2008. OECD-FAO Strategy: Strategic Directions for World
and Reducing Poverty. Somalia Joint
Agricultural Outlook 2008-2017. Paris: Bank Engagement. World Bank, Wash-
Needs Assessment, United Nations and
Organisation for Economic Co-operation ington, DC.
World Bank Coordination Secretariat,
and Development. ———. 2005. Global Monitoring Report.
Nairobi. www.somali-jna.org/downloads/
Phumpiu, P., and J. E. Gustafsson. 2007. ACF7C9C.pdf. Millennium Development Goals: From
Reform or Adjustment? From the Liberal Consensus to Momentum. Washington,
UNFCCC (United Nations Framework
and Neo-liberal Policy Reform Process in DC: World Bank.
Convention on Climate Change). 2005.
Honduras. Paper from 5th International ———. 2008. Environmental Health and
Five-year Programme of Work on the Sub-
Water History Association Conference: Child Survival: Epidemiology, Economics Ex-
sidiary Body for Scientific and Technologi-
Pasts and Futures of Water, 13-17 June, periences. Washington, DC: World Bank.
cal Advice on Impacts, Vulnerability and
Tampere, Finland.
Adaptation to Climate Change. FCCC/ Worldwatch Institute. 2008. State of the
Poverty-Environment Partnership. 2006. CP/2005/5/Add.1, Bonn, Germany. World: Innovations for a Sustainable
Linking Poverty Reduction and Water Economy. New York: Norton Institute.
———. 2007. Report on the Workshop
Management. Poverty-Environment
on Adaptation Planning and Practices. Zoellnick, Robert B. 2008. Speech by
Partnership.
FCCC/SBSTA/2007/15, United Nations President of World Bank at United Na-
Prüss-Üstün, A., and C. Corvalán. 2006. Framework Convention on Climate tions’ High-Level Conference on World
Preventing Disease through Healthy Change. Food Security: The Challenges of Climate
Environments: Towards an Estimate of the Change and Bioenergy, 3 June 2008,
United Nations. 2008. Compilation of
Environmental Burden of Disease. Geneva: Rome, Italy.
Initiatives and Commitments relating
PART
the pressures on water
Drivers are thus the forces and proc- roduction, generally a water-intensive
p
esses generated by human activities. activity. The feedback loop of degraded
Consider governments’ efforts to im- water quality from livestock feedlot
prove citizens’ livelihoods and stand- runoff can diminish fish production
ards of living by increasing economic or alter its quality. There is also so-
growth. Economic growth is affected ciological evidence that urbanization
by a wide range of policy decisions, shifts fishing pressures from natural
from international trade to education water systems to artificial systems.
and public health, while the potential Thus, urbanization and globalization,
rate of economic growth can be affect- with changes in diets and lifestyles,
ed by demographic variables such as are strong drivers of water use, even
population distribution (local workforce though decisions made outside the
availability) and social characteristics water sector are driving them.
(workforce capacity) and by the avail-
ability of new technologies. Economic The result is a continuously increasing
activity also requires adequate quan- demand for finite water resources for
tities of natural resources, including which there are no substitutes. When
freshwater. And water availability is di- water resources of acceptable quality
rectly subject to the impacts of climate can no longer be provided in sustain-
change, which can exert additional able quantities to meet such demands,
pressures on other drivers. aquatic ecosystems can be overexploit-
ed as each sector or user group tries
A rising standard of living is typically to satisfy its own water needs at the
accompanied by increased consump- expense of others. The ultimate loser
tion and production of goods, along is the sustainability of the exploited
with rising demands for water-related aquatic ecosystems and the organisms
household services and water resources (including humans) dependent on them
to facilitate economic growth and re- for survival and well-being.
lated activities. Rising demand for meat
and fish in urbanized and emerging Note
market economies, for example, has in- 1. Gallopín and Rijsberman 2000,
creased fishery activities and livestock p. 18.
PART
1
Chapter 2
Demographic,
economic and
social drivers
Authors: Gunilla Björklund, Richard Connor, Anne Goujon, Molly Hellmuth,
Patrick Moriarty, Walter Rast, Koko Warner and James Winpenny
Contributors: Arjen Hoekstra, Walter Rast and David Wiberg
Coordinator: Tim Kasten (UNEP)
Facilitator: Richard Connor
Key messages
1 Chapter 2D
the world will people than ever, with nearly half the world environment for their livelihood, can also
population being under the age of 25. induce migration.
have substantially
more people in While the world’s urban population grew The net implication of these demographic
vulnerable urban rapidly during the 20th century (from processes is clear: the world will have sub-
220 million to 2.8 billion), the next few stantially more people in vulnerable urban
and coastal areas decades will see an unprecedented scale of and coastal areas in the next 20 years. The
in the next 20 urban growth across developing countries. rate of slum formation is nearly the same
In Africa and Asia the urban population as the rate of urban growth. In areas with
years. In areas is expected to double between 2000 and already-scarce water resources water man-
with already-scarce 2030. By 2030 the towns and cities of the agers will have to look beyond the water
developing world will make up an estimat- sector for solutions. They will have to work
water resources ed 81% of urban humanity.3 closely with leaders in other sectors, such
water managers as education, health, social services and
Today, there are an estimated 192 million agriculture, to respond effectively to the
will have to look migrants worldwide, up from 176 million demographic challenge.
beyond the water in 2000.4 Coastal areas, with 18 of the
world’s 27 megacities (populations of 10 Population growth
sector for solutions
million or greater), are thought to face the We live in a demographically divided
largest migration pressures.5 About 75% world, with population still growing rapid-
of people residing in low-lying areas are ly in some regions (Africa and the Middle
in Asia, with the most vulnerable being East), ageing rapidly in others (Europe and
poor people. International migration is East Asia) and already declining in others
increasing as a result of such factors as (Europe; map 2.1).
demographic changes, economic dispari-
ties, trade liberalization, environmental Besides Eastern Europe and the former
changes and new communication tech- Soviet Union, where annual population
nologies. Impacts of climate change can growth is already negative, Australia,
substantially accelerate migration (see China, Japan, New Zealand and West-
chapter 5). Demographic changes affect ern Europe will also soon see shrinking
international migration in two ways. populations. Around 2060 South Asia and
Rapid population growth, combined with Pacific will also experience negative popu-
economic difficulties, push people to cit- lation growth rates. Other regions are less
ies, while a declining and ageing popula- susceptible to negative population growth
tion induces countries to accept migrants, forces. Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle
who are typically willing to work at much East will continue to experience high rates
lower wages than native workers. Water of population growth well into the future.
shortages and hazards, particularly where This timing will characterize most of the
people are directly dependent on the problems of water scarcity.
1 Chapter 2D
The relation and agriculturalists can also have signifi- One positive outcome of migration is the
cant localized impacts on the surrounding lessening of the pressures on the vacated
between water
landscape through such practices as over- lands, which may allow some ecosystems
and migration grazing of livestock and slash and burn to recover. In Europe and North America
is two-way: agriculture. While generally considered the rural exodus has resulted in the growth
rural dwellers, these migrants frequently of new parklands in some locations.
water stressors constitute a large share of those seeking
drive migration, better economic opportunities and better Challenges
access to water and sanitation services, With rapidly ageing populations in some
and migration shelter, health services and food stocks places and rapidly ageing populations
contributes to in established urban areas, leading to the combined with a shrinking population
proliferation of informal communities on in others, it is important to consider the
water stress the fringes of cities. quality dimensions of education and
health as well as the quantitative dimen-
The relation between water and migration sions of population size and age structure
is two-way: water stressors drive migration, in addressing the water needs of evolving
and migration contributes to water stress. communities. To meet the challenges of
Water stressors, such as water scarcity and rapid urban population growth, decision-
flooding, can trigger migration decisions. makers can focus on positive factors that
The social, economic and political context affect fertility decline – social develop-
in which water stresses occur will influ- ment, investments in health and educa-
ence the migration response. And if the tion, empowerment of women and better
natural environment becomes inhospita- access to reproductive health services – in
ble, people are motivated to move to areas contrast to antimigration approaches.
where their locally specific knowledge may
no longer apply. Once people move, their Economic drivers
places of destination must provide them
with water resources, which can lead to Authors: Richard Connor, Walter
further environmental stresses. Rast and James Winpenny
Contributor: Arjen Hoekstra
In these situations the arrival of additional
people can worsen existing water crises and Key messages
strain the capacity of the urban infrastruc- • Growth and changes in the global
ture. Water conflicts can be exacerbated economy are having far-reaching im-
through migration or the presence of pacts on water resources and their use.
refugees, and the fragile balance of human
populations and water resources can be • Growing international trade in goods
upset. Increasingly, links between environ- and services can aggravate water stress
mental issues, including water, and security in some countries while relieving it in
issues, including migration, have become others through flows of ‘virtual water’,
a topic of scientific research and policy particularly in the form of imported
debate. Climate change, which is predicted agricultural commodities.
to lead to greater frequency and intensity of
extreme weather events, is likely to result in Global economic expansion affects water
an overall increase in the displacement of through growth in the number of con-
people in the future (see chapter 5). sumers and through changes in their
consumption habits, in the way goods and
Estimates of potential environmentally services are produced and in the location
displaced people range from 24 million to of activities, all of which affect interna-
almost 700 million who could be displaced tional trade. Growth in global output
by water-related factors, including develop- is currently estimated to slow to 2.2%
ment projects designed to relieve future in 2009, though this will likely be less
water availability stresses.7 Part of the because of the economic volatility aris-
complexity in unraveling the connection ing from the global financial crisis.8 The
between migration and environmental growth output is also unevenly distrib-
factors such as water resources is that peo- uted. Several emerging market economies
ple rely indirectly or directly on the envi- are registering continuously high growth
ronment for their livelihoods. In addition, rates, transforming them into major global
development policies and political and economic forces. Brazil, China, India and
economic stability – or the lack of it – can the Russian Federation are, on Goldman
affect both migration and water resources. Sachs’ latest forecast, expected to overtake
Given these complexities, it is difficult to the combined economic strength of the
estimate the magnitude of potential migra- G-8 by 2032.9 Even sub-Saharan Africa,
tion as a result of environmental factors. long a growth straggler, is experiencing
Globalization – used here as shorthand for In many cases rapid economic growth has
the increasing international flows of goods failed to provide opportunities for these
and services, people, investments and poorest of the poor. Social services remain
finance – may make the situation worse, severely unfunded, and environmental and
but it can also provide solutions. Producing energy problems, including water quality
and exporting goods and services with a and lack of service delivery, are acute. In
large water footprint (the volume of water advanced economies increased economic
used in producing the goods and services insecurity has been associated with rising
consumed) could aggravate the problems inequality and the squeezing of social
of a water-scarce economy. Yet such an provisioning. In middle-income countries
economy could gain from importing economic shocks, accelerated trade liberali-
goods with a high water content (import- zation and premature deindustrialization
ing virtual water). Companies can escape have constrained economic diversification
their local water problems by relocating to and formal job creation. Elsewhere, intrac-
other countries. However, growing corpo- table poverty has fed a vicious circle of
rate awareness of a firm’s water footprint economic insecurity and political instabil-
is leading to greater transparency about ity and, on occasion, communal violence.12
the impact of a firm’s supply chain on its Such situations increase the threat of
water environment. Globalization is also degrading water resources and reducing
enabling the spread of water expertise pro- environmental services.
vided by international firms and through
global communications of service provid- In addition to these indirect pressures are
ers in other countries. These companies are the direct pressures, such as proliferation
a key part of water solutions through the of invasive species. Related to the increas-
desalination, re-use and wastewater treat- ing exchange of goods through interna-
ment technologies they bring with them. tional shipping, invasive species have
caused enormous environmental damage
The following sections focus on economic to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
processes that have exerted pressures on
water resources and how they are man- The global food crises and the rising
aged. In addition to globalization, these cost of fuel and energy
processes include the global food and fuel Reversing decades of low prices, the two-
crises and international trade (virtual water year period 2006-08 has seen sharp, and
and increasing awareness of the water foot- largely unanticipated, increases in food
prints of production and services). prices. Because poor people spend one-half
to three-quarters of their income on food,
Globalization a steep increase in the price of rice, grains
While economic integration is a dominant and edible oils is tantamount to a large
feature of globalization, social, cultural, po- reduction in income. While in the long
litical and institutional aspects are also im- run higher food prices are an opportunity
portant. Changes in consumption patterns for those who live and work in rural areas
through growing demands and easier access (especially if they have the technology and
1 Chapter 2D
The world will the inputs – including water – needed to fibres and narcotics over food commodities.
raise their productivity to its full poten- Many major food-producing countries have
need almost 60%
tial), in the short run higher prices create reacted to the crisis by restricting exports to
more energy in a crisis for the urban and rural poor. help contain prices at home, driving inter-
2030 than in 2002. Although Africa and other low-income national prices still higher. Global markets
countries are particularly vulnerable, even in food have become temporarily fragment-
Water is needed middle-income countries are at risk if they ed. The recent food crisis has encouraged
for the production lack well developed safety nets. countries to re-consider food self-sufficien-
cy, giving it prominence over purely eco-
of energy of all According to the Commission on Growth nomic considerations. This will likely have
types, so expansion and Development, there are many po- an impact on national food and agriculture
tential causes for the steep food price policies for several years, with implications
of energy supply increases. Contributing factors include for water resources management.
will affect water rising demand, shifting diets, droughts,
increased costs of agricultural inputs (such A drive towards food self-sufficiency would
resources as fertilizers) and policies that encourage have undesirable consequences for nation-
the use of agricultural land and output for al water security, especially for countries
bioenergy production. Although there is in arid regions. Such policies, though
no consensus yet on the relative impor- beneficial for rural development, increase
tance of these factors, many believe that a country’s national water footprint and
policies favouring bioenergy over food forfeit growth in higher-income, less
need to be reviewed.13 The 2008 Declara- water-intensive sectors.
tion of the High-Level Conference on
World Food Security: The Challenges of Crude oil prices have also risen sharply in
Climate Change and Bioenergy cautions: recent years – from under $25 a barrel in
2002 to more than $150 in July 2008 before
We are convinced that in-depth dropping back to just under $40 in early
studies are necessary to ensure that January 2009. Among the likely contribut-
production and use of biofuels is ing factors to the rise is increased demand
sustainable in accordance with the linked to economic growth in emerging
three pillars of sustainable devel- market economies. This growing demand
opment and takes into account has also increased pressure to exploit new
the need to achieve and maintain sources of oil. Many of these, such as the
global food security.14 tar sands in Western Canada, have a very
high water – and environmental – footprint
Other longer-term factors may also have (see chapter 3). Increasing oil prices are also
been at play. The low agricultural prices likely linked to the overall increase in the
prevailing until recently may have led gov- cost of energy, which has been rising stead-
ernments to neglect investments in rural ily since the early 1970s (figure 2.2).
infrastructure, research and development,
storage and food security programmes that Like food security, energy security is im-
were once a priority. In parallel, agricultur- portant for GDP growth. According to the
al policies in many countries encouraged International Energy Agency, the world will
non-food commodities such as bioenergy, need almost 60% more energy in 2030 than
in 2002, with economic growth in develop-
Figure 2.2 The cost of energy to consumers has been ing countries driving most of the increase.15
rising since the 1970s Development of hydropower is one energy
strategy to reduce dependence on fossil
Estimated energy costs, 1970-2005 (nominal US$ per million Btus) fuels and limit greenhouse gas emissions,
and developing countries possess significant
16
hydropower potential. Water is needed for
14 the production of energy of all types (see
12 chapter 7), so expansion of energy sup-
10 ply will affect water resources and related
environmental services. Energy to support
8
growth within urban centres will depend
6 largely on water resources management
4 responses to centralized power production.
2
Growth in small towns will likely rely more
on off-grid renewable energy sources.
0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
High prices can provide incentives for
Source: Based on EIA 2008. greater efficiency in fuel consumption and
agricultural production and can generate
Water-intensive products are heavily would require 15.6 billion m3 a year. From volume of water used for agricultural
traded over large distances, as countries a global perspective this trade in cereals production.
import and export water in virtual form as saves 8.5 billion m3 of water a year. De-
agricultural and industrial commodities. spite some trade from countries with low Many countries, including Japan, Mexico
The global volume of virtual water flows in water productivity to countries with high and most countries in Europe, the Middle
commodities is 1,625 billion cubic metres productivity, global water savings through East and North Africa, have net virtual
(m3) a year, accounting for about 40% of international trade of agricultural products water imports (see map). Water security in
total water consumption. About 80% of has been estimated at about 350 billion many countries thus strongly depends on
these virtual water flows relate to agricul- m3 a year, equivalent to 6% of the global external water resources (see chapter 7).
tural products trade,
and the remainder to Regional virtual water balances and net interregional virtual water flows related to trade in
industrial products agricultural products, 1997-2001
trade.
1 Chapter 2D
A growing middle Motivating companies to assess their water which is more water-intensive than the
footprints is the desire to gain the good- simpler diets they are replacing.18 Likewise
class is consuming
will of customers and potential custom- in the services sector, tourism and recrea-
much more milk, ers and the need for cost control and risk tion are creating an increasingly large water
bread, eggs, management, including safeguarding footprint in host societies.
access to the water essential for their
chicken and beef, operations. Recent business initiatives to The concepts of virtual water and water
the production support sustainable water management footprints are useful in illustrating the
include the CEO Water Mandate launched true influence of economic activity on
of which is more at the 2007 UN Global Leadership Forum, water. With greater awareness should come
water-intensive the World Economic Forum’s call for a measures to improve water productivity
‘coalition’ of businesses to engage in water (‘output per drop’) in water-stressed envi-
than the simpler management partnerships and the World ronments and to reduce the polluting side
diets they are Business Council for Sustainable Develop- effects of production.
ment’s creation of a water diagnostic tool
replacing and water scenario planning supports.16 Challenges
Globalization is bringing increasing eco-
Water is increasingly viewed as a potential nomic opportunities to many, while leav-
threat and constraint to economic growth. ing behind some who need them most: the
As an example, China’s remarkable eco- world’s poorest people living in the least
nomic growth has been accompanied by developed countries. The first challenge is
serious environmental problems, most no- to shift this balance so that the less fortu-
tably water shortages in the north and pol- nate can have access to basic products and
lution from wastewater effluents across the services, including sustainable access to
country (box 2.2). Massive projects begun safe drinking water and adequate sanita-
to divert extensive water resources from tion services.
the south to its more populated north will
doubtless result in major environmental A second major challenge is to ensure that
and social issues. the cumulative action of economic activi-
ties and all other water drivers does not
Trade and investment patterns are ultimate- overwhelm nature’s ability to provide for
ly driven by demand, and changes in con- human needs. The expansion and growth
sumption and lifestyle accompany rising of the global economy, and the resulting
income levels in all countries. ‘How much increases in human consumption, drive
water do people drink?’ (on average, 2-5 human demands to use more natural re-
litres a day in developed countries) is much sources, including freshwater. However, the
less relevant than ‘How much water do goods and services provided by ecosystems
people eat?’ (3,000 litres a day in developed (such as water, biodiversity, fibre, food, feed
countries, according to one estimate).17 Eco- and climate) are finite and vulnerable. Bal-
nomic growth in emerging market econo- ancing economic development and envi-
mies is driving the growth of a middle class ronmental sustainability – and all the driv-
that is consuming much more milk, bread, ers influencing these links – remains a core
eggs, chicken and beef, the production of requirement for sustainable development.
Poor people often pay the highest relative Total fertility rate (births per woman)
prices for water. Inhabitants of informal
8
settlements, for example, do not normally
7
receive water delivery services from central
6
water supply agencies, but typically pay
5
exorbitant prices for drinking water (some-
4
times of dubious quality) from local water
dealers. And in rural areas in developing 3
1 Chapter 2D
An educated society is also more likely to be democratic driver, particularly at the household and
and politically stable, working to reduce community levels. As described in box 2.3,
populace typically
inequity and promote the acceptance of this ongoing process brings about social,
has a better cultural diversity. Thus, education not only environmental and health benefits that
understanding fosters economic growth, but also increases can have positive repercussions for the
expectations of a better quality of life for community as a whole in how water serv-
of the need for individuals, their families and society. ices are received and managed.
sustainable use of
While education is fundamental to im- The perceived values of natural resources
aquatic ecosystems proved economic and social well-being, reflect cultural perspectives as well as
and the important in many fast-growing countries in Africa, economic perspectives. Lakes and reser-
South Asia and elsewhere, the predicted voirs, for example, provide many valuable
environmental growth in population is likely to depress services, including water for drinking
goods and services school enrolment. Because of budget and and sanitation, agriculture, industry and
capacity constraints, schools may not livestock uses and, in the case of reser-
they provide. be able to cope with the growth in the voirs, for electricity generation. They
Education can also number of children to be enrolled. serve as buffers against water shortages
and excesses and as contaminant sinks
lead to greater
In many settings access to schooling also for their drainage basins. They provide
water use efficiency is linked to improved access to safe drink- food and economic livelihoods through
ing water and sanitation facilities. Separate fisheries, aquaculture and environmental
sanitation facilities in schools for boys tourism. They are important aquatic eco-
and girls have been shown to increase the systems and provide habitat for rare and
attendance of girls and are also important threatened species. And they can possess
for maintaining a minimum comfort level important cultural and religious values
for female teachers. Improving access to that emphasize humanity’s connections
water and sanitation facilities, by increas- to the natural world. Which of these uses
ing family incomes, enables households are pursued or emphasized depends largely
to pay for school fees and equipment. And on the cultural perspectives and economic
a reduced incidence of water- and sani- values assigned to them by society.
tation-related diseases contributes to less
absenteeism and better performance. One of the most powerful manifestations
of cultural values is religious belief. Many
Culture and values religions describe the role of humanity
Culture describes the patterns of human as both a moulder and a steward of the
activities and the symbolic structures that environment. Virtually all of the world’s
impart significance and importance to major religions see a spiritual challenge
these activities (such as art, institutions, in the ecological crises evident today.19
science, beliefs and moral systems). Because Religious beliefs that highlight humanity
such structures are passed from generation as a steward, rather than master, of the en-
to generation, culture can be defined as the vironment can be a powerful influence in
way of life for an entire society. developing and sustaining the awareness
of societies and communities of their roles
In several regions the empowerment of in using and conserving natural resources,
women has emerged as an important including water.
Box 2.3 The role of women within the water sector and the importance of gender mainstreaming
In most developing countries gender coverage women collect water from drains, women, more girls attending school and
inequity persists in access to and control ditches or streams that are often infected increased income opportunities for women.
of a range of productive, human and with pathogens and bacteria, causing
social capital assets. Consequently, the severe illness or even death. In addition, The immediate action by water sector
core components of poverty (capability, women spend considerable time collecting participants is to ensure gender main-
opportunity, security and empowerment) water at the expense of income-generating streaming in any planned action, including
differ along gender lines. activities. This also exposes them to sexual legislation, policies and programmes in all
abuse and other forms of violence and areas and at all levels. This will ensure that
In the water sector women labour to leaves less time for girls to attend school. the voices of marginalized and disadvan-
provide water for household needs while taged women and men are integrated in
men make decisions about water resources Lessons from Africa and the rest of the design, implementation, monitoring and
management and development at both world have demonstrated that increased evaluation of policies and programmes
the local and national levels. Women draw participation by women in decision-making and therefore help to achieve sustainable
water for household use, transport it home leads to better operation and maintenance water provision for all.
and store it until it is used for cooking, of water facilities, better health for the
cleaning and washing. In areas of low water community, greater privacy and dignity for Source: Adapted from Mutagamba 2008.
1 Chapter 2D
Key messages
1 Chapter 3T
Water supplies are desalination an economic option for water can have positive benefits – reducing water
supplies in coastal cities (see figure 9.3 and demand and increasing water availability
being enhanced
box 9.5 in chapter 9).1 (for example, rainwater harvesting) – while
in many countries others can increase water demands (such
through innovative This chapter looks at six areas – in which as using crops to produce bioenergy). In
water-related technologies are emerging analysing technological advances and
wastewater rapidly – that are likely to exert strong interventions, it is also useful to distin-
treatment and pressures on the supply, use and manage- guish their structural elements (such as
ment of water resources: environmental re- construction of a plant, dam or irrigation
reuse techniques search and development, renewable energy, system) and their non-structural elements
information and communications technol- (including public awareness campaigns,
ogy, biotechnology, bioenergy and nanote- educational programmes and information
chnology. It also describes the challenges sharing). This section outlines some key
and difficulties associated with the dissem- technology areas and provides some in-
ination of technology, which is especially sight on how new developments can affect
important for developing countries. water resources.
Figure 3.1 Many developed countries have increased There also appears to be a correlation
their investment in environmental research between environmental regulations and
and development environmental technology, with regula-
tion spurring industries and water use sec-
Share of environmental R&D in total government R&D, 1981-2005 (percent) tors to address water availability and water
quality. Environmental regulations may be
5 Korea, Rep.
counterproductive in facilitating envi-
Germany ronmental technology in some situations,
4
however, since once required standards are
met, incentives to engage in further tech-
3
France nology development may dissipate.
2
United Kingdom Renewable energy
Japan The renewable energy sector has seen
1
remarkable innovation over the past two
United States decades. Innovation has accelerated in
0
response to recent public and political
1981 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
pressure to reduce greenhouse gas emis-
Source: Based on OECD 2008. sions thought to be contributing to
global climate change. First-generation
Technological innovation 1
(hydropower and biomass combustion) Figure 3.2 The use of renewable energy sources rose
and second-generation (solar heating and worldwide between 1990 and 2004
wind power) technologies are now being
followed by third-generation technologies Average annual change in renewable energy production, 1990-2004 (percent)
such as concentrated solar power, ocean 25
energy, enhanced geothermal systems and World
OECD
integrated bioenergy systems. As these 20
innovations have lowered relative costs,
the use of renewable energy resources has 15
risen worldwide (figure 3.2).
10
If current policies are maintained, global
energy demands are expected to grow by 5
as much as 55% through 2030, according
to the International Energy Agency.2 China 0
and India alone would account for about Solid Geothermal Hydro Waste/biogas/ Solar Wind Total primary
biomass liquid biomass energy supply
45% of this projected increase (based on
conservative economic growth figures), and Source: Based on OECD 2008.
developing countries overall for 74%. Elec-
tricity generation from hydroelectric and
other renewable energy resources is project- inaccessible, the water footprint of oil tar
ed to increase at an average annual rate of sands is likely to increase dramatically.
1.7% between 2004 and 2030, for an overall
increase of 60%. Although renewable Information and communications
energy would still account for only a small technology
part of total energy demand, the increase in Advances in information and communica-
renewable energy production could have a tions technology can affect the cost and
large impact on water resources, especially effectiveness of monitoring ecosystem
increases in hydropower generation. health and quality. Reductions in the costs
of sensors, coupled with satellite-based
Future development of hydropower will wireless data transfer, have greatly facili-
be limited by two main factors. One is tated the monitoring of water resources
the spatial and geophysical potential for (water quality, water levels, flow rates and
new hydropower installations. In many so on) and the delivery of water-related
developed countries, including Australia, services, all in real time.
the United States and much of Western
Europe, most of the suitable sites for hy- Improved monitoring through advanced
dropower installations have already been information and communications tech-
developed (see map 7.6 in chapter 7). The nology can intensify the environmental
second limiting factor is financial invest- effectiveness of policy measures, from the
ment capacity, which has been the pri- improved tracking of potentially hazard-
mary constraint in developing countries, ous materials to the monitoring of emis-
including in most of Africa. Pressure from sions from large stationary and smaller dif-
environmental groups opposed to dams, fuse (non-point) and mobile sources. The
particularly to large dams, may also con- greatest number of patents for monitoring
strain future hydropower development. environmental impacts between 1978
and 2002 was granted for water pollution
Since renewable energy resources alone are treatment, attesting to the importance of
not sufficient to meet the predicted dra- information and communications technol-
matic increase in energy demands through ogy innovations in the sustainable man-
2030, fossil fuel extraction and develop- agement of water resources. Still lacking,
ment of nuclear energy will continue to however, are adequate original field data
increase, as will their impacts on water required for ground-proofing, monitor-
resources and the environment. Coal con- ing and forecasting data and for informed
sumes about 2 cubic metres (m3) of water decision-making (see also chapter 14).
per megawatt hour of electricity generated,
nuclear power about 2.5 m3 and petroleum Biotechnology and genetically
about 4 m3. Extracting petroleum from modified organisms
Canada’s tar sands, which have received Plant and animal breeding has increased
much criticism as an ‘unclean’ source of agricultural productivity and therefore
oil, consumes an estimated 20-45 m3 of affected water productivity. Progress has
water per megawatt hour, nearly 10 times been concentrated in crop and animal pro-
that for conventional oil extraction. Thus, ductivity and resistance to pests, disease
as fossil fuel sources become increasingly and weather extremes.
1 Chapter 3T
Biotechnology can The green revolution of the 1970s and currently used, for example, in biological
1980s is an example of the dramatic effects processes in municipal wastewater treat-
have a valuable
of how taking advantage of technological ment plants to treat or break down organic
role in addressing advances can improve the livelihoods and materials in wastewater. Micro-organisms
water scarcity and incomes of the poor. The principal tech- that can more efficiently break down oil
nologies involved in the green revolution pollution in aquatic ecosystems and soils
quality challenges were irrigation, fertilizer and pest control, following oil spills or other industrial
in both developed together with high-yielding varieties of accidents are receiving attention. Similar
maize, wheat and rice. The green revolu- avenues may become evident for research
and developing tion in Asia doubled cereal production into the treatment of other types of water
countries, during 1970-95, while increasing the land pollutants.
area devoted to cereals by only 4%. By the
especially in late-1990s it was clear that many people, Bioenergy
agriculture including segments of the poorest popula- Bioenergy, derived most commonly from
tion groups, had reaped substantial ben- plant materials, is a renewable energy
efits from higher incomes, less expensive source that is less likely to increase carbon
food and increased demand for their la- dioxide emissions that contribute to global
bour associated with the green revolution. warming (in contrast to fossil fuels, which
return long-stored carbon to the atmo-
The green revolution also demonstrates sphere). Cellulose, including agricultural
that unintended consequences can ac- residues, waste products and woody bio-
company new technologies. The exces- mass, is also showing promise as a bioen-
sive use of agrochemicals has polluted ergy source (see chapter 7).
waterways, while wasteful irrigation has
contributed to water scarcity in some areas This new technology is not without
and to water logging and soil salinization problems. For maize and sugarcane used
in others. High livestock concentrations to create bioenergy, a major problem is the
have contributed to the spread of disease. need for large quantities of water to grow
As monoculture of crops for export or for the crops (see box 7.2 in chapter 7) and for
use as animal feed replaced traditional considerable quantities of fossil fuel energy
polyculture techniques, the economic out- for tillage, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation,
comes for some small farmers deteriorated harvesting and transport machinery, and
as increased production of cereal crops processing.3 Research is currently focused
caused prices to fall and crop susceptibility on the development of second-generation
to pests and plant diseases spread. In- bioenergy, converting wood, crop residues
creased agricultural production also led to and other biomass sources into liquid bio-
higher water demands, exacerbating water fuel. Non-food crops such as jatropha do
scarcity problems in some arid and semi- not require the intensive management and
arid regions (see chapter 8). soil quality that food crops need and there-
fore may not compete directly with food
Genetically modified organisms are a more crops for resources (water and good agricul-
recent agricultural advance. A genetically tural land). Second-generation bioenergy
modified organism is an organism whose technology has the potential to increase
genome has been altered through genetic energy yields significantly, but may not be
engineering. A large share of food crops, commercially viable for 5-10 years.
such as corn, cotton and soybeans, have
been genetically modified to increase Producing bioenergy from crops tradition-
yields and resistance to pests and chemical ally grown as food will require additional
herbicides. Although this technology of- agricultural production to make up for the
fers the potential for developing drought- lost food sources, and more water as well.
resistant crops, with obvious advantages Increased bioenergy production has also
for water-scarce regions, little progress resulted in a significant increase in some
has been made towards this goal, and food prices by diverting grain traditionally
no breakthrough is expected in the near grown for food.4 More than one-third of
future. maize production in the United States in
2008 was being used to produce ethanol5
Micro-organisms are an especially prom- and about half the vegetable oils produced
ising avenue, since there is considerable in the European Union were being used
knowledge and experience in genetic for biodiesel fuel.6 Although the impact
experimentation with them. As decompos- is extremely difficult to assess, bioenergy
ers of organic material, they are capable production is estimated to have caused
of breaking down or otherwise neutral- up to 70%-75% of the rise in the global
izing many types of polluting materials prices of some food stocks, including ap-
in the environment. Micro-organisms are proximately 70% of the increase in maize
Technological innovation 1
prices.7 Higher energy prices worldwide metals from water supplies. Research is Nanotechnology
and a weak US dollar are believed to have exploring the use of nanoparticles as
shows particular
caused the remainder.8 catalysts for chemical reactions of other
materials as a means of degrading them promise for
Bioenergy production also causes environ- and for removing salts and heavy met- desalinization,
mental impacts unrelated to climate, par- als. Such treatments could be targeted to
ticularly impacts arising from agricultural chemicals for which existing technologies water purification,
practices (see chapter 7). Examples include are inefficient or costly and could eventu- wastewater
tillage-based soil erosion, eutrophication ally permit human use of heavily polluted
from fertilizer runoff, increased pesticide and saline water for drinking, sanitation treatment and
loads to aquatic habitats and biodivers- and irrigation. monitoring
ity loss from land use changes. Further,
the use of bioenergy could spawn other For water monitoring nanotechnology
problems, as reductions in greenhouse gas encompasses new and enhanced sensors
emissions (from switching from fossil fuels for detecting biological and chemical
to biofuels) could be offset by the clearing water contaminants present in very low
of new land to make room for more crop concentrations. New sensor technology,
production. Cutting down forests could re- coupled with micro- and nanofabrication
lease carbon dioxide and reduce biodivers- technology, may eventually lead to the
ity. Under conditions of water scarcity, development of highly accurate and port-
producing fuel for automobiles instead of able sensors.
producing food to feed a growing popu-
lation becomes less socially acceptable, There are also impediments to the large-
especially in developing countries. scale use of nanotechnologies to address
water resources issues. While many
Nanotechnology nanotechnologies are already in use, many
Nanotechnology, the design and manu- are still at varying stages of research or
facture of extremely small electronic development. Thus, although such tech-
circuits and mechanical devices built at the nology could help developing countries
molecular level of matter, shows particular increase water treatment or remediation
promise for water resources. Key areas are efficiency and reduce costs associated with
desalinization (see box 9.5 in chapter 9), traditional treatment methodologies, it
water purification, wastewater treatment is unclear when nanotechnology-based
and monitoring. The first three areas in- applications will be ready for wide-scale
volve the use of nanofiltration technology, use. And even though nanotechnologies
nanomaterials and nanoparticles to remove may prove very efficient and cost-effective
or reduce water contaminants. Monitoring over the long term, initial acquisition and
involves the use of nanosensors. application costs are high in many cases.
Using such technologies also will require
Many nanotechnology-based approaches the technical capacity to maintain and
are less a major departure from traditional operate them.
methods of addressing such issues than
a means of improving existing applica- There also are some risks associated with
tions and devices.9 Seawater desalinization nanotechnology-based approaches, spe-
plants are already in operation around the cifically the possibility that engineered
world, and many technologies can effec- nanoparticles used to catalyse chemical
tively remove microbes and other contam- reactions may end up in water systems.
inants from water. And although operation Little is yet known about how such
efficiencies vary, wastewater treatment materials may interact with biological
plants also exist in many developed and organisms, so the possibility of toxic-
developing countries. ity to humans and ecosystems must be
considered.
Nanotechnology has the potential to
greatly improve water quality and quan- The technology dissemination
tity through water treatment or remedia- challenge
tion. Nanofiltration membranes and other
advanced filtration materials can facilitate Key message
water desalinization and increased water • Technology is constantly evolving,
reuse and recycling, improving desaliniza- and the availability of technologies
tion efficiency and reducing associated can differ widely between developed
costs (especially for energy). Another and developing countries because
emerging area is the development of nano of impediments to dissemination
materials, which can act as a ‘sponge’ to of research and adaptation to local
enhance the removal of specific heavy conditions.
1 Chapter 3T
With the bulk Technological progress is both a determi- that of newer technologies (figure 3.3).
nant and an outcome of rising incomes. Many of these older technologies require
of technological
At the national level it can occur through infrastructure that is expensive to cre-
innovation invention and innovation, the adoption ate and maintain and that relies on large
originating and adaptation of existing but new-to- numbers of people with scarce technical
the-market technologies and the spread of skills. In addition, the diffusion of older
in developed technologies across individuals, firms and technologies today depends on the inten-
countries, the public sector within a country. sity and efficiency with which government
services were delivered in the past, many
introducing With the bulk of technological innova- of which have a poor record.
appropriate tion originating in developed countries,
introducing appropriate technologies into The rates of acceptance and application
technologies developing countries is a key challenge of of newer technologies have been higher
into developing development. It requires both the willing- than those of older technologies because
ness to transfer the technology and the rates of acceptance and application are
countries is a capacity to pay for, absorb, adapt and use more directly correlated with income. The
key challenge of the technology so that it generates long- infrastructure for newer technologies such
term benefits. as mobile phones and the Internet is gen-
development
erally less expensive to create and requires
Exporting technology to developing fewer (although more skilled) workers to
countries operate and maintain. Moreover, with
The number of patents and scientific regulatory reform in many countries the
journal articles focusing on technology is private sector now offers these services in
strongly correlated with GDP per capita.10 a competitive environment, rather than
Most developing countries lack the ability in the state-owned, monopolistic environ-
to generate innovations at the technologi- ments of the past. Supplying such new
cal frontier. Moreover, relatively undevel- technologies has thus been more respon-
oped domestic technology sectors and the sive to market demands and less con-
lure of better economic and scientific op- strained by the stringencies of government
portunities abroad draw highly educated budgets or state enterprises. Furthermore,
nationals from many developing countries demands for such products have been
to cutting-edge research sectors in high- boosted by low end-user costs, resulting
income countries. from competitive pricing strategies, and
the characteristics of some newer technol-
The lack of advanced technological com- ogies that lend themselves to sharing more
petence in developing countries means readily than do some older technologies.
that technological progress occurs there
mainly through the adoption and adapta- Absorptive capacity for technology
tion of existing technologies. The penetra- Most technological progress in develop-
tion of older technologies, such as fixed- ing countries has been achieved through
line telephones, electric power networks, absorption and adaptation. A country’s
transportation, health care and water ability to absorb, adapt and apply foreign
services – many ultimately provided by technologies depends mainly on its expo-
governments – has tended to lag behind sure to foreign technologies (the pace at
Figure 3.3 The absorption of older and more recent technologies depends on more than income
Index
0.8
Absorption of older innovations, 2000-05
Absorption of newer innovations, 2000-03
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
High-income Upper-middle-income Lower-middle-income Low-income
countries countries countries countries
Technological innovation 1
which technologies diffuse across coun- environment has an internal system of maintaining
tries) and its ability to absorb, adapt and checks and balances for its own mainte-
a sustainable
use the technologies to which it is exposed nance and that of the animals and plants
(the pace at which technologies diffuse that inhabit it. Humanity has acquired relationship
within a country). Successful use depends technologies that can radically affect these between people
on the technological absorptive capacity natural checks and balances.
of the economy – the macroeconomic and and the natural
governance environment, which influ- Many positive impacts are associated with environment
ences the willingness of entrepreneurs to technological advances, such as a reduced
take risks on new and new-to-the-market burden of disease and loss of life due to requires
technologies – and the level of techno- medical advances, decreased malnutrition maintaining a
logical literacy and advanced skills in the due to the green revolution and other agri-
population. cultural advances, and increased economic balance between
livelihoods due to industrialization and the technologies
Government policy also has a crucial urbanization and attendant technologies.
role. Governments are often the primary But maintaining a sustainable relationship
we develop to
delivery channel for technologies such as between people and the natural environ- meet human needs
electricity, fixed-line telephones, trans- ment requires maintaining a balance
and nature’s ability
portation infrastructure and medical and between the technologies we develop to
educational services. And government meet human needs and nature’s ability to to supply them
policy can create a business environ- supply them. And there is ample evidence
ment that facilitates firm entry and exit that this balance is not being achieved in
and that is not hostile to exploiting new many places around the world, as dem-
technologies. Too often, government onstrated by excessive water abstractions,
regulations or features of the domes- degraded water quality, and damaged
tic market prevent firms from making aquatic ecosystems and biological commu-
money by exploiting a new technology, nities. Some of these impacts result from
thus impeding the spread of technology ignoring the environmental consequences
within a country. Policy should also en- of human development actions. Others
sure that R&D and dissemination efforts result from ignorance of the many, often
give priority to creating and introducing subtle, interactions between the natural
products for which a market (domestic environment and the human activities
or foreign) exists and to helping firms that fundamentally affect it.
exploit those opportunities.
Consider crop-based bioenergy produc-
Investing in research and tion. The increased production and use
development of bioenergy to reduce greenhouse gas
Countries do well to invest in technology emissions associated with the burning of
research and development. Research and fossil fuels must be balanced against the
extension programmes in agriculture, the rising need for water resources, associ-
sector that consumes the most water, have ated pollution and sufficient agricultural
exceptionally high internal economic rates land on which to grow the crops to supply
of return (table 3.1). crop-based bioenergy. An unintended im-
pact has been rising prices for some foods,
Many resource constraints can be over- as cereal crops are currently used for the
come by technological capital and sup- production of bioenergy rather than for
porting institutions. Productivity gains, food. Our choices of technology require
including genetic improvements that appropriate consideration of their benefits
enable more production per unit of land, and costs, including their negative envi-
also enable more production per unit of ronmental impacts.
water. For most developing countries gains
in agricultural productivity arise from Table 3.1 Return on investments in agricultural research
investments in adaptations of inventions and extension
produced in developed countries.
Median internal rate of return
Challenges Investment (percent)a
A major technology challenge is how Agricultural extension programmes 41
to balance the benefits and risks of new
Applied research 49
technologies. For the first time in human
history, technology has provided hu- Pre-invention science 60
manity with the means to reshape the a. The internal rate of return is the rate of discount at which the present value of benefits is
structure and functioning of the natural equal to the present value of costs.
environment and thus to alter the possibil-
Source: FAO 2000.
ities for future development. The natural
1 Chapter 3T
Notes FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization Mitchell, Donald. 2008. A Note on Rising
1. Bergkamp and Sadoff 2008. of the United Nations). 2000. Agri- Food Prices. Policy Research Working
cultural Production and Productivity in Paper 4682, Development Prospects
2. IEA 2007. Developing Countries. In The State of Group, World Bank, Washington, DC.
3. Pimentel and Patzek 2005. Food and Agriculture 2000. Rome: Food OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-
4. Mitchell 2008. and Agriculture Organization of the operation and Development). 2008.
United Nations. OECD Environmental Outlook to 2030.
5. US Department of Agriculture 2008.
———. 2008. Soaring Food Prices: Facts, Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-
6. Mitchell 2008.
Perspectives, Impacts and Actions operation and Development.
7. Mitchell 2008. Required. HLC/08/INF/1. Background Pimentel, D., and T. W. Patzek. 2005.
8. FAO 2008. paper for the High-Level Conference on Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switch-
World Food Security: The Challenges of grass, and Wood; Biodiesel Production
9. Hillie et al. 2005, p. 43; Berger 2008.
Climate Change and Bioenergy, Rome, Using Soybean and Sunflower. Natural
10. World Bank 2008. 3-5 June 2008. Resources Research 14 (1, March): 65-76.
Hillie, T., M. Munasinghe, M. Hlope, and US Department of Agriculture. 2008.
References Y. Deraniyagala. 2005. Nanotechnol- Grain and Oilseeds Outlook for 2008.
Berger, M. 2008. Nanotechnology and ogy, Water and Development. Global Prepared for the Agricultural Out-
Water Treatment. Nanowerk web- Dialogue on Nanotechnology and the look Forum, February 21-22, Crys-
site. www.nanowerk.com/spotlight/ Poor: Opportunities and Risks. Meridian tal City, VA. www.usda.gov/oce/
spotid=4662.php. Institute, Washington, DC. forum/2008_Speeches/Commodity/
Bergkamp, G., and C. W. Sadoff. 2008. ———. 2007. World Energy Outlook 2007. GrainsandOilseeds.pdf.
Water in a Sustainable Economy. In State Paris: Organisation for Economic Co- World Bank. 2008. Global Economic
of the World: Innovations for a Sustainable operation and Development and Interna- Prospects 2008: Technology Diffusion in
Economy. Washington, DC: Worldwatch tional Energy Agency. the Developing World. Washington, DC:
Institute. World Bank.
Technological innovation 1
Chapter 4
Policies, laws
and finance
Authors: Gunilla Björklund, Stefano Burchi, Richard Connor,
William Cosgrove, Sarah Hendry, Patrick Moriarty,
Walter Rast, Léna Salamé and James Winpenny
Contributors: Jack Moss, Monica Scatasta, Jon Martin Trondalen and
World Water Assessment Programme Expert Group on Legal Issues
Coordinator: Tim Kasten (UNEP)
Facilitator: Richard Connor
Key messages
1 Chapter 4
Because use water law to establish the rules of the processes. As an example, the EU Water
game for water users within a given com- Framework Directive, negotiated by the
the political
munity, country or region. EU member states, requires intranational,
negotiations multilevel institutional structures, includ-
involved in global International and regional water ing legal systems, to ensure implementa-
policy tion of the directive for transboundary
and regional International goals and objectives for river basins and groundwater as well as
conventions or water resources, negotiated at UN meet- national river basins (box 4.1).
ings, conferences and summits or in
water-sharing ministerial-level sessions of the World International and regional legal
agreements are Water Forum, can be viewed as political frameworks
benchmarks. Because the political nego- International water law is part of public in-
meant to avoid tiations involved in global and regional ternational law. The rules of international
conflicts between conventions or water-sharing agreements law apply to sovereign states. But because
are meant to avoid conflicts between dif- there is generally no higher authority to
different uses or ferent water uses or users, they serve as enforce such rules, individual countries
users of water, they drivers for water management. The global must generally ensure their own compli-
policy framework for water began with the ance. The first step in enforcement is
serve as drivers for
Stockholm Declaration of 1972, followed identifying the applicable rules.
water management by other important international mile-
stones over the years (see appendix 2). These rules are found in treaties, interna-
tional custom, general principles of law
Ratifying conventions means assenting and the writings of ‘learned publicists’.1
to implement the actions and activities Treaties usually provide the most accessible
agreed to by the involved parties. Imple- source of law, but the other sources cannot
mentation requires that the proper institu- be ignored. In the non-navigational uses
tions exist, that national laws are compat- of international watercourses, rules of cus-
ible with convention requirements and tomary law are often invoked by countries
that political and financial measures are in the absence of codified law. A treaty ap-
in place to ensure popular participation. plies only to parties to the treaty and only
It also requires a policy framework with after the treaty has come into force and is
operational goals, objectives and follow-up thus legally binding. Finally, the norma-
tive content (requirements) of the treaty
Box 4.1 The EU Water Framework Directive – uneven rules must be established and agreed to by
implementation all parties involved to determine whether
a country’s actions are in accordance with
its treaty obligations.
The EU Water Framework Directive and programme for each river basin
for water protection and manage- district.
ment provides for the identification Law may also be developed at a regional
of European waters and their char- In a 2007 report the European Com- level. Such law typically supersedes na-
acteristics on the basis of individual mission noted that several EU member tional law. Treaties may operate regionally
river basin districts and the adoption states may fail to meet the targets, between two or more countries. Regional
of management plans and meas- particularly because of the physical bodies such as the European Union may
ures for each water body. Entered deterioration of aquatic ecosystems as also create law for their members. EU law,
into force 22 December 2000, the a result of overexploitation of water unlike international law, can be directly
directive seeks to prevent and reduce resources, and the high levels of pol- binding on its members and has strong
pollution, promote sustainable water lution from diffuse sources. The report
enforcement mechanisms.
use, protect the aquatic environ- also cited problems in meeting the
ment, improve the status of aquatic deadlines for incorporating the direc-
ecosystems and mitigate the effects tive into national law. However, the In most cases the directly applicable law is
of floods and droughts through the establishment of river basin districts national law, which ensures implementa-
management of inland surface wa- and the designation of competent tion of any international treaties that a
ters, groundwater, transitional waters national authorities appear to be well country has signed. Within national law
and coastal waters. under way. The European Commission the specific law-making powers and hier-
finished with recommendations for archies of laws are determined by the con-
Within four years of the directive’s addressing the reported shortcom- stitutional arrangements within a jurisdic-
entry into force, member states were ings, integrating sustainable manage- tion. National law also includes customary
to complete an analysis of the char- ment of water resources into national
law as well as water laws directly relating
acteristics of each river basin district, policies, maximizing public participa-
a review of the impacts of human tion and giving advance notice of
to water resources (for example, pollution
activities on their water resources, an its plans for future European water control and water abstraction permits).
economic analysis of water use and management policy. In addition to the formal legal framework
a registry of areas requiring special and the customary laws that national law
protection. Within nine years they Source: European Parliament and Council formally codifies and recognizes, there are
were to produce a management plan 2000; CEC 2007. also water rules and rights by which water
user collectives and other actors abide.
1 Chapter 4
Australian states have been reforming their for supportive legal regimes. For example, state there will be a structure for river
water laws within a framework set out by there may be a need for a secure registry basin management and stakeholder en-
the Commonwealth government, called of water rights, similar to a registry of land gagement through water resources plans
the National Water Initiative. The initiative rights. produced by the states. These plans will
is intended to provide security of entitle- allocate water, and only when a plan is in
ments to water, including ecosystems use. There are also consequences for infrastruc- place will it be possible to trade water, as
It has a formula for sharing risk between ture. For example, Queensland separates for example under the Queensland Water
government and users should water avail- the ownership and management of distri- Act of 2000.
ability change in the future due to climate bution facilities (irrigation networks) from
change or other factors. the storage infrastructure (dams), and The first requirement is thus to have a
users of the irrigation networks cannot opt sound system to manage water and allo-
The National Water Initiative and related out of operating costs without the consent cate it to users, which should be the focus
policies require water trading, which of the licence holder, to avoid leaving the of water law reforms, especially where
enables water to be properly valued system without an owner. If water were human and financial resources are limited.
and allocated to higher-value uses. But to be traded out of an irrigation area, the Only a planned system can account for the
this means that water rights have to be previous owners might no longer pay for public good elements of water. Markets
separated from land rights, which can in the system, leaving the new owners with a alone cannot.
turn make it difficult for small-scale farms liability but no income.
to survive. This has implications for equity Source: www.nwc.gov.au/nwi/index.cfm;
and the potential need for structural ad- However, Australian states do not rely on Roper, Sayers, and Smith 2006; Queensland
justment funds. It also has consequences water trading to manage water. In every Government 2000; Hendry 2006.
– Scotland, England, South Africa and example, the environment is not granted
Queensland, Australia.6 any water licences, while in South Africa
decision-makers are debating how to put
Key policy and regulatory issues water law on environmental protection
Although water allocation systems can be into practice. Lawmakers must address
difficult to establish, managing competing public policy implications, including
water uses requires clear, widely accepted equity and water reallocations in times of
allocation rules, especially where water is drought or other emergencies. And permit
scarce. Water allocation systems should systems should be sufficiently flexible
balance equity and economic efficiency. to adapt to global changes and climate
Environmental concerns also require variability.
equal attention, though they are often
neglected in the process. In Chile, for Much water governance takes place outside
formalized legal systems, particularly in
Figure 4.1 Formal and informal legal framework of developing countries (figure 4.1). Such
water rights ‘traditional’ rights systems form a dynamic
mixture of rules, principles and organi-
zational forms of different origins. They
Normative combine local, national and global rules
domain and often mix indigenous, colonial and
Technical and contemporary norms and rights. Impor-
biophysical tant sources for these complex, local rights
domain National
Ancestral
systems tend to be state laws, religious
and
international law laws (whether formal or indigenous),
law ancestral laws, market laws and the rights
Political and frameworks of multiple water project
economic
Local domain interventions, which often set their own
water regulations.
law
Market Religious
law law Local water rights thus exist in conditions
of legal pluralism, where rules and princi-
Development ples of different origins and legitimization
project coexist and interact.7 In the eyes of water
Organizational law Cultural and users in many parts of the world, legiti-
domain spiritual
domain mate water authority and water rights are
not restricted to official law. Water users
also clearly distinguish water rights as
defined by lawyers (officially codified or
Source: Based on Boelens 2008. recognized) from their own, living rights
systems.
1 Chapter 4
1 Chapter 4
Figure 4.2 If the vicious cycle of low funding is reversed, the benefits to society will be enormous
Operational
inefficiency
Inadequate
maintenance
1 Chapter 4
In most urban Investment is also required in the op- easy to postpone, are widely neglected.
eration and maintenance of physical The result is infrastructure that deterio-
public water
infrastructure so that it meets appropri- rates to a level that can no longer provide
systems charges ate standards and functions efficiently. reliable access to safe drinking water to
barely cover the Operations and maintenance are ne- those who are nominally receiving the
glected nearly everywhere in favour of service. Leakage (loss) rates of 50% are not
recurrent costs new infrastructure investments, regardless uncommon in urban distribution systems.
of operation and of the country’s level of development. In Much of the apparatus for treating waste-
the United States bringing water supply water is also failing. According to a report
maintenance. and sewerage infrastructure up to current by the Task Force for the Implementation
In rural areas standards will cost more than $1 trillion of the Environmental Action Program
over the next 20 years, with hundreds of for Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central
neglect of billions more required for dams, dikes and Asia, municipal water utilities have now
operation and waterway maintenance.15 The World Busi- become the main polluters of surface
ness Council for Sustainable Development waters in many East European, Caucasus
maintenance and estimates that the total costs of replacing and Central Asian countries. The task
cost recovery ageing water supply and sanitation infra- force reports that up to 90% of nitrogen
structure in industrial countries may be as and phosphorus discharges into the Black
contribute to
high as $200 billion a year.16 Investment and Caspian Seas originate from riverine
widespread in physical infrastructure must be accom- inputs, which mostly transport municipal
non-functionality panied by the ‘soft’ infrastructure of poli- wastewaters.19
cies and legal systems (as described earlier)
and human capacity.17 Yet much bilateral In rural areas neglect of operation and
aid for sanitation and drinking water fails maintenance budgets and cost recovery
to achieve a balance between soft and contribute to widespread non-functionality.
hard infrastructure (figure 4.3). A recent survey of almost 7,000 rural water
schemes in Ethiopia found that 30%-
In most urban public water systems charges 40% were non-functional.20 A shortage of
often barely cover the recurrent costs of finance for wages, fuel, materials and spare
operation and maintenance, leaving little parts was a common factor.
or no funds to recover the capital costs of
modernization and expansion. A survey of The deficit in financing, especially for
such systems in 132 cities in high-, middle- operation and maintenance costs, is a sub-
and low-income countries found that 39% stantial addition to the investment costs
did not recover even their operation and of achieving the Millennium Develop-
maintenance costs (true of 100% of cities ment Goals. Although governments often
in South-East Asia and the Maghreb).18 turn to external aid to fill financing gaps,
donors also seem to favour financing new
Moreover, water infrastructure deteriorates infrastructure over operation and mainte-
over time. To keep it functioning properly nance (see figure 4.3).
requires routine repairs, service and re-
placement of worn parts. These activities, High costs of new and remedial
infrastructure
Figure 4.3 New infrastructure seems to dominate donor While operation and maintenance costs
investments in drinking water and sanitation have been especially neglected, water
infrastructure has not been funded at
Share of investment (percent) Infrastructure ‘Soft’ support anything close to the required level. Many
networks and installations in mature
100 economies are ageing and deteriorating.
Member states of the European Union are
75 committed to upgrading their water and
wastewater treatment systems to comply
with EU environmental legislation. But
50
many urban water systems in Eastern
Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia are in
25 poor condition, with no similar plans for
Sanitation Drinking water upgrades. In developing and emerging
market economies the pace of growth and
0
Austria Germany France European Austria France European
urbanization, combined with rising en-
Commission Commission vironmental expectations, is creating the
need for costly new investments.
Note: Soft support includes support for policies, legal systems and human capacity building.
Source: Based on data from UN-Water 2008. Table 4.3 gives a sense of the magnitude
of investment requirements over the next
1 Chapter 4
Figure 4.5 Household expenditure and private sector to invest in operation, maintenance and
investments in drinking water supply are capital rehabilitation for drinking water
generally unknown and sanitation systems.25 These expendi-
tures are difficult to assess because many
Funding sources for drinking water in GLAAS pilot countries with data, latest are hidden in sector budgets or are not
available data, 2006-07 (percent)
Internal private sector Households
accounted for, as in the case of many
Internal government External funding private sector and household investments
100 (figure 4.5). Data in the GLAAS report,
available for three of the seven pilot coun-
75 tries, indicate that external funding – for
many countries the main source of funds
for drinking water and sanitation system
50 investments – is directed mainly to infra-
structure projects.
25
Reviewing and revising investment needs
(the demand side of financing) by reduc-
0
ing costs are as important in closing the
Ghana Madagascar Mongolia Nepal Uganda Viet Nam
financing gap as finding new sources of
Note: GLAAS is Global Annual Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking-Water. funds. The full cycle of expenditures has
Source: Based on data from UN-Water 2008. to be considered, from operation and
maintenance to technological choices
about equipment and its eventual replace-
climate change and armed conflict bring ment or upgrading. For example, improv-
added risk. ing collection efficiency and reducing
unaccounted for losses in distribution
African countries, recognizing the urgency systems can make more water available for
of the situation, signed the eThekwini new consumers and help fund operations.
Declaration in February 2008 in Durban, Demand-side considerations also include
South Africa, committing them to prepare such underlying determinants as coverage
or update national sanitation and hygiene levels, services levels and environmental
policies, allocate budget funds for sanita- regulations.
tion, improve sanitation information and
monitoring tools and increase capacity. The Fund disbursements can also be acceler-
declaration also called on external support ated, so that disbursement delays do not
agencies to provide financial and technical cause new funding to be postponed. Inef-
assistance for sanitation and hygiene pro- ficient budgeting and budget allocation
motion and to improve aid coordination. processes can lead to such disbursement
delays. To ensure that funds are disbursed
Sources of financing more efficiently during the budget period,
There are three sources of revenue for funds can be allocated to regions of a
financing water supply and sanitation country or to local authorities according
services: to their relative capacity to implement
projects. Finalizing the budget process
• User tariffs, including payment for before the budget year starts makes it pos-
environmental services, which can sible to begin disbursements in the first
include cross-subsidies within the sec- quarter of the year.
tor or from other sectors (for example,
electricity or other municipal services). A strategic financial plan, based on an
in-depth examination of all demand- and
• Public expenditures funded by taxation. supply-side aspects affecting the financing
gap, will help ensure the financial sustain-
• Transfers in the form of external aid, ability of projects. It will direct investment
from official or philanthropic sources. choices towards the most financially and
functionally appropriate processes and
External borrowing (debt, equity and technologies, thus maximizing benefits.
bonds, facilitated by risk-management And it will make projects more attractive
instruments such as guarantees) can help to external financiers by reducing the
spread payments over time for large up- perception of risk.
front investments and manage the overall
cost of financing. A lot of funds move through the water
system but is used inefficiently. Examples
The 2008 GLAAS pilot report raises con- include high payments to informal provid-
cerns about countries’ limited resources ers outside the public networks, payments
1 Chapter 4
Where prices prices cannot adjust to financial realities, Multipurpose water projects that cross-
stresses emerge as water shortages, water subsidize irrigation and household water
cannot adjust
waste, inefficient water use, inadequate use from hydropower revenues are another
to financial water infrastructure investments and form of tariff-based financing. The hy-
realities, stresses poor water-related services. Water quality dropower components of dams and water
may be inconsistent, and maintenance storage schemes tend to perform better
emerge as water and rehabilitation of distribution systems financially than the associated irrigation
shortages, water may be neglected. Capital investment projects, which often fail to recover both
may also be inadequate, resulting in the operating and capital costs. Thus, the
waste, inefficient failure to develop adequate water supply power element cross-subsidizes irrigation
water use, and sanitation services. However, even and other water users – and often naviga-
in situations where pricing is actively tion, flood control and other public goods
inadequate water used to cover water supply costs, the long as well. In the United States this kind of
infrastructure history of water as a public good means cross-subsidy was a planned part of the
that water prices have been heavily sub- management of the Grand Coulee Dam in
investments sidized by tax-f unded distributions from the Columbia River Basin and of the major
and poor water- individuals and corporations that may river basin development works of the Ten-
not be direct beneficiaries of the services nessee Valley Authority.30
related services
provided.
Role of the private sector. Several reports
In agriculture some farmers rely on public conclude that the private sector provides
irrigation systems while others have pri- very few water supply and sanitation serv-
vate arrangements (for example, ground- ices in developing countries. The United
water and water harvesting systems). In Nations Development Programme’s Human
privately owned systems energy subsidies Development Report 2006, for example,
(for pumping water) are a key factor af- estimates that although the number of
fecting efficiency. Farmers using public people served by the private water sec-
irrigation systems often pay little or noth- tor grew from roughly 50 million in 1990
ing towards recurrent costs and usually to 300 million in 2002, less than 3% of
nothing towards the capital costs of the people in developing countries are cov-
irrigation infrastructure. This affects how ered by private or partially private com-
farmers use water, as one survey in India panies.31 These figures almost certainly
discovered: understate the real scale of private sector
service provision, since they consider only
Farmers have no incentive to use larger-scale private operations and invest-
water efficiently as charges are ments. Private operators also include small
too low and are based on the area and medium-size companies with fixed or
irrigated. Inefficient water use mobile distribution systems as well as the
has led to severe environmental much larger spread of informal operators
problems – rising groundwater that cover huge swathes of low-income
levels, water-logging and soil salin- urban areas.
ity. Administration is ineffective.
Assessment and collection of fees The substantial role of small and medium-
is often carried out by different size entrepreneurs and operators is just
departments, or a department not beginning to be studied (figure 4.6). A
related to irrigation. Farmers need World Bank report found 10,000 small
to be involved in setting rates, service providers in a limited sample of 49
because at present they simply op- countries,32 while an International Insti-
pose any suggestion of an increase tute for Environment and Development
in price. 28 study estimates that the global number
may exceed 1 million.33 In addition, the
Though widely accepted, the ‘polluter provision of infrastructure by property de-
pays’ principle has not had a major impact velopers has not been examined but could
on polluters’ behaviour or on raising funds be substantial.
that could be allocated for environmental
purposes, with the exception of developed The landscape for private water opera-
countries and a much smaller number tors today is very different from that of
of developing countries. Although not a a decade ago. Several major multination-
financing source, the alternative method als have withdrawn from international
of water pollution quotas has similarly projects, leaving just two or three to
been limited to the industrial, urbanized pursue system concessions, build-operate-
economies, with almost negligible success- transfer and management contracts,
ful examples from developing countries especially in the Middle East, China and
(see chapter 8).29 South-East and East Asia. The gap is being
External private investment in the water Figure 4.7 External private investment in the water
sector is significant, of the same order as sector, though variable, has been significant
that of official development assistance since the early 1990s
(figures 4.7 and 4.8). The domestic private
sector is becoming a water funding source US$ billions
in some middle-income countries, where 12
powerful local conglomerates are moving
into water services, drawing on their own 10
equity and that of other local commercial
8
sources. Further down the financial scale
small informal operators dominate large 6
portions of the water market in urban and
peri-urban communities. Although some 4
of these operators invest in networks, most
2
use mobile facilities, financed by their
own equity or short-term credit. At the 0
street level bottled water sellers have pro- 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007
liferated. A necessity in many areas across
Note: Refers to management and lease contracts, concessions (or management and opera-
developing countries, where failing public
tion contracts with major private capital commitments), greenfield projects and divesti-
supply systems are often contaminated by
tures for potable water generation and distribution and sewerage collection and treatment.
wastewater or storm water, the use of bot- Source: World Bank Private Participation in Infrastructure Database (http://ppi.worldbank.
tled water is a lifestyle choice in developed org).
countries.
Government financing from public revenues. Figure 4.8 Official development assistance to the water
The public sector accounts for more than supply and sanitation sector is rising again
70% of investment in the water sector.34 after a decline during the 1990s
There are marked differences in how – and
how much – governments finance and Official development assistance to the water sector ($ billions)
subsidize the water sector. In many poor
5
countries, where fiscal constraints are
severe, water supply is only one of many Development Assistance Committee countries, annual
4
priority sectors that governments are
under domestic pressure or international
3
commitment to finance. Development Assistance Committee
countries, moving average
2
Funding for infrastructure has varied with
Multilateral agencies, moving average
economic development and urbanization. 1
At earlier stages the central government
generally supports infrastructure provi- 0
Multilateral agencies, annual
sion through subsidies and administrative 1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
assistance (box 4.5). As countries develop,
the portion of central government support Source: Based on OECD-DAC 2008.
declines, and the cost of environmental
1 Chapter 4
G-8 leaders in services is transferred to users, polluters during the 1970s and 1980s but decreased
and local governments. during the 1990s, with less aid for large
June 2002 made
infrastructure, before rising again in 2000
a commitment to Some countries that have benefited from (see figure 4.8).
give priority to debt relief or from the oil and commodi-
ties boom have transformed their public Support from multilateral agencies re-
the water sector finances, but this has not necessarily mained relatively stagnant from the 1970s
translated into improved water service – when it was about the same as bilateral
provision. Several emerging market assistance – until about 2000, when both
economies, with large concentrations sources of financial aid began to increase.
of poor, unserved populations, are in But it still remained substantially less than
stronger budgetary positions than they official development assistance from bilat-
were a decade ago, though this is being eral sources.
placed at risk by the recent fluctuations
in the cost of oil, power and food and the Leaders at the meeting of the G-8 in
global financial crisis, with subsidies rising Evian, France, in June 2002 made a com-
accordingly. Improving budgetary circum- mitment to give priority to the water
stances provide opportunities for increas- sector. Official development assistance
ing investments in the development of the increased substantially in the years im-
water sector. mediately thereafter. While the amount
going to the water supply and sanitation
Financing through external aid. Official sector increased, aid to the other water
development assistance from donor coun- sectors remained relatively unchanged
tries and multilateral donors to the water (table 4.4). However, overall lending for
supply and sanitation sector increased water remained at less than 6% of total
official development assistance, and the
Box 4.5 Subsidizing water supply and sanitation in share of total lending declined.
the Republic of Korea
External assistance from philanthropic
sources, such as foundations and reli-
In the Republic of Korea the central For municipal water supply, revenue
government provides direct subsi- from tariffs now covers an increasing
gious groups, highlights an awareness of
dies for water supply and sanitation share of production costs, rising from the importance of water and sanitation.
infrastructure to local governments 69% in 1997 to 83% in 2005. For re- Although these funds are generally much
or service providers. The amount gional water supply systems supplied lower than those from multilateral and
of the subsidy depends on the size by the national water company, Korea bilateral sources, a few of the largest foun-
of the city and the type of facility. Water Resources Corporation (K- dations (for example, the Bill and Melinda
Subsidies differ for construction and water), full cost recovery was achieved Gates Foundation) can rival some bilateral
operation. Typically, subsidies are by 2004. Tariffs still fall short of actual sources.
50%-80% for water source develop- costs for sewage treatment. During
ment in rural areas and 50% for local 1997-2004 the central government
Recent financing initiatives – a new
waterworks improvements. Waste- paid 53% of the total investment costs
water treatment is eligible for a 50% for sewage treatment, using proceeds financing agenda
grant, and sludge treatment for loans from the national liquor tax. Over the last five years there have been
of 30%-70%. several key initiatives on shaping the agen-
Source: OECD forthcoming. da of international water financing, nota-
bly the World Panel on Financing Water
Infrastructure (chaired by Michel Camdes-
Table 4.4 Commitments of official development assistance sus), the Task Force on Financing Water
from bilateral and multilateral agencies, 2004-06 for All (chaired by Angel Gurria) and the
UN Secretary-General’s Advisory Board on
(US$ millions) Water and Sanitation (UNSGAB). Financ-
ing Water for All, the report of the World
Sector 2004 2005 2006 Panel on Financing Water Infrastructure,
Water transport 416 503 304
addresses the financial architecture of
the global water sector, including many
Hydropower plants 755 480 652 proposals to improve its governance.35 The
Agricultural water resources 608 830 790 Gurria task force report focuses on fac-
Water supply and sanitation 3,127 4,405 3,879 tors influencing the demand for finance
and the scope for developing the financial
Total water sector 4,951 6,218 5,625
capacity of subnational entities.36 The
Total all sectors 79,431 107,078 104,369 UNSGAB stresses the importance of capac-
Water sector as share of all sectors (%) 6.2 5.8 5.4 ity building, especially in local authorities,
and inspired creation of the Global Water
Source: OECD, DCD/DAC 2007. Operators Partnership Alliance for peer
group support.37
1 Chapter 4
Notes 36. van Hofwegan and Task Force on Dardenne, B. 2006. The Role of the Private
1. United Nations 1945. Financing Water for All 2006. Sector in Peri-urban or Rural Water Services
37. UNSGAB 2006. in Emerging Countries. ENV/EPOC/GF/
2. Transboundary Freshwater Dispute SD(2006)2. Organisation for Economic
Database (www.transboundarywaters. 38. Purchase of a fixed-interest security, Co-operation and Development, Environ-
orst.edu). such as a bond, or equity shares giving ment Directorate, Paris.
3. www.unece.org/env/water/. less than 10% ownership of a company.
EAP Task Force for the Implementation of
4. This section draws on Boelens 2008. 39. For a full description of these and other the Environmental Action Program for
policies and tools, see Winpenny 2003
5. Government of Australia 2008. Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central
and van Hofwegen and Task Force on Asia. 2007. Financing Water Supply
6. Hendry 2008. Financing Water for All 2006. and Sanitation in EECCA Countries and
7. See von Benda-Beckmann, von Benda- 40. Winpenny 2005. Progress in Achieving the Water-Related
Beckmann, and Spiertz 1998. 41. Dardenne 2006; McIntosh 2003. Millennium Development Goals. Paris:
8. Cosgrove and Rijsberman 2000, p. 64. Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development.
9. Garces-Restrepo, Vermillion, and Muñoz
2007. References European Parliament and Council. 2000.
ADB (Asian Development Bank). 2004. Directive 2000/60/EC of the European
10. Garces-Restrepo, Vermillion, and Muñoz
Evaluation Highlights of 2003. Manila, Parliament and of the Council of 23
2007.
Philippines: Asian Development Bank. October 2000: Establishing a Frame-
11. Transparency International 2008. work for Community Action in the Field
ASCE (American Society of Civil Engi-
12. Stålgren 2006. neers). 2008. 2005 Report Card on of Water Policy. Official Journal of the
13. Transparency International 2008. European Communities 22 (12). http://
America’s Infrastructure. 2008 Update.
eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.
14. Transparency International 2008. American Society of Civil Engineers.
do?uri=OJ:L:2000:327:0001:0072:EN:
www.asce.org/reportcard/2005/index.
15. ASCE 2008. PDF.
cfm.
16. WBCSD 2005. Garces-Restrepo, C., D. Vermillion, and
Boelens, R. 2008. The Rules of the Game
17. United Nations 2008, p. vii. G. Muñoz. 2007 Irrigation Management
and the Game of the Rules: Normaliza-
Transfer: Worldwide Efforts and Results.
18. Global Water Intelligence 2004. tion and Resistance in Andean Water
FAO Water Reports No. 32. Rome: Food
Control. PhD diss., Wageningen Univer-
19. EAP Task Force 2007. and Agriculture Organization of the
sity, The Netherlands.
20. Winpenny 2008. United Nations.
Bosworth, B., G. Cornish, C. Perry, and F.
21. Rees, Winpenny, and Hall 2008. Global Water Intelligence. 2004. Tariffs:
van Steenbergen. 2002. Water Charg-
Half Way There. Oxford, UK: Global
22. World Commission of Dams 2000. ing in Irrigated Agriculture: Lessons
Water Intelligence.
23. Hutton and Haller 2004. from the Literature. Report OD 145, HR
Wallingford, Ltd., Wallingford, UK. www. Government of Australia. 2008. Water Act
24. UN-Water 2008. 2007. Act 137. C2007A00137. www.
dfid-kar-water.net/w5outputs/electronic_
25. UN-Water 2008. outputs/od145.pdf. comlaw.gov.au/ComLaw/Legislation/
26. Olivier 2007. Act1.nsf/0/80C5168EF63926C2CA2574
CEC (Commission of the European Com-
1200026703/$file/1372007.pdf.
27. UNDP 2006. munities). 2007. Towards Sustainable
Water Management in the European Hendry, S. 2008. Analytical Framework for
28. Bosworth et al. 2002.
Union – First Stage in the Implementa- National Water Law Reform/Analytical
29. Kraemer et al. 2003. tion of the Water Framework Directive Framework for Reform of Water Services
30. World Commission on Dams 2000. 2000/60/EC. Communication from the Law. PhD diss., University of Dundee,
Commission to the European Parlia- United Kingdom.
31. UNDP 2006.
ment and the Council [SEC(2007) 362] Hutton, Guy, and Laurence Haller. 2004.
32. Kariuki and Schwartz 2005. [SEC(2007) 363], Brussels. Evaluation of the Costs and Benefits of
33. McGranahan and Owen 2006. Cosgrove, W., and F. Rijsberman. 2000. Water and Sanitation Improvements at
34. UNDP 2006. World Water Vision: Making Water Every- the Global Level. Geneva: World Health
body’s Business. London: Earthscan. Organization.
35. Winpenny 2003.
1
Chapter 5
Climate change
and possible
futures
Authors: Richard Connor, Gilberto Gallopín, Molly Hellmuth and Walter Rast
Contributors: Joeseph Alcamo, BertJan Heij and World Water
Assessment Programme Expert Group on Scenarios
Coordinator: Tim Kasten (UNEP)
Facilitator: Richard Connor
Key messages
There is evidence that the global climate is changing. The main
impacts of climate change on humans and the environment
occur through water.
Chapters 2-4 have described how external drivers, influencing how much water we
drivers exert pressure on water resources. need. Climate change can directly affect
These drivers of change are strongly inter- the hydrologic cycle and, through it, the
connected, creating complex challenges quantity and quality of water resources
and opportunities for water managers (see chapter 11). It can lower minimum
and decision-makers. Apart from extreme flows in rivers, affecting water availability
events (such as droughts and floods), and quality for its flora and fauna and for
climate change is seldom the main stressor drinking water intake, energy produc-
on sustainable development, although the tion (hydropower), thermal plant cooling
direct and indirect impacts of increasing and navigation. Anthropogenic climate
climate variability can impede and even change can also directly affect demand for
reverse development gains (see figure 5.1 water, when demand for crops increases in
for a depiction of climate change proc- certain seasons, for instance (see chapter 7
esses, characteristics and major threats). for the implications of climate change on
Climate change may not fundamentally uncertainty in agriculture). The other driv-
alter most of the world’s water challenges, ers, by contrast, exert pressure on various
but as an additional stressor it makes water use sectors that, in turn, affect water
achieving solutions more pressing. resources.
All of the potential impacts of climate- Managing water has always been about
related disasters, including economic managing naturally occurring variability.
losses, health problems and environmental Climate change threatens to make this
disruptions, will also affect – and be af- variability greater, shifting and intensify-
fected by – water. ing the extremes, and introduces greater
uncertainty in the quantity and quality
Climate change differs from the other of supply over the long term (see part 3).
drivers. It is the only supply-side driver, More subtly, climate change may alter the
ultimately determining how much water timing, magnitude and duration of precip-
we have; the other drivers are demand-side itation events, which could pose problems
Water
temperature
Changes in
precipitation
Salinity
Ice cap
melting
Ocean
circulation
upheaval
Clouds
Diseases Disasters
spread
Transport Biodiversity
losses
Fossil fuel
burning
Agriculture
Casualties
Heating Economic
losses
Famines
Industry
Major threats
for the sustainability of water supplies and interlinking pressures into account in
the continuity of treatment. identifying scenarios, or ‘possible futures’.
The decisions and policies put in place The influence of climate change
today for mitigation (such as reducing on the other drivers of change
greenhouse gas emissions, applying clean
technologies and protecting forests) and The relationships between climate change
adaptation (such as expansion of rain- and the other drivers are complex and
water storage and water conservation prac- interwoven. This section summarizes the
tices) can have profound consequences influence of climate change on the other
for water supply and demand both today five major drivers: demographic processes,
and over the long term.1 Climate change economic growth, social change, techno-
also adds to the uncertainty surrounding logical innovation and policies, laws and
all the other drivers. Thus, examining finance.
climate change forces considerations of the
interconnectedness of all the drivers. This Demographic processes
chapter focuses on the pressures that cli- The impacts of anthropogenic climate
mate change can exert on the other drivers change, including increased water scar-
and outlines a process for taking these city and flooding and accelerated glacial
1 Chapter 5C
Weather-related melting and sea level rise, have the that substantial population displacements
potential to accelerate human migration. will take place within the next 30-50
disasters such
Drought, desertification and other forms years, particularly in coastal zones. All of
as floods and of water scarcity are already estimated to these climate change refugees will require
droughts are affect as many as one-third of the world’s shelter, water and sanitation services.
people and are predicted to worsen.
undermining Economic growth
economic The recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change and its accompanying risks
Climate Change (IPCC) report notes that have direct and indirect effects on develop-
development millions of people in densely populated ment and economic growth. Sea level rise,
in many of the low-lying coastal areas risk increasing climate variability and weather extremes
exposure to flooding by storm surges such as heat waves, floods and droughts
world’s least over the 21st century.2 The IPCC expects are severe, direct threats to human life and
developed sea level rise to exacerbate floods, storm property (see chapter 12). Tackling them
surges, erosion and other coastal hazards. requires mobilizing resources that may
countries, causing Global warming can expand the endemic have to be reallocated from other invest-
human suffering zones of water-related infectious diseases ments. Their damage can substantially
like dengue, malaria and schistosomiasis, harm a country’s gross domestic product
and disrupting
making it increasingly difficult for people (GDP). Economic performance is especially
economic activities to remain in affected areas. Recurring affected in developing countries because of
floods or storm surges, if not managed their high and direct dependence on natu-
effectively, could drive large numbers of ral resources, notably rain-fed agriculture
people permanently from their homes. (see chapter 7), and their inadequate access
Current IPCC projections of rising tem- to economic and technological resources.
peratures and sea levels and increased
intensity of droughts and storms suggest Adverse climate conditions such as in-
creased floods and droughts can also result
Figure 5.2 GDP growth tracks rainfall variability in in the underperformance of investments.
Ethiopia (1983-2000) and Tanzania (1989-99) Climate uncertainty and unpredictability
can be powerful barriers to investments,
Ethiopia and ultimately to economic growth, even
in years when climate conditions are
Rainfall variability (percent deviation from the mean) GDP growth (percent) favourable. The changing climate also
60 8 complicates infrastructure design and
long-term investment planning. And inter-
40 nal and cross-border migration, driven by
6
20 growing pressure on natural resources, can
create tension among population groups
0 4 and between countries.3
–20
There is clear evidence of a relationship
2
–40 between climate variability and economic
performance in countries in which agricul-
–60 0 ture is a large share of GDP, as in Ethiopia
1983 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 and Tanzania (figure 5.2). Evidence also
suggests a strong relationship between
economic development and vulnerability
Tanzania
to disaster. Across developing countries
Rainfall variability (percent deviation from the mean) GDP growth (percent) losses associated with disasters are so large
20 30
as to undermine development and poverty
reduction goals. And yet climate risks are
20 seldom adequately considered in infra-
10 structure designs, agriculture investments
10 and water management plans.
0 0
Weather-related disasters such as floods
–10 and droughts are undermining economic
–10 development in many of the world’s least
–20
developed countries, causing human
–20 –30
suffering (see table 12.1 in chapter 12)
1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 and disrupting economic activities (table
5.1). And substantial financial and other
Source: Based on van Aalst, Hellmuth, and Ponzi 2007. development resources are being diverted
each year to post-disaster relief, emergency
Climate change and greater climate vari- The most likely societal effects of climate
ability will increasingly affect the poorest change will come from changes in lifestyle
and most marginalized groups, making and consumption patterns. Reflecting
them even more vulnerable to the impacts human needs and wants, changes in life-
of climate change. Climate uncertainty – style and consumption patterns are among
the inability to anticipate climate extremes the most important drivers of change (see
– hurts investment and innovation and chapter 2). In emerging market economies
limits the success of other development rising standards of living are boosting
interventions. In inhabited hazard-prone demand for high-level goods and services,
areas disasters and losses are inevitable many with a large ecological and water
1 Chapter 5C
Some interventions footprint. In the world’s richest countries, the global community unites to combat
meanwhile, growing awareness of climate climate change, although in many devel-
in the water
change is slowly inducing people to alter oped countries most of the ‘best’ sites for
system might be their lifestyles and live in a more sustain- hydropower installations have already
counterproductive able manner. Large cars are being replaced been developed (see map 7.6 in chapter
by smaller, more energy-efficient vehicles 7). Some of the climate-related benefits of
when evaluated in in some places, and governments are of- hydropower are illustrated in box 5.2.
terms of mitigation fering subsidies for purchasing energy‑ef-
ficient appliances. But these changes alone However, there is evidence that hydro-
of climate change are unlikely to substantially counteract the electricity generation can also generate
pressure from rising living standards in considerable amounts of greenhouse gases,
emerging market economies. which are released from sediment and
decaying organic matter at the bottom
Technological innovation waters of reservoirs.7 Artificially flooded
Climate change will be a major driver of reservoirs of sufficient depth can experi-
technological innovation and transfer.6 ence anaerobic conditions as organic
Massive amounts of new investments will matter decomposes and, when the bottom
be required over the next 30 years to meet waters are disturbed, emits large quanti-
the growing energy needs of develop- ties of methane and other greenhouse
ing countries. Investments in adaptation gases. The problem arises most frequently
will be necessary to safeguard vulnerable in warmer climates, where reservoirs are
groups and infrastructure. prone to stratification and where there is
year-round algal growth.
The relationship between climate change
mitigation measures and water can be re- Biofuels, an alternative to fossil fuels in
ciprocal. Mitigation measures can adverse- transport, are another means of reduc-
ly influence the quantity and condition ing greenhouse gas emissions. Higher oil
of water resources and their management, prices in recent years have made bioenergy
while some water management policies more competitive. World Energy Outlook
and measures can increase greenhouse gas 2006 projected an average rate of growth
emissions and affect other sectoral mitiga- of bioenergy production of 7% a year.8 By
tion measures. Thus, interventions in the 2030 biofuels are expected to meet 4% of
water system might be counterproductive road-transport fuel demand worldwide,
when evaluated in terms of mitigation of up from 1% today. But careful attention
climate change. also must be given to minimizing nega-
tive externalities associated with produc-
For example, many developed countries ing bioenergy, such as upward pressure
are shifting energy production from ther- on food prices and the impact on food
mal energy plants that burn fossil fuels security.9
and emit large quantities of greenhouse
gases to ‘clean’ energy sources. Thus, Developing countries will need to rely
significant increases in the development on technology development and transfer
of hydroelectric installations, a source of in mitigating and adapting to climate
clean electricity, could be anticipated as change. That will require removing obsta-
cles to technology transfer and providing
Box 5.2 Micro-hydro plants in Nepal are expected to incentives for accelerating and scaling
provide electricity access to 142,000 households up transfers, along with cooperating on
and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions research and development (see chapter 3).
According to the United Nations Frame-
work Convention on Climate Change
Nepal has vast hydro resources. micro-hydro plants are being installed
(UNFCCC), most technologies for adapt-
And while only about 27% of rural for local communities by prequali-
households are connected to a power fied private companies that receive
ing to climate change are already available
grid (the urban share is 90%), off-grid subsidies and technical assistance. in developing countries, and examples of
power generated by micro-hydro Installation of micro-hydro plants will successful implementation and operation
plants provides many rural households be phased in until 2011. The micro- abound, from coastal revetment to vac-
with electricity for lighting, milling hydro power plants, which qualify for cination programmes.10
and other needs. The generating emission reduction credits under the
capacity of these plants varies from 5 Clean Development Mechanism, will Policies, laws and finance
to 500 kilowatts. reduce greenhouse gas emissions by Climate change can stress political govern-
replacing diesel fuel used for lighting ance structures by increasing management
Through a project supported by the and milling.
and budget requirements for public serv-
World Bank, the United Nations Devel-
opment Programme and the gov- Source: http://go.worldbank.org/
ices to mitigate climate change or to cope
ernments of Denmark and Norway, 9G19LTLEH0. with its impacts, including public health
care (box 5.3), disaster risk reduction and
1 Chapter 5C
the water Although water is an important compo- Scenarios, which are sets of equally plau-
nent in most energy-generating processes, sible futures, differ from forecasts, which
drivers interact
its role in climate change mitigation policy are individual interpretations of a most
and can have is minor. Where water and climate change probable future based on extrapolation of
even more of an are most strongly linked is in adaptation the best available information. Scenarios
policy, which functions in highly dynamic are not forecasts. Because the real world
impact on future hydrologic, social, economic and demo- is so complex, forecasts are often wrong –
water resources graphic contexts. For water adaptation especially those involving a time horizon
measures to be effective, however, there of 20 years or more. Scenarios provide a
collectively must be complementary climate change means of looking beyond the water sector
than they can mitigation measures outside the water in search for an adequate causal under-
sector. standing of different water issues.
individually
Because climate variability and change af- Scenarios can contribute to several goals in
fect all the major water drivers, adaptation the pursuit of sustainable water resources:
measures are needed in all sectors. Over
the long term adaptation means applying • The need for a long-term view. A long-
a long-term, climate-focused approach term view of water for sustainable
to existing policies and programmes. But development requires taking into
because the poor are the most vulnerable account the slow unfolding of some
and the least able to cope with change, it hydrologic, environmental and social
is particularly important to strengthen the processes and allowing time for water-
link between adaptation to climate change works investments and water mitiga-
and economic development – a difficult tion schemes to yield results.
challenge. Over the shorter term the best
approach might be to manage climate • The need to make decisions in a context
variability by prioritizing risk-reduction of high uncertainty. Decision-makers in
strategies and reinforcing the capacity of the water sector must often address
hydrometeorological services to provide water management issues against a
information for development needs. background of rapidly changing envi-
ronmental conditions and increasing
Each country will face its own challenges uncertainty. The uncertainty results
and must determine how to respond in from both a limited understanding of
the short, medium and long run. With human and ecological processes and
multiple challenges but limited financial the intrinsic indeterminism of com-
and natural resources and capacities, coun- plex dynamic systems. Further, water
tries will need to make hard choices about resources futures depend on future
water use and allocation. human choices, which are unknown.
There tends to be a push and pull effect • The need to include non-quantifiable
between identifying adaptation needs factors. The world’s water system
based on a climate change rationale and includes and is influenced by many
anchoring response options in baseline factors that are difficult to quantify
development activities. This separation (such as cultural and political vari-
between climate adaptation and develop- ables and processes), as well as factors
ment is artificial. Governments need to that can be quantified and modelled
design climate-smart development policies mathematically (such as hydrologic
and programmes, in part by strengthening and climatological dynamics and eco-
sectoral capacities. nomic factors). Qualitative scenario
analyses can provide insight into
Identifying possible futures: the these factors that simulation models
need for scenarios cannot.
Each of the water drivers is dynamic and • The need for integration and breadth.
continues to evolve, as do the direct and Water resources must be viewed holis-
indirect pressures they exert on water tically, considering both their natural
resources. Thus, it is difficult to draw a state and the need to balance compet-
comprehensive picture of the future by ing demands – domestic, agricultural,
examining each driver independently. The industrial and environmental – to
drivers interact and can have even more of ensure sustainability. Decisions on
an impact on future water resources collec- land use can affect the availability and
tively than they can individually. Future condition of water resources, while
scenarios that consider these interactions decisions about water resources can
offer a more holistic picture. also affect the environment and land
1 Chapter 5C
the beginning of part 2. The challenge is by the pressures imposed by rising living
to get decision-makers inside and outside standards), which involve demographic,
the water sector to adopt appropriate meas- social and economic factors but are also
ures to reduce the negative pressures on influenced by technology and govern-
water and increase the positive pressures. ance. Generating a picture of this com-
plex future would be greatly assisted
Making this challenge more difficult are by the development of a set of future
the links between drivers (as illustrated scenarios.
Notes IEA (International Energy Agency). 2006. Development. Nairobi: United Nations
1. IPCC 2008. World Energy Outlook 2006. Paris: Organi- Environment Programme.
sation for Economic Co-operation and UNFCCC (United Nations Framework
2. Nicholls et al. 2007.
Development, and International Energy Convention on Climate Change). 2006.
3. van Aalst, Hellmuth, and Ponzi 2007. Agency. Application of Environmentally Sound
4. OECD 2005. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- Technologies. Technical Paper FCCC/
5. Stern 2006. mate Change). 2008. Technical Paper TP/2006/2, United Nations Frame-
on Climate Change and Water. IPCC- work Convention on Climate Change,
6. IPCC 2008.
XXVIII/Doc.13, Intergovernmental Panel New York. http://unfccc.int/resource/
7. Giles 2006. on Climate Change, Geneva. www.ipcc. docs/2006/tp/tp02.pdf.
8. IEA 2006 ch/meetings/session28/doc13.pdf. ———. 2007a. Climate Change: Impacts, Vul-
9. FAO 2008. Nicholls, R. J., P. P. Wong, V. R. Burkett, J. nerabilities and Adaptation in Developing
10. UNFCCC 2006. O. Codignotto, J. E. Hay, R. F. McLean, Countries. Bonn, Germany: United Na-
S. Ragoonaden, and C. D. Woodroffe. tions Framework Convention on Climate
11. van Aalst, Hellmuth, and Ponzi 2007. 2007. Coastal Systems and Low-lying Change.
12. Cosgrove and Rijsberman 2000. Areas. In Climate Change 2007: Impacts, ———. 2007b. Investment and Financial
13. WBCSD 2006. Adaptation, and Vulnerability, eds. M. Flows to Address Climate Change. Back-
L. Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, ground paper, United Nations Frame-
14. UNEP 2007.
P. J. van der Linden, and C. E. Hanson. work Convention on Climate Change,
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University New York.
References Press.
van Aalst, M., M. Hellmuth, and D.
Campbell-Lendrum, D., C. Corvalán, and OECD (Organisation for Economic Co- Ponzi. 2007. Come Rain or Shine: Inte-
M. Neira. 2007. Global Climate Change: operation and Development). 2005. grating Climate Risk Management into
Implications for International Public Bridge over Troubled Waters: Linking African Development Bank Operations.
Health Policy. Bulletin of the World Health Climate Change and Development. Paris: African Development Bank Working
Organization 85: 235-37. Organisation for Economic Co-operation Paper 89, African Development Bank,
and Development. Tunis.
Cosgrove, W., and F. Rijsberman. 2000.
World Water Vision: Making Water Every- Oxfam. 2007. Adapting to Climate Change WBCSD (World Business Council for
body’s Business. London: Earthscan. – What’s Needed in Poor Countries, and Sustainable Development). 2006.
Who Should Pay. Oxfam Briefing Paper Business in the World of Water: WBCSD
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization 104, Oxfam International, Oxford, UK. Scenarios to 2025. Washington, DC:
of the United Nations). 2008. The State
of Food and Agriculture 2008: Biofuels: Stern, N. 2006. The Stern Review: The World Business Council for Sustainable
Prospects, Risks, and Opportunities. Rome: Economics of Climate Change. London: Development.
Food and Agriculture Organization. Cabinet Office, HM Treasury. World Bank. 2004. Towards a Water-Secure
Giles, J. 2006. Methane Quashes Green UNDP (United Nations Development Kenya. Water Resources Sector Memo-
Credentials of Hydropower. Nature 444 Programme). 2007. Human Develop- randum, Report 28398-KE. World Bank,
(7119): 524-25. ment Report 2007/2008: Fighting Climate Washington, DC.
Change. Human Solidarity in a Divided ———. 2006. Clean Energy and De-
Haines, A., R. S. Kovats, D. Campbell- World. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. velopment: Towards an Investment
Lendrum, and C. Corvalan. 2006.
Climate Change and Human Health: UNEP (United Nations Environment Framework. Paper DC2006-0002.
Impacts, Vulnerability and Public Health. Programme). 2007. Global Environ- Development Committee, World Bank,
Public Health 120 (7): 585-96. ment Outlook 4 (GEO4): Environment for Washington, DC.
PART
Climate change and possible futures
Chapter
History shows a strong link between on local resources. The effects of water
economic development and water re- depleting and polluting activities on
sources development. Abundant exam- human and ecosystem health remain
ples can be drawn of how water has largely unreported or difficult to meas-
contributed to economic development ure, and the need grows stronger for
and how development has demanded effective protection of ecosystems and
increased harnessing of water. Such the goods and services they produce –
benefits came at a cost and in some on which life and livelihoods depend.
places led to increasing competition As competition among demands on
and conflicts between users and pres- water increases, society will need to
sure on the environment. respond with improved water manage-
ment, more effective policies and trans-
While demand from all sectors is on parent and efficient water allocation
the rise, in most places it is agriculture mechanisms. The drivers described in
that accounts for the bulk of water use. part 1 create pressures on society that
Steadily rising demand for agricultural lead to changes in water use (see table).
products to satisfy the diverse needs
of a fast growing population (for food, The 2003 and 2006 editions of The
fibre and now fuel) has been the main United Nations World Water Develop-
driver behind agricultural water use – ment Reports examined many aspects
and such demand is expected to contin- of water use. Some, such as the use
ue to grow. In parallel, changing life- of groundwater, are covered more
styles and consumption patterns and extensively in this edition. Similarly,
rapidly growing cities and industries the availability of new information is
are claiming increasing amounts of reflected in the treatment here of water
water and are putting heavy pressure supply and sanitation.
PART
2
Chapter 6
Water’s many benefits
Authors: Gunilla Björklund, Andy Bullock, Molly Hellmuth,
Walter Rast, Domitille Vallée and James Winpenny
Contributors: Moses Abukari, Cecile Brugère, Rudolf Cleveringa,
Richard Connor, Jennifer Hauc, Walter Huppert, Jean Margat,
Audrey Nepveu, Mary Renwick, Guido Santini, Eva Schiffer and World
Water Assessment Programme Expert Group on Storage
Coordinator: Jean-Marc Faurès (FAO)
Facilitator: Domitille Vallée
Key messages
People have traditionally settled near economies water is often the most im-
water sources. An adequate and depend- portant factor for agricultural production
able source of water is needed to sustain and other livelihood activities.3 In urban-
humanity and to support future growth based, labour-intensive manufacturing
and development. Investment in water economies water is needed for nearly all
management has been repaid through in- productive activities.4 Secure access to
creased livelihood security and reductions water with reliable storage and irrigation
in health risks, vulnerability and ultimate- has boosted economic growth in many of
ly poverty.1 Poverty reduction is closely the developed economies of the Americas
linked to enhanced access to water.2 and Europe, and through the green revolu-
tion in Asia has enabled the transforma-
Where economic growth has been strong tion of agriculture-based economies to in-
and prosperity has been fairly equitably dustrial and emerging market economies.5
distributed, poor individuals and house-
holds have been able to reach the targets Past efforts of development and water
of the Millennium Development Goals. use have often ignored the water needs
Conversely, where governments are unable of life on Earth and have placed at risk
or unwilling to deliver the basic services, the resources on which life depends (see
water emerges among the most pressing chapter 8). The links connecting water
issues (box 6.1). resources, the environment and economic
sectors are complex. As a result, our under-
Experience shows that access to water is standing of all the ways that natural proc-
fundamental for economic growth and esses influence human well-being remains
livelihoods. In rural and agriculture-based incomplete, impeding our ability to ensure
For millennia people have tried to control fuels and the need to shift towards cleaner management, and water supply for large
and store irregular water flows by creating energy production. Emerging market econ- urban areas. Their management is com-
reservoirs and storing water to regulate omies with fast-growing industries and plex because storage can frequently com-
seasonal flows, limit floods and overcome cities need to secure more energy. China, promise needs for other uses (for example,
dry spells. India and Thailand and many countries in the need to lower reservoir water levels for
Latin America are looking to invest in water flood control, maintain levels for energy
Today, in parts of many countries demand infrastructure in neighbouring countries (as production and replicate natural flows for
exceeds available runoff. These countries South Africa has done in Lesotho), if neces- protection of species). Integrated water
depend on dams and water harvesting sary to secure their water futures. management at the basin level using real-
systems to control irregular storm runoff. time hydrologic information from weather
The situation is particularly acute in arid Water storage is a particularly important radar and computer models of individual
and semi-arid areas where rainfall periods component of flood management. Its im- reservoirs allows optimum management
are short and floods can be especially portance will likely increase in a changing of storage and release to satisfy domestic,
destructive. Demands are often seasonal, global climate, especially in regions where agricultural, industrial and environmental
relating not only to agriculture, but also to the severity of storms is projected to requirements.
peak demands for tourism and hydro- intensify and where precipitation may be
power production. Increasingly, it will be higher. The potential for increased storms Dams, especially large dams, are contro-
impossible to do without some form of and extreme rainfall events means that versial, as they leave a heavy footprint on
water storage, either surface (reservoirs or dams and other large-scale infrastructure the natural environment and often displace
water-harvesting systems) or underground will need to be built to higher engineering large numbers of people, sometimes dis-
(cisterns and aquifers). Global changes, in standards, to withstand future risks. rupting traditional societies. Nevertheless,
particular the impacts of climate change, many countries continue to plan for such
elevate the need for water storage to a Small- and large-scale storage comple- large infrastructure projects to increase
higher priority. ment one another. Smaller decentral- storage capacities and meet other needs
ized and participatory water harvesting considered vital to improve development
Food production has always been an systems have increased water availability and avoid crises. Such projects should
important driver of water storage. In and, consequently, agricultural produc- strive to balance the desired objectives –
countries where the majority of the people tion, at household and community levels, economic growth and reduced vulnerability
live in rural areas, irrigation is increasingly especially among the poor. A diversity – with the likely associated environmental
indispensable to ensure reliable supplies of of storage types and capacities reduces and social costs. Each storage project must
water during the growing season. vulnerability to catastrophic events. evaluate the trade-offs involved. The World
Commission on Dams has provided a basic
Satisfying demand for energy through hy- Large storage projects may represent framework for such an assessment.
dropower has also led to the construction a more appropriate solution for multi
of dams. This becomes more imperative purpose projects that provide hydropower, Source: WWAP Expert Group on Storage 2008;
with the highly fluctuating cost of fossil irrigation, flood control and drought WCD 2000.
2 Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 The shift of economies from agriculture-based runoff is extremely variable, the potential
to industrialized, 1965-2001 ability to store floodwater has the dual
advantage of saving water for later use
Agriculture’s contribution to growth in three types of economies, 1990-2005 (percent) while protecting human settlements and
80 development infrastructure.
Actual poverty data Agriculture-based
Predicted poverty data countries
60 Poverty data over time Can we afford not to invest in water?
India (1965-94) Evidence of the macroeconomic returns to
40 investment in water is growing. The cost
of a series of major typhoons and resulting
20 flood damage in post-war Japan has been
Brazil (1970-96)
Indonesia (1970-96) estimated at 5%-10% of GNP. Investment
0
Transforming
China in soil conservation and flood control
(1981-2001)
Urbanized countries
countries following legislation in the early 1960s
-20 reduced the impact of flood damage to less
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
than 1% of GNP.6 A rise in investment in
Rural poor/total poor, 2002
domestic water use was accompanied by a
Note: Arrows show paths for Brazil, China, India and Indonesia. sharp drop in reported illnesses and death
Source: Based on World Bank 2007. from infectious water-borne diseases and a
virtual end to related infant deaths.7
infrastructure development has been pro-
moted by specific sectors in the economy There are even more examples of the
that directly benefit from them, while the economic cost of lack of investment in
costs are usually borne by society at large. water. In Kenya the combined impact of
the winter floods of 1997/98 and drought
Agriculture – especially food production – between 1998 and 2008 has been esti-
has historically been a first stage of national mated at $4.8 billion – effectively a 16%
development (figure 6.1). For example, the reduction in GDP (see table 5.1 in chap-
Republic of Korea’s industrial take-off in the ter 5).8 Evidence suggests that floods and
1960s was preceded by decades of rapid ag- drought in Kenya translate into a direct
ricultural growth, with productivity driven annual loss of 22% of GDP over a 2.5 year
by comprehensive land reform that saw period. The Mozambique floods of 2000
smallholdings displace traditional tenant caused a 23% reduction in GDP and a
farming. In Thailand poverty fell from 57% 44% rise in inflation. Inability to tackle
in 1962 to 10% in 2002, with initial de- hydrologic variability in Ethiopia has been
clines led by growth in agricultural produc- estimated to cause a 38% decline in GDP
tion. Viet Nam laid the foundation for rapid and a projected 25% increase in poverty
post-war economic growth through liber- for 2003-15.9 Worldwide, more than 7,000
alization of markets and macroeconomic major disasters have been recorded since
stability, together with increased security 1970, causing at least $2 trillion in damage
of land tenure that permitted transfers of and killing at least 2.5 million people.10
land-use rights. Between 1990 and 2003,
as the economy grew at 7.5% a year and Improving water management would help
agriculture at 4.2%, the $1 a day poverty countries reduce the damage of climate
index dropped from 50.7 to 13.1. Agricul- variability and the extreme events that
tural productivity improvements largely can cripple economies. Year after year, the
drove gains in the early reform period as human costs of delayed investments are
Viet Nam became the world’s second largest mounting.
exporter of rice, coffee and pepper. During
this period of sustained economic growth, GDP, water investments and water use
Asia witnessed a major expansion in irriga- While the links between water develop-
tion infrastructure in water storage, urban ment and GDP are strong, they are also
water supply and wastewater treatment. complex. Asian Water Development Outlook
2007 emphasizes the need for a multidis-
Development in a country or community ciplinary and multisector perspective on
is constrained by the abilities to gain ac- water in the Asia and Pacific region to face
cess to water and – should the resource the challenges of sustaining growth.11 The
become scarce – to make the necessary report highlights the need to address the
economic, social and environmental trade- links between water and other important
offs (see chapter 16). Changes in rainfall development-related sectors, such as en-
and more variable runoff as a result of ergy, food and the environment.
climate change are likely to reduce water
availability and represent a clear challenge Actions that target rural economies will
for development (see chapter 11). Where benefit the largest number of people. As of
Figure 6.3 The ratio of water use to GDP has been declining in many countries
0.1
1
0 0.0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1997 2000 1975 1980 1985 1990 1997 2000
2 Chapter 6
The poorest Benefits or losses may take the form of three on less than $1 a day.16 More than 660
reduced vulnerability to shocks, increased million people without adequate sanitation
populations in the
productive capacity, increased social live on less than $2 a day, and more than
world have the benefits and increased capacity to main- 385 million on less than $1 a day. This evi-
lowest access to tain service levels. Studies in India show dence highlights clearly the financing diffi-
clear evidence of poverty alleviation and culties of improving access through house-
water supply and income gains for all rural groups, even the hold investment. This is important because
sanitation services landless, through increased working days households, not public agencies, often make
as a result of improved access to water.14 the largest investment in basic sanitation,
and are the most with the ratio of household to government
dependent on Distributing the benefits of growth investment typically being 10 to 1.17
A major lesson of Human Development
water resources Report 2006 on poverty and the global With household poverty widespread, the
for sustainable water crisis is that the distribution of burden has shifted to governments. A
economic growth affects the rate at which strong social and economic case has been
livelihoods. the growth is converted into poverty made over the past decade for investments
They are at the reduction.15 Thus, every 1% increase in in water supply and sanitation as essen-
growth has reduced poverty by about 1.5% tial prerequisites for economic growth.
losing end of
in Viet Nam – twice the 0.75% reduction There is also evidence that more equitable
the equity curve, in Mexico, with its larger income gap. The economic growth in Asia has delivered im-
most vulnerable report records that some countries, such as proved water supply and sanitation – with
Bangladesh and Thailand (for sanitation) rising wealth making possible household
to changing and Sri Lanka and Viet Nam (for water), investments in basic services and higher
environmental and have performed far better than expected government expenditure for basic services.
solely on the basis of income, as compared WaterAid in its 2005 response to the Cam-
social conditions with others, such as India and Mexico (for dessus Report of 2003 points to growth as
and most likely sanitation). The lesson is that income mat- an enabler of government finance for the
ters but that policy shapes the conversion provision of basic services: ‘For national
to be adversely of income into human development. governments in developing countries to
affected by the double their allocations to water, their
The poorest populations in the world have national incomes need to rise substan-
vagaries of climate the lowest access to water supply and sani- tially. This requires, amongst other things,
tation services and are the most dependent a healthy balance of trade and a growing
on water resources for sustainable liveli- national economy.’18
hoods. They are at the losing end of the
equity curve, most vulnerable to changing Rising levels of income inequality may
environmental and social conditions and make access to services more difficult for
most likely to be adversely affected by the those who most need it. The UN Depart-
vagaries of climate. As noted in Human ment of Economic and Social Affairs sug-
Development Report 2006, access to water gests a package of universal social policies
in many developing countries mirrors the and targeted economic policies tailored to
distribution of wealth. The Millennium individual country conditions. The pack-
Development Goals and other poverty re- age would be based on a strong ‘social con-
duction efforts such as Poverty Reduction tract’ to provide a ‘global social floor’ that
Strategy Papers have been designed specifi- provides a minimum level of security –
cally to address these types of inequities. including water security – in line with the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.19
One clear message from the past decade of
poverty reduction initiatives is the diver- The different situations and water
sity of approaches to development. Unlike needs of the urban and rural poor
health and education, which are firmly Some 1.4 billion people are classified as
ensconced in the arena of social services, poor:20 44% in South Asia, about 24% each
water management has often tended to fall in sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia, and
between the economic and growth agenda 6.5% in Latin America and the Caribbean.
or the human development and basic serv- The water-related needs of poor people dif-
ices agenda. Neither agenda has held sway fer in urban and rural contexts.
across all countries.
The urban poor often live in informal settle-
Human Development Report 2006 unequivo- ments following rapid urban growth: 77%
cally identifies the crises in drinking water of the population in Latin America is urban;
and sanitation as a crisis for the poor, on 38% in Africa. Those figures are expected to
the evidence that almost two in three rise over the next few decades with pro-
people lacking access to safe drinking water jected urban expansion. People in informal
survive on less than $2 a day and one in settlements live without many of life’s basic
2 Chapter 6
A livelihood approach puts people at the World map of the rural water livelihoods index, 2008
centre of development strategies, connect-
ing their ability to move out of poverty
with their capacities and assets. Water’s
importance as an asset is determined by
the quantity available daily for household,
agriculture and livestock consumption and
by its ability to stimulate economic and
social returns.
Rural water
A 2008 joint pilot project of the Food and livelihood index
Agriculture Organization and the Interna- High
tional Fund for Agricultural Development Medium-high
proposes a rural water livelihoods index Medium-low
Low
and a draft framework for assessing the
No data
performance of water-related interven-
tions for reducing rural poverty. The index
considers four water-related components Note: Lower values reflect relatively worse conditions.
that influence rural livelihoods: access to Source: Sullivan et al. forthcoming.
basic water services, crop and livestock
water security, clean and healthy water index (a composite index that attempts to water investment are to be found where
environment, and secure and equitable to capture the relationship between income and livelihoods are the lowest, in
water entitlement. water and poverty). It is limited to eight sub-Saharan Africa.
subindicators for which data are available
The rural water livelihoods index is estab- at the country level for most of the world. Source: Poverty Environment Partnership 2006;
lished on the model of both the human Though imperfect, a world mapping of Faurès and Santini 2008; Sullivan 2002; Sullivan
development index and the water poverty the index shows that the highest returns et al. 2003; Sullivan et al. forthcoming.
the necessary alignments among water throughout the world depend on subsist-
resources, economic growth and poverty ence activities such as small-scale vegeta-
reduction. Formalizing those alignments ble gardening, fish rearing, livestock water-
within a new round of poverty reduction ing, brick making, basket making, textile
strategies, which are more growth‑orient- weaving, beer brewing and other handi-
ed, will help make the essential connec- crafts that require water. These activities
tions explicit. often also provide a much-needed source
of income. Better water access for domestic
Benefits of multiple-use approaches and agricultural use is likely to result in
A multiple-use approach to meeting the improved outcomes for poor households,
water needs of poor communities can by improving household productivity
bring multiple benefits. Poor households and health and releasing labour into the
Diversification
Improved of livelihoods;
Time food security/ reduced Equity and
Health savings Income nutrition vulnerability empowerment
Highest-level
multiple-use services
Intermediate-level
multiple-use services
Basic-level
multiple-use services
Basic domestic or
basic irrigationa
2 Chapter 6
Access to safe provide water for garden plots to meet Saving children
household needs. The under-five mortality rate is an impor-
water and
tant social indicator of development. It is
adequate Water and health an indicator of the quality of life, includ-
sanitation services ing the income and education of parents,
Access to safe water and adequate sanita- the efficacy of health services and access to
has proved to be tion services has proved to be one of the safe drinking water and sanitation services.
one of the most most efficient ways of improving human It is also easily measured and so is consid-
health. The World Health Organization ered a good indicator of progress towards
efficient ways has estimated the economic costs that can the Millennium Development Goals. In
of improving be avoided through adequate sanitation 2000 diarrhoea accounted for 17% of the
and the economy-wide returns to vari- 10.6 million deaths in children younger
human health ous levels of investment in water supply than five, and malaria for 8%.29 Undernu-
and sanitation services (table 6.2). Every trition is an underlying cause of 53% of all
$1 invested in improved water supply and deaths in children younger than five.
sanitation yields gains of $4-$12, depend-
ing on the type of intervention. Global under-five mortality has fallen
from 93 per 1,000 live births in 1990 to 72
Almost one-tenth of the global disease per 1,000 in 2005 – a decline of 22.5% –
burden could be prevented by improv- but the pace of progress has been uneven
ing water supply, sanitation, hygiene and across regions and countries. The decline
management of water resources. Such has been slowest in sub-Saharan Africa.
improvements reduce child mortality and
improve health and nutritional status in a Benefits of improved access to water and
sustainable way. They yield multiple social sanitation for health
and economic benefits, enhancing well- Improvements in drinking water, sanita-
being and, indirectly, people’s access to tion, hygiene and water resources manage-
health-related services. Upgrading water ment could have a particularly large impact
supply and sanitation services could also on diarrhoea, malaria and malnutrition
improve education outcomes by enabling (table 6.3). But investments in improved
more girls to attend school instead of water supply and sanitation would also
fetching water, while providing sanitary make a difference for many neglected tropi-
facilities in schools encourages higher cal diseases (such as intestinal nematode
female enrolment in secondary schools infections, lymphatic filariasis, trachoma
and improves the working environment and schistosomiasis) that have environ-
for female teachers. There is thus a strong mental transmission pathways. Another
conceptual case that improved coverage of water health issue of increasing concern is
drinking water and sanitation contributes naturally occurring chemical contaminants
to meeting the Millennium Development – notably arsenic and fluoride (see box 8.3
Goals and to accelerated growth. in chapter 8). Such contaminants underline
the need for simple and reliable water qual-
Table 6.2 Benefit-cost ratio by water and sanitation ity monitoring systems and have important
intervention in developing regions and Eurasia implications for the definition of ‘safe’
drinking water used to monitor progress
Annual towards international targets, such as the
benefits Benefit-cost Millennium Development Goals.
Intervention ($ millions) ratio
Halving the proportion of people without Benefits go well beyond human health
access to improved water sources by 2015 18,143 9 Access to safe drinking water and adequate
Halving the proportion of people without sanitation services is vital to human
access to improved water sources and health but has other important benefits
improved sanitation by 2015 84,400 8 ranging from the easily identifiable and
Universal access to improved water
quantifiable (costs avoided, time saved)
and sanitation services by 2015 262,879 10 to the more intangible and difficult to
measure (convenience, well-being, dignity,
Universal access to improved water
privacy and safety).
and improved sanitation and water
disinfected at the point of use by 2015 344,106 12
In cost-benefit analyses the major benefits
Universal access to a regulated piped water
of improving access to water and sanita-
supply and sewerage connection by 2015 555,901 4
tion derive from the time savings associ-
Note: Benefit-cost ratio is total benefits divided by total costs. The higher the ratio, the ated with closer location of facilities. Easy
greater the benefits relative to the costs. Projects with a benefit-cost ratio greater than 1 access translates into increased produc-
have greater benefits than costs.
Source: Prüss-Üstün et al. 2008. tion, higher school attendance and more
leisure time. The case is exceptionally
a. Disability adjusted life year, a summary measure of population health. One DALY represents one lost year of healthy life.
Source: Adapted from Prüss-Üstün and Corvalán 2006; Prüss-Üstün et al. 2008.
strong for sanitation, where the economic processing of products from sanitation sys-
cost of inaction is enormous. Without tems (into biogas, fertilizer, soil condition-
improving sanitation, it will be difficult ers or irrigation water, for example).
to fully achieve the Millennium Develop-
ment Goals. Reducing diarrhoeal diseases
Some 1.4 million children die each year
In addition, urban sanitation systems from preventable diarrhoeal diseases. Or-
comprise a range of processes that repre- dinary diarrhoea remains the major killer
sent new business opportunities. These among water-, sanitation- and hygiene-
may include small-scale service provision related diseases, contributing to 43% of
for construction of system components deaths.30 Sub-Saharan Africa and South
and the collection, transport, storage and Asia are the most affected regions (map 6.1).
Sub-Saharan Africa
1,024,000
South Asia
733,000
East Asia and Pacific
177,000
Middle East and North Africa
82,000
Latin America and Caribbean
64,000
Europe and Central Asia
34,000
High-income countries
12,000
2 Chapter 6
Map 6.2 Geographical pattern of stunting in children under age five on a country basis
Crop Crop
production production
Recreation Fuel Recreation Fuel
wood wood
Regulation Regulation
Nutrient of water Nutrient of water
cycling balance cycling balance
Biodiversity
enhancement Ducks,
in human- frogs, Soil Fodder for
dominated snails conservation livestock
landscapes
Water storage,
Climate lowering of Watershed Soil fertility
air temperature peak floods, conservation improvement
Prevention of groundwater Nitrogen
soil erosion recharge
fixation
2 Chapter 6
It is critical that Across developing countries 10% of under- withdrawal at the basin level. It is critical
nourished people depend on direct access that allocations to the ‘environment’ or
allocations to the
to natural resources, in particular fresh- ‘nature’ not be considered ‘wasted water’.
‘environment’ or water ecosystems.40 They are vulnerable to Most such allocations can be considered
‘nature’ not be any degradation of these ecosystems or to in terms of benefits to people, recogniz-
changes in the water cycle that affect their ing that these in-situ uses may constrain
considered ‘wasted functioning. This is the case for pastoral- other uses, particularly during dry peri-
water’. Most such ists moving with their herds from one ods. Concerns for environmental services
water source and pasture area to another, often happen too late, when water use has
allocations can for capture fishers vulnerable to water gone beyond the capacity of the envi-
be considered in pollution and river water depletion and ronment to cope and when competition
for forest-dependent people who are hurt is critical. This is the result of decision
terms of benefits when forests are cleared for agriculture processes that do not promote informed,
to people or for construction of dams or other large impartial and balanced outcomes – and
infrastructure. These people are often as would not do so even if better valuations
voiceless as ecosystems in the water alloca- were at hand. Water still continues to
tion process. often be allocated on a first-come, first-
served sector basis.
Because of the interconnection between
freshwater ecosystems and their services, Map 6.3 pinpoints areas where respecting
developing one service (for example, food environmental water requirements has be-
production through increased irrigation) come urgent because water use is reaching
automatically affects others. The manage- limits that threaten to undermine our life
ment objective is to balance the delivery and development support base – particu-
of all services collectively so that ecosys- larly for people who are most vulnerable
tems are used optimally and development and dependent on the environment for
becomes sustainable. their livelihood.
Nature has to be recognized as a water Our reliance on nature and its abun-
stakeholder because it provides impor- dance must be matched by the care we
tant services to society. Ways of valuing take of the agro-ecosystems on which
ecosystem services remain highly contro- we depend. There are pastures in the
versial, however, and implementation of Alps, oases in Morocco and irrigation
environmental regulations is still limited systems in the Philippines that have
(see chapter 9). In any case, defining been used for centuries with no dimi-
an environmental water requirement – nution of their productive capacities or
even if imperfect – provides a voice for beauty. Rice terraces cascading down the
nature in allocation decisions for water Ifugao in the Philippines represent the
Map 6.3 Water stress level of major river basins, around 2002
Huang-He
(Yellow River) Basin,
Water stress indicator China
Low < 0.3
0.3-0.4
0.4-0.5
0.5-0.6
0.6-0.7
0.7-0.8
0.8-0.9
0.9-1.0
The central Andes are a primary centre of origin level), and potatoes mainly at medium altitudes
for potatoes. Up to 177 varieties have been (3,500-3,900 metres above sea level). Areas at and
domesticated by generations of Aymara and above 4,000 metres are used mostly as rangeland
Quechua in the Cusco and Puno valleys. Many but are also cultivated with high-altitude crops.
cultural and agricultural treasures from the Inca In the high plateau, around Lake Titicaca, farmers
civilization have been carefully preserved and dig trenches around their fields and fill them with
improved over centuries to guarantee living con- water. Warmed by sunlight during the day, the
ditions in areas that are more than 4,000 metres water gives off warm steam when temperatures
above sea level. drop at night. the steam serves as frost protec-
tion for several varieties of potatoes and other
One of these is the terracing system used to con- native crops, such as quinoa. This method is under
trol land degradation and that allows cultivation consideration for use in irrigation areas in Peru as
of steep slopes at altitudes ranging from 2,800 an adaptation to climate change.
metres to 4,500 metres. Maize is cultivated in
the lower areas (2,500-3,500 metres above sea Source: www.fao.org/sd/giahs.
collective efforts of countless generations not only provide food, but they also eat
of farmers who developed an ingenious larvae and weeds in the flooded fields,
irrigation system that allowed them to reducing the cost, labour and pollution
share water and develop rice varieties risks involved in fertilization and insect
that survive at over 1,000 metres. In the control.41 The sophisticated terracing sys-
combination rice-fish systems of Zhe- tem in the central Andes in Peru allows
jiang Province in China, which date from cultivation of steep slopes at different
the Han Dynasty 2,000 years ago, fish altitudes (box 6.6).
Notes 19. United Nations 2008. Achieving Water Security for Asia. Manila,
1. Poverty Environment Partnership 2006. 20. World Bank 2007. Philippines: Asian Development Bank.
2. World Bank 2007. 21. UN-HABITAT 2006. Biemans, Hester, Ton Bresser, Henk
van Schaik, and Pavel Kabat. 2006.
3. Comprehensive Assessment of Water 22. Worldwatch Institute 2007. Water and Climate Risks: A Plea for
Management in Agriculture 2007. 23. Faurès and Santini 2008. Climate Proofing of Water Development
4. UNIDO 2007. 24. Tacoli 2007. Strategies and Measures. 4th World
5. World Bank 2007. Water Forum, Cooperative Program on
25. World Bank 2005b.
Water and Climate, Wageningen, The
6. Japan Water Forum and World Bank 26. Faurès and Santini 2008. Netherlands.
2005.
27. Renwick et al. 2007. Comprehensive Assessment of Water
7. Prüss-Üstün et al. 2008.
28. Renwick et al. 2007. Management in Agriculture. 2007.
8. Gichere, Davis, and Hirji 2006. Water for Food, Water for Life: A Compre-
29. WHO 2007.
9. Biemans et al. 2006; Grey and Sadoff hensive Assessment of Water Management
30. Prüss-Üstün et al. 2008. in Agriculture. London: Earthscan, and
2008.
31. Ejemot et al. 2008; Fewtrell et al. 2005. Colombo: International Water Manage-
10. United Nations 2008.
32. Luby et al. 2005. ment Institute.
11. APWF 2007.
33. Laxminarayan, Chow, and Shahid-Salles DfID (Department for International
12. United Nations 2008. Development). 2005. Why We Need to
2006.
13. GWP Technical Committee 2003; Hus- Work More Effectively in Fragile States.
34. Roll Back Malaria, WHO, and UNICEF
sain and Hanjra 2003; Lipton, Litchfield, London: Department for International
2005.
and Faurès 2003; UNDP 2006. Development.
35. Keiser et al. 2005.
14. World Bank 2005a. DfID (Department for International Devel-
36. MEA 2005. opment) Sanitation Reference Group.
15. UNDP 2006.
37. Worldwatch Institute 2007. 2008. Water Is Life, Sanitation Is Dignity,
16. UNDP 2006. Final Draft1. DfID Sanitation Policy Back-
38. UNEP 2007.
17. DfID 2008. Research in India has shown ground Paper, Department for Interna-
that between 1985/86 and 1991/92 gov- 39. Turpie et al. 1999. tional Development, London. www.dfid.
ernment investment in the construction 40. Comprehensive Assessment of Water gov.uk/consultations/past-consultations/
of latrines increased coverage by 2.2%. Management in Agriculture 2007. water-sanitation-background.pdf.
At the same time, a national census Ejemot, R., J. Ehiri, M. Meremikwu, and
41. Lu and Li 2006.
found that access to latrines was much J. Critchley. 2008. Hand Washing for
higher, suggesting that about 8% of rural Preventing Diarrhoea. Cochrane Database
households across the country had in- References of Systematic Reviews, Issue 3. Art. No:
vested their own time and money in the APWF (Asia-Pacific Water Forum). 2007. CD004265. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.
construction of latrines (DfID 2008). Asian Water Development Outlook 2007: CD004265.pub2.
18. Narayanan 2005; Winpenny 2003.
2 Chapter 6
Faurès, J.-M., and G. Santini, ed. 2008. Handwashing on Child Health: A Ran- Sullivan C. A., A. Cohen, J.-M. Faurès, and
Water and the Rural Poor – Interventions domised Controlled Trial. Lancet 366 G. Santini. Forthcoming. The Rural Water
for Improving Livelihoods in Sub-Saharan (9481): 225-33. Livelihoods Index: A Tool to Prioritize Water-
Africa. Rome: Food and Agriculture Margat, J., and V. Andréassian. 2008. related Interventions for Poverty Reduction.
Organization of the United Nations L’eau, les Idées Reçues. Paris: Editions le Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization
and International Fund for Agricultural Cavalier Bleu. of the United Nations and International
Development. Fund for Agricultural Development.
MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assess-
Fewtrell, L., R. B. Kaufmann, D. Kay, W. ment). 2005. Ecosystems and Human Sullivan, C. A., J. R. Meigh, A. M. Gi-
Enanoria, L. Haller, and J. M. Colford. Well-Being: Wetlands and Water Synthe- acomello, T. Fediw, P. Lawrence, M.
2005. Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene sis. Washington, DC: World Resources Samad, S. Mlote, C. Hutton, J. A. Allan,
Interventions to Reduce Diarrhoea in Less Institute. R. E. Schulze, D. J. M. Dlamini, W.
Developed Countries: A Systematic Re- Cosgrove, J. Delli Priscoli, P. Gleick, I.
Narayanan, Ravi. 2005. Financial Water
view and Meta-analysis. Lancet Infectious Smout, J. Cobbing, R. Calow, C. Hunt,
Report – Critical Issues to Be Addressed.
Diseases 5 (1): 42-52. A. Hussain, M. C. Acreman, J. King,
Letter. Third World Water Forum and
Gichere, Samuel, Richard Davis, and S. Malomo, E. L Tate, D. O’Regan,
Water Aid. www.financingwaterforall.
Rafik Hirji. 2006. Climate Variability and S. Milner, and I. Steyl. 2003. The Water
org/fileadmin/Financing_water_for_all/
Water Resources Degradation in Kenya: Poverty Index: Development and Appli-
Stakeholders_responses/Narayanan_
Improving Water Resources Development cation at the Community Scale. Natural
Response_to_Camdessus_Report.pdf.
and Management. World Bank Working Resources 27 (3): 189-99.
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-
Paper Series 69, World Bank, Washing- Tacoli, Cecilia. 2007. Links between Rural
ton, DC. operation and Development). 2008.
and Urban Development in Africa and
Service Delivery in Fragile Situations: Key
———. 2008. Power point presentation at Asia. Paper presented at United Nations
Concepts, Findings and Lessons. OECD/
session on Infrastructure Platform for Expert Group Meeting on Population Dis-
DAC Discussion Paper. Off-print of the
Achieving Water Security 2008. First tribution, Urbanization, Internal Migration
Journal on Development 9 (3). Organisa-
African Water Week, Tunis. and Development, United Nations Secre-
tion for Economic Co-operation and
tariat, New York, 21-23 January, 2008.
GWP (Global Water Partnership) Techni- Development, Paris. www.oecd.org/
cal Committee. 2003. TEC Background dataoecd/11/8/40581496.pdf. Turpie, J., B. Smith, L. Emerton, and J.
Paper 8: Poverty Reduction and IWRM. Barnes. 1999. Economic Valuation of the
Poverty-Environment Partnership. 2006.
Sweden: Global Water Partnership. Zambezi Basin Wetlands. Harare: IUCN–
Linking Poverty Reduction and Water
The World Conservation Union Regional
Hussain, I., and M. A. Hanjra. 2003. Does Management. Poverty-Environment
Office for Southern Africa.
Irrigation Water Matter for Rural Poverty Partnership. http://esa.un.org/iys/docs/
Alleviation? Evidence from South and san_lib_docs/povety%20reduction%20 UNDP (United Nations Development
South-East Asia. Water Policy 5 (5-6): and%20water.pdf. Programme). 2006. Human Develop-
429-42. ment Report 2006. Beyond Scarcity: Power,
Prüss-Üstün, A., and C. Corvalán. 2006.
Poverty and the Global Water Crisis. New
Japan Water Forum and World Bank. Preventing Disease through Healthy
York: Palgrave MacMillan.
2005. A Study on Water Infrastructure Environments. Towards an Estimate of the
Investment and Its Contribution to Environmental Burden of Disease. Geneva: UNEP (United Nations Environment
Socioeconomic Development in Modern World Health Organization. www.who. Programme). 2007. Global Environment
Japan. World Bank, Washington, DC. int/quantifying_ehimpacts/publications/ Outlook GEO 4: Environment for Develop-
preventingdisease/en/index.html. ment. Nairobi: United Nations Environ-
Keiser, J., B. Singer, and J. Utzinger.
ment Programme.
2005. Reducing the Burden of Malaria Prüss-Üstün, A., R. Bos, F. Gore, and J. Bar-
in Different Settings with Environmental tram. 2008. Safer Water, Better Health: UN-HABITAT (United Nations Human
Management: A Systematic Review. The Costs, Benefits and Sustainability of Inter- Settlements Programme). 2006. State
Lancet Infectious Diseases 5 (11): 695- ventions to Protect and Promote Health. of the World Cities 2006/7. London:
708. Geneva: World Health Organization. Earthscan.
Laxminarayan, R., J. Chow, and S. A. Renwick, M., D. Joshi, M. Huang, S. Kong, UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Devel-
Shahid-Salles. 2006. Intervention S. Petrova, G. Bennett, R. Bingham, C. opment Organization). 2007. Sympo-
Cost-Effectiveness: Overview and Main Fonseca, et al. 2007. Multiple Use Water sium Report on Water Productivity in the
Messages. In Disease Control Priorities in Services for the Poor: Assessing the State Industry of the Future for Technology
Developing Countries, 2nd edition, ed. D. of Knowledge. Final Report, Winrock Foresight Summit, 27-29 September
T. Jamison, J. G. Breman, A. R. Measham, International, Arlington, VA. 2007, Budapest.
G. Alleyne, M. Claeson, D. B. Evans, P. Roll Back Malaria, WHO (World Health United Nations. 2008. World Economic and
Jha, A. Mills, and P. Musgrove. Wash- Organization), and UNICEF (United Social Survey 2008: Overcoming Eco-
ington, DC: World Bank, and New York: Nations Children’s Fund). 2005. World nomic Insecurity. New York: Department
Oxford University Press. Malaria Report 2005. Geneva: World of Economic and Social Affairs, United
Lipton, M., J. Litchfield, and J.-M. Faurès. Health Organization. Nations. www.un.org/esa/policy/wess/
2003. The Effects of Irrigation on Pov- wess2008files/wess08/overview_en.pdf.
Smakhtin, V. U., C. Revenga, and P. Döll.
erty: A Framework for Analysis. Water 2004. Taking into Account Environmental WCD (World Commission on Dams).
Policy 5 (5-6): 413-27. Water Requirements in Global-Scale Water 2000. Dams and Development. A New
Lu Jianbo and Xia Li. 2006. Review of Rice- Resources Assessments Comprehensive Framework for Decision-Making. London:
Fish Farming Systems in China – One Assessment Research Report 2. Colombo, Earthscan.
of the Globally Important Ingenious Sri Lanka: Comprehensive Assessment WHO (World Health Organization). 2007.
Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS). Secretariat, International Water Manage- World Health Statistics 2007. Geneva:
Aquaculture 260 (2): 106-13. ment Institute. World Health Organization.
Luby, S. P., M. Agboatwalla, D. R. Feikin, Sullivan, C. A. 2002. Calculating a Water ———. 2008. The Global Burden of Disease:
J. Painter, W. Billhimer, A. Altaf, Poverty Index. World Development 30 (7): 2004 Update. Geneva: World Health
and R. M. Hoekstra. 2005. Effect of 1195-210. Organization.
2
Chapter 7
Evolution of
water use
Authors: Richard Connor, Jean-Marc Faurès, Johan Kuylenstierna,
Jean Margat, Pasquale Steduto, Domitille Vallée and Wim van der Hoek
Contributors: José Aguilar-Manjarrez, Rizaldi Boer, Robert Bos,
Cécile Brugère, Ann Cann, Olivier Dubois, Karen Frenken, Arjen Y. Hoekstra,
Jippe Hoogeveen, John Jorgensen, Jon Lane, Darren Saywell and Stefania Vannuccini
Coordinator: Jean-Marc Faurès (FAO)
Facilitator: Domitille Vallée
Key messages
While most of the old challenges of water supply, sanitation and envi-
ronmental sustainability remain, new challenges such as adaptation to
climate change, rising food and energy prices, and ageing infrastruc-
ture are increasing the complexity and financial burden of water man-
agement. Population growth and rapid economic development have led
to accelerated freshwater withdrawals.
After agriculture, the two major users of water for development are indus-
try and energy (20% of total water withdrawals), which are transforming
the patterns of water use in emerging market economies. Water and energy
share the same drivers: demographic, economic, social and technological
processes put pressure on both energy and water. The recent acceleration
in the production of biofuels and the impacts of climate change bring new
challenges and add to the pressures on land and water resources.
The previous chapters have demonstrated of people and ecosystems. Water plays
the multiple benefits of water: its use as a strategic role for both on-stream uses
an economic backbone and an essential (navigation, fisheries and freshwater eco-
element for industrial and energy produc- systems) and off-stream ones (productive
tion systems, its use in human activities sectors, human well-being and terrestrial
and its vital importance to the well-being ecosystems).
Our knowledge of water use is as poor as As an example, the table below shows the metered by a volumetric device. That
our knowledge of water resources – perhaps extent of metering of agricultural water means that water withdrawal figures are a
poorer. Information is largely incomplete – use and self-supplied industries in the six mix of measurements and estimates (when
particularly for agriculture, the largest user – major French river basins. Only half the no metering is available).
and is lacking altogether for some countries. water used in agriculture is effectively
Only limited disaggregated information
exists, and even this shows deficiencies of Uncertainty of statistics on water uses: importance of metering agriculture
validity and homogeneity and provides and industrial withdrawals in France
extremely poor information on trends.
(Percentage of water withdrawals that is metered unless otherwise indicated)
The quality of information systems varies Use for agriculture Use for self-
with each country, but there are common or irrigation supplied industries Total use
difficulties: From From From From (cubic
surface ground- surface ground- kilometres
• Statistics on the magnitude of demand Basin water water water water a year)
and withdrawal are often estimated
rather than based on data that are Adour-Garonne 72 62 82 66 2.30
measured or collected from censuses. Artois-Picardie 90 100 95 100 0.67
The level of uncertainty varies, but is
Loire-Brittany 80 95 40 69 3.62
particularly high for agriculture.
Rhine-Meuse 0 0 90 81 5.05
• Sectors of use are not defined homoge- Rhone-Mediterranean 30 57 87 86 17.13
neously and are not well disaggregated.
Seine-Normandy 75 89 37 91 3.06
• Adequate historical datasets are rare, Total 43 74 73 84 31.81
and the dates of available statistics are
Total volume (cubic
not always explicit.
kilometres a year) 3.39 1.38 2.72 1.48
• Lack of agreed terminology leads to No metering Less than 45% of Less than 75% of
discrepancies in data compilation and withdrawals metered withdrawals metered
analyses. Source: IFEN 2006, based on 2001 data from the basin agencies.
2 Chapter 7E
But we know only part of what humans use: in quantity (withdrawals) and quality
only the volume of water used off‑stream (returns of lower quality; for definitions
(withdrawn) is generally measured (or es- of key terms relating to water use, see box
timated), and only a part of what is with- 7.2). For this reason these are discussed in
drawn is effectively consumed. Most of the greater detail in the rest of chapter 7 (uses)
flow is returned – usually at a lower quality and in chapter 8 (impacts).
– to the water systems, where it can be
reused. Agriculture is by far the most signifi- The many realities of water use
cant consumer of water, particularly in dry Water use is uneven across countries. The 10
areas where irrigation has been developed. largest water users (in volume) are India,
China, the United States, Pakistan, Japan,
The consumptive uses of freshwater from Thailand, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Mexico
agriculture, industry and domestic sectors and the Russian Federation (map 7.1).
place the greatest pressures on natural Total water use at the country level ranges
systems (see table 10.5 in chapter 10), both from 646 km3 a year (India) to less than
Map 7.1 Water withdrawals highlight discrepancies between regions and between the largest
and smallest consumers, around 2001
EU/25
248
479 630
169
646
50-100
10-50
Less than 10
Source: FAO-AQUASTAT.
Map 7.2 Annual water withdrawals per person by country, world view, 2000
2 Chapter 7E
Around 20% of it returns most of the water withdrawn industry and energy – are met by withdraw-
back to the water system (about 95%). This als from renewable sources, either surface
total water used
is only a partial picture of sectoral usage as water or groundwater. Less than 1% (cur-
globally is from there are many unaccounted-for uses. Lit- rently estimated at 30 km3 a year) comes
groundwater tle is known about water use in informal from non-renewable (fossil) aquifers mainly
urban settlements or informal irrigation in three countries – Algeria, Libyan Arab
sources (renewable systems, both of which are generally unac- Jamahiriya and Saudi Arabia – which are
or not), and this counted for in official statistics. the main source of water in these countries.
share is rising Finally, there are numerous on-stream uses Around 20% of total water used globally
rapidly, particularly (such as fishing, navigation and ecosys- is from groundwater sources (renewable
tems), which although generally non- or not), and this share is rising rapidly,
in dry areas consumptive, depend on a certain level of particularly in dry areas.8 This rise has been
flows and water quality to function. Such stimulated by the development of low-cost
uses cannot be measured in volume terms, pumps and by individual investment for ir-
and these uses are therefore not reflected rigation and urban uses. Private investment
in statistics on water use. in self-supply of groundwater – essentially
uncontrolled and unmonitored – has mush-
From a water use perspective the world roomed in response to inadequate public
can be divided into two groups. In one services. As a result, groundwater withdraw-
group of countries (in Africa, most of Asia, als rose fivefold during the 20th century,
Oceania, Latin America and the Carib- leading to a rapid drawdown of aquifers in
bean) agriculture is by far the main water some areas, putting at risk the sustainabil-
user, while in the other group (in Europe ity of the uses that rely on it (see chapter 8).
and North America) withdrawals are
related mostly to industry and energy. The In areas of scarce freshwater resources,
domestic supply is essential to life (drink- brackish water and wastewater are often
ing, hygiene and bathing) but remains the used to meet water demand. While ac-
smallest water user for both groups. counting for less than 5% of global water
use, the potential is substantially greater
Most (99%) of the 4,000 km3 a year in off- (figure 7.1; see also figure 9.3 and box 9.5
stream water uses – irrigation, domestic, in chapter 9).
Figure 7.1 Sources of water use globally and for major sectors, 2000
Withdrawals by supply source
All uses Drinking water use
Drainage water returns Wastewater reuse
4.82% 2.41% Groundwater Desalination 3.55%
Groundwater Desalination 0.34% (non- renewable) 2.54%
(non-renewable)
0.77%
Groundwater
18.25%
Surface water
48.22%
Groundwater
Surface water 45.69%
73.42%
Groundwater
17.37%
Source: FAO-AQUASTAT.
2 Chapter 7E
externalizing the footprints is relevant, because external- sub-Saharan Africa, sanitation cover-
izing the water footprint means increasing age still lags. To highlight the problem,
water footprint
dependence on foreign water resources but the UN General Assembly declared 2008
means increasing also passing on environmental impacts. the International Year of Sanitation in
dependence on response to the recommendations of the
With increasing globalization, it is no UN Secretary-General’s Advisory Board on
foreign water longer sufficient to examine water issues Water and Sanitation.14 The goal is to raise
resources but only in a national context. Local decisions awareness and accelerate progress towards
on water use in agriculture and industry the target set for the Millennium Develop-
also passing on are increasingly driven by decisions outside ment Goal of reducing by half the pro-
environmental the local water domain. For example, the portion of people without access to basic
water footprint of inhabitants of Europe sanitation between 1990 and 2015.
impacts and North America has been external-
ized to other parts of the world (map 7.3). Current state of water supply and
Europe is a large importer of cotton, which sanitation
is produced in many water-scarce areas In 2006, 54% of the world’s population
(and elsewhere) though it is one of the had a piped connection to their dwelling,
thirstiest crops. Through the global market plot or yard, and 33% used other improved
European and U.S. consumption relies on drinking water sources. The remaining
water resources available outside Europe’s 13% (884 million people) relied on unim-
boundaries, and thus European and North proved sources. Progress has been greatest
American consumers influence agricultural in East Asia, with an increase in coverage
and industrial strategies elsewhere. About of improved drinking water sources from
80% of virtual water flows relate to trade in 68% in 1990 to 88% in 2006.15
agricultural products (see box 2.1 in chapter
2).13 Water-scarce countries such as Greece Except for sub-Saharan Africa and Oce-
and Spain use large volumes of water to ania, all regions are on track to meet the
produce fruit and oil crops for export. The Millennium Development Goal drinking
rationale for such uses will become increas- water target. But if current trends contin-
ingly questionable where climate change ue, 2.4 billion people will still be without
leads to reductions in water availability. access to basic sanitation.16 Coverage is
much higher in urban than in rural areas
Domestic water supply and for both water supply (figure 7.3) and sani-
sanitation tation (figure 7.4). Global and regional ag-
gregates for water and sanitation coverage
While rapid progress has recently been do not show the large differences between
made in water supply in all regions except countries.
2 Chapter 7E
Despite strong While the assumption that improved water and sanitation. In two of the pilot
sources are also safe generally holds with countries for the UN-Water Global Annual
epidemiological
respect to fæcal contamination, it has Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking-
evidence that been challenged by the emerging problem Water (GLAAS): 2008 Pilot Report, average
universal access of arsenic and fluoride contamination of sanitation coverage is 26% in schools and
drinking water. 75% in hospitals. 21 Sanitation in schools
to improved has indirect benefits as well as health
sanitation would The Joint Monitoring Programme defines benefits. In particular, separate facilities
‘access to basic sanitation’ as the propor- for boys and girls have been shown to
dramatically reduce tion of the population (total, urban and stimulate girls’ school attendance and to
the global burden rural) with access to an improved sani- lead to greater attention in class by all
tation facility for defecation. Improved pupils.
of diarrhoea, means that human excreta are hygieni-
worm infections cally separated from human contact or Putting sanitation in the spotlight. Despite
the immediate environment, essential for strong epidemiological evidence that uni-
and malnutrition, preventing fæcal-oral disease transmission. versal access to improved sanitation would
sanitation receives dramatically reduce the global burden of
Although the formulation of common diarrhoea, worm infections and malnutri-
substantially
definitions was a major step, controver- tion, sanitation receives substantially less
less priority and sies remain regarding the availability priority and funding than water supply in
funding than water and quality of data sources. The global virtually every country.22
coverage of improved drinking water in
supply in virtually urban areas is estimated at 95%,19 but that Human Development Report 2006 ana-
every country figure seems difficult to reconcile with lysed the sanitation problems facing the
the reality of millions of people in slums world and the reasons why sanitation
in developing countries. These people lags behind water supply in attention and
might be connected to a piped water sup- resources allocated.23 The main barrier
ply system and therefore benefit from an has been political reluctance. Sanitation
‘improved’ technology according to the is usually a low-priority item in national
Joint Monitoring Programme criteria. In policy-making, planning, budgeting and
reality, however, the piped water sup- implementation. As a result, it is often
ply system might be poorly maintained, delegated to the lowest level of governance
be inoperable many hours of the day or – struggling municipalities. There are,
provide polluted water. This is the contro- however, encouraging signs of change. In
versy of ‘served’ and ‘unserved’. Another response to findings that in 2006, 62%
problem is that many people remain of Africans lacked access to an improved
unaccounted for in the data. Again, these sanitation,24 32 African ministers signed
are the poor people living in informal set- the eThekwini Declaration in February
tlements that are not officially recognized 2008 pledging to create separate budget
by governments. As a result, millions of lines for sanitation and hygiene and to
people are probably missing from the commit at least 0.5% of GDP.25
national statistics. 20
Significantly, five countries along with
Three key issues need to be addressed in private sector and voluntary sources have
monitoring programmes for water and made contributions totalling $60 million
sanitation services: access, quality and to the Global Sanitation Fund launched
sustainability. A challenge is developing in March 2008 by the Water Supply and
appropriate indicators that can be used in Sanitation Collaborative Council and
household surveys to collect information its partners – with an annual target of
about disparities in access, affordability, $100 million – to help meet the Millen-
per capita use and the sustainability and nium Development Goal sanitation target.
reliability of services. Also needed are
simple and inexpensive water quality tests Trends in water and sanitation
as a cross-check on the safety of improved provision
drinking water sources and on safety at Before the 1990s water industries were
point of use. national monopolies in many countries.
Since then, major water service reforms
Monitoring has traditionally focused on have taken place, mostly from centralized
the household, overlooking the fact that to decentralized public provision.26 Asian
household members are outside the house countries, including Indonesia, Pakistan
for most of the day. Across developing and the Philippines, undertook radical
countries there are 600 million children decentralization programmes. In many
of primary school age, and roughly half Latin American countries (for example,
attend schools that lack safe drinking Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Panama and
2 Chapter 7E
Steadily increasing rather than a problem, and manage it ac- the first two United Nations World Water
cordingly. Its various possible uses, such as Development Reports, and its implication
demand for
farming, aquaculture, gardening and for- for an emphasis on water for agriculture
agricultural est planting, need to be planned, and risk was clearly drawn by the International
products to mitigation measures put in place to avoid Water Management Institute32 and the
the health costs (see chapter 8). World Bank.33 Climate change and the
satisfy the needs recent acceleration in biofuel production
of a growing While technically and financially appro- bring new challenges to agriculture and
priate sanitation services are available, put further pressure on land and water
population is little is known about community percep- resources. In a tighter global food market,
the main driver tions, demand and acceptability of differ- where an increasing number of major
ent sanitation solutions. There are many agricultural systems are reaching the
behind agricultural taboos surrounding defecation behaviour, limits of their productive capacity, climate
water use making it difficult to study. Sanitation events increasingly influence food prices,
services, far more than water supply, must with devastating social and humanitarian
be adapted to the local situation to ensure consequences.
that they are used by men, women and
children. Sociocultural factors are funda- Why is so much water needed for
mental to sustainability. Women need to food production?
be consulted when toilets are built and Agriculture accounts for 70% of fresh-
must be allowed to manage their sanita- water withdrawals from rivers, lakes and
tion facilities. aquifers – up to more than 90% in some
developing countries. Furthermore, unlike
An example of the shift from supply- in industrial and domestic uses, where
led to demand-driven approaches is the most of the water returns to rivers after
community-led total sanitation campaign use, in agriculture a large part of water is
in South Asia, which seeks to end open consumed by evapotranspiration. Many
defecation by highlighting the problems irrigation systems, however, return a large
caused to everyone in the community. It amount of water to the system after use.
also ensures that every household either
builds and uses its own low-cost toilet or Biomass cannot be produced without
has access to a shared toilet. In Bangladesh water. The source of all food is photosyn-
the total sanitation campaign was begun thesis, a process by which plants transform
by local non-governmental organizations energy captured from the sun, carbon di-
and has since been scaled up into a na- oxide from the air and minerals from the
tional programme, and in India the Sulabh ground into biomass. Water, stored in the
Sanitation Movement has successfully soil, is pumped by the roots and transpired
scaled up a non-governmental organiza- into the atmosphere through the leaves.
tion model,30 but elsewhere it has proved Transpiration cools the leaves and enables
difficult for governments to scale up mass flows of mineral nutrients and water
similar successes. The 2008 pilot survey of from roots.
the UN-Water Global Annual Assessment
of Sanitation and Drinking-Water (GLAAS) Biomass is processed through the food
suggests that there is a need to reinforce chain, which describes the flow of energy
education programmes with actions that and feeding relationship between species:
provide better hygiene and sanitation in from primary producers (plants) to her-
schools and hospitals.31 bivores to carnivores. Despite substantial
progress in agricultural research, energy
Water use in agriculture flow efficiency in the food chain remains
extremely low: about 10% for herbivores
Steadily increasing demand for agricul- and 20% for carnivores. About 10 kilocalo-
tural products to satisfy the needs of a ries (kcal) of grass are needed to produce
growing population is the main driver 1 kcal of beef (box 7.4).
behind agricultural water use. Although
population growth has slowed since the Rainfed agriculture covers 80% of the
1970s, economic development, in par- world’s cultivated land, and is respon-
ticular in emerging market economies, is sible for about 60% of crop production.
translating into demand for a more varied, In rainfed agriculture the soil stores the
water-intensive diet, including meat and rain and releases it slowly to the plants.
dairy products (see chapter 2 and box 7.4). Rainwater used in agriculture, part of what
To meet these future food needs, pressure is called ‘green water’, is a characteristic
to develop new supply sources or increase of the land on which it falls and is not
water allocation to agriculture will con- usually subject to competition from other
tinue. This challenge was highlighted in sectors.
We can estimate how much water is kilogram of meat, depending on the type (kcal) per person at the national level as
needed to sustain our diets by calculating of animal, feed and management prac- a threshold for food security. As a rule
the water lost in evapotranspiration based tices. Based on these values, researchers of thumb, it can therefore be estimated
on crop physiology. Depending on local have estimated daily water requirements that 1 litre of water is needed to produce
climate, varieties and agronomical prac- to support diets, ranging from 2,000 to 1 kcal of food. Because of the low energy
tices, it takes 400-2,000 litres of evapo- 5,000 litres of water per person per day. efficiency of the food chain, protein-rich
transpiration daily to produce 1 kilogram The Food and Agriculture Organization of diets require substantially more water than
(kg) of wheat, and 1,000-20,000 litres per the United Nations uses 2,800 kilocalories vegetarian diets.
More efficient use of water – higher socio- Trends and current situation of
economic returns and more crops per water use in agriculture
drop – can be obtained primarily through The last 50 years have seen rapid accelera-
intensification (improved crop varieties tion in water resources development for
plus better agronomic practices). Over agriculture.35 Development in hydraulic
the last 40 years major food yields have infrastructure (dams and large-scale public
increased progressively and crop water surface irrigation), as well as private and
2 Chapter 7E
780
Irrigated
650 220
Rainfed 235
Figure 7.5 Gaps are large between farmer’s actual yields countries (figure 7.6), a trend that lasted
and achievable yields for major rainfed cereal until very recently. In real terms, food
crops prices declined, until recently, to their
lowest levels in history, so that consumers
Actual yields as percent of obtainable yields in selected countries, 2005
in many countries could eat better while
100 spending less of their budget on food.
Today, food supply accounts for a very
80 small part of household income in rich
countries, but it can constitute as much as
60 80% of income of poor people in develop-
ing countries.
40
Declining food prices, high agricultural
20 productivity, improved trade and markets
and progressive reduction in the risk of
0 food shortage and famines also led to re-
Th am
nd
Et ia
Za ia
a
ria
st a
a
a o
Ta aso
Ug nia
m da
Jo e
an
n
Pa raq
Ye n
en
Bu ro r
Bo eny
an
bw
rk cc
Ira
a
d
op
Sy
rd
st
m
Zi an
la
a
In
m
N
I
F
w
N
ki
nz
ba
hi
ai
in
Vi
Less than 1
1-5
5-10
10-50
More than 50
No data
Source: FAO-AQUASTAT.
developed countries. Niger, the country Figure 7.6 As irrigation area expanded, food price fell
with the highest population growth rate, for 30 years before starting to rise again
is expected to grow from 10.7 million in
2000 to 53 million in 2050. Countries Irrigation (millions of hectares)
with high population growth rates and Food price index (1990 = 100)
limited agricultural resources will likely 300 Annual growth rate
see their food deficit increase, with seri- of irrigation (by decade)
1961-1970: 2.1%
1971-1980: 2.2%
Irrigation
ous implications for economic and food 250
security. 1981-1990: 1.6%
200
2 Chapter 7E
Recent increases with 13% more water.38 Crop and animal staple commodities remain high in many
breeding and biotechnology have already places.
in the prices of the
resulted in tremendous gains in yields,
main agricultural along with savings in production costs The effects of price increases on consump-
commodities have and pesticide use through improved resist- tion vary by country and consumer group.
ance of genetically modified crops. Com- Consumers in low-income countries are
caused the number mon grains such as wheat, maize and rice, much more responsive and vulnerable
of people suffering which achieved significant gains from the to price changes than are consumers in
1960s to 1980s, are unlikely to see further high-income countries, because food ex-
from hunger to rise gains. penditure can represent 50%-75% of their
from 850 million income.42 Surges in food prices thus hurt
The implications of food prices for the poorest populations the most. Should
to 963 million food security food prices remain high, investment in
The old challenge of increasing and se- agriculture, including water development
curing food supply remains a priority in for irrigation, is likely to grow. Higher food
many countries as the number of people prices may represent an opportunity for
suffering from hunger remains desper- smallholder farmers if the right policies
ately high, most of them in rural areas are adopted.43
of South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.39
Recent increases in the prices of the main How will bioenergy affect
agricultural commodities have caused the agricultural water use?
number of people suffering from hunger Bioenergy is energy derived from biologi-
to rise from 850 million to 963 million. cal origins, such as grains, sugar crops, oil
Between September 2007 and March 2008 crops, starch, cellulose (grasses and trees)
the price of wheat, corn, rice and other and organic waste. Liquid biofuel (bio
cereals rose an average of 41% on the ethanol and biodiesel), while representing
international market. While the increase only a small percentage of all bioenergy
in food commodity prices started in 2000, products, currently dominates the debate
previous price increases have never been because of its capacity to substitute for
this rapid. The rising demand for high- fossil fuel and because most of its source
value commodities has also resulted in feedstock can also be used to produce food
surging prices for meat and dairy products. (see chapter 3).44
From the beginning of 2000 to the middle
of 2008, butter and milk prices tripled, Current and projected trends in bioenergy.
and poultry prices have almost doubled. Around 10% of the total energy supply
comes from biomass, and most of that
The rapid surge in the prices of the main (80%) comes from the ‘traditional’ biomass
food and feed commodities in 2007 and sources of wood, dung and crop residues.
2008 arose from a combination of causes, These represent a significant part of the
including long-term increases in demand energy used in many developing coun-
for meat and dairy products in emerging tries. Of commercial or ‘modern’ bioen-
market economies, a progressive reduction ergy, two-thirds is produced from fresh
in the stocks of the main commodities vegetable material and organic residue
and unfavourable climate in some of the used to produce electricity and heat. About
largest exporting countries. The effects of 5% of biomass is used to produce liquid
these factors have likely been amplified biofuel for transport, which currently
by incentives for bioenergy production in accounts for less than 2% of transport
OECD countries and speculation on food energy worldwide.
trade.40 Prices have fallen since mid-2008
thanks to good prospects for world food The quest for greater energy autonomy,
production, the overall slowdown of the the rise in oil prices until the second half
world economy and reductions in the of 2008 and concerns about the impacts
price of oil. Future trends in food prices of greenhouse gas emissions in OECD
remain uncertain. The Food and Agricul- countries are behind a recent surge in
ture Organization of the United Nations transport bioenergy.45 The production of
(FAO) estimates that in the medium term bioethanol, from sugarcane, corn, sugar
tight markets and higher costs of produc- beet, wheat and sorghum, tripled between
tion inputs will keep prices higher and 2000 and 2007 to an estimated 77 billion
more volatile than in the past.41 This litres in 2008.46 Brazil (using sugarcane)
situation will hurt both producers and and the United States (using mostly maize)
consumers. In addition, domestic prices are the main producers, accounting for
of food in developing countries have not 77% of global supply. Biodiesel produc-
followed downward trends from the inter- tion, derived from oil- or tree-seeds such
national market, and the prices of major as rapeseed, sunflower, soybean, palm oil,
2 Chapter 7E
Table 7.2 Different types of biofuel and quantity of water needed to produce them in rainfed or
irrigated conditions
na is not applicable.
Note: Values are indicative only.
Source: Hoogeveen, Faurès, and van de Giesse forthcoming, adapted from Müller et al. 2008.
of ethanol and biodiesel can exceed those uncertainty. The relationship between
of petrol and mineral diesel. An exception agriculture and climate change is com-
was biofuel produced from woody bio- plex. Agriculture contributes to global
mass, which rated better than gasoline. A warming through emissions of methane
key question is how to ensure that produc- and nitrous oxide. Changes in land use
tion will be sustainable. One answer being practices (management of cropland and
explored is certification of conformity to a grazing land) are considered to be the best
set of environmental and social standards mitigation options.55 Agriculture is also
on a life-cycle basis.54 extremely sensitive to climate change, and
it is anticipated that large areas of crop-
More uncertainty for agriculture lands, in particular in semi-arid zones,
under climate change will need to adapt to new conditions with
The issues of agricultural production lower precipitation.
are complicated by increasing climate
Climate change is expected to alter hydro-
Box 7.5 Coping with water scarcity and climate logic regimes and patterns of freshwater
change in agriculture in the Near East resource availability (see chapter 5), with
impacts on both rainfed and irrigated
agriculture.56 Projections converge in
Arid and semi-arid conditions and change are considered, including the
widespread water scarcity prevail in combined effect of changes in precipi-
indicating a reduction in precipitation
the Near East Region. Agricultural tation and evapotranspiration. These in semi-arid areas, greater variability in
production is projected to grow more changes will alter current patterns of rainfall distribution, greater frequency of
than 60% between 2003/05 and 2030 soil moisture deficits, groundwater extreme events and rising temperature,
and to more than double by 2050 as a recharge and runoff. Second-order particularly affecting agriculture in low
result of increased food demand. Most impacts on streamflow, groundwater latitudes. Severe reductions in river runoff
of the increase will come from yield in- and lake and dam storage levels will and aquifer recharge (see chapter 11) are
creases and higher cropping intensities. translate into reduced availability of expected in the Mediterranean basin and
water for irrigation and other purpos- in the semi-arid areas of Southern Africa,
Irrigation is crucial, with about 80% of es. Under the Intergovernmental Panel
Australia and the Americas, affecting water
production originating from irrigated and Climate Change B2 scenario the
agriculture and with irrigated land overall availability of renewable water
availability for all uses (box 7.5).
accounting for about a third of arable resources may fall from 416 km3 in
land. Irrigation water withdrawals the base situation to 397 km3 in 2050, The projected increase in the frequency of
could increase 29% by 2050. Under while irrigation water withdrawals droughts and floods will hurt crop yields
pressures of water scarcity water use would need to raise an additional 20 and livestock, with greater impacts coming
efficiency is expected to improve from km3. Total water withdrawals would earlier than previously predicted.57 While
52% in 2003/05 to 66% by 2050, as represent the equivalent of 92% of the climate change does not seem to threaten
irrigation water requirements grow region’s renewable water resources global food production, it will alter the
from 64% to 83% of renewable water – even higher if the leaching require- distribution of agricultural potential. Most
resources – all very high values com- ments of agricultural areas affected by
of the increase in cereal production will be
pared with global averages. saltwater intrusion and leakages from
brackish aquifers are considered.
concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere,
The situation may become critical while more frequent and severe droughts
if the expected impacts of climate Source: FAO 2008b; IPCC 2000. and floods will hurt local production,
especially in subsistence sectors at low
2 Chapter 7E
Table 7.3 Typology of climate change impacts on major agricultural systems (continued)
In key food-insecure areas, dominated by in global markets and put further pressure
rainfed agriculture (sub-Saharan Africa on irrigated production.
and peninsular India, in particular),
anticipated reductions in production may Changes in runoff affect water availability
have multiple impacts, including loss of in rivers and aquifers, placing an addi-
livelihoods and displacement of rural tional burden on areas where human pres-
populations. This will accentuate demand sure on water resources is already high. In
addition, rising temperatures and lower
Box 7.6 Impacts of water shortage on rice production precipitation associated with diminishing
in Indonesia runoff will increase crop water demand
in irrigated areas. The impacts of climate
change on irrigation water requirements
Many of the extreme climate events amount of rainfall may be higher. This
in Indonesia, particularly droughts, suggests exposure to higher flood
may therefore be substantial.59
are associated with the el Niño and drought risks in the future. For
Southern Oscillation. The end of the regions north of the Equator, how- In large irrigation systems that rely on
dry season occurs later than normal ever, the pattern of change will be the high mountain glaciers for water (Andes,
during el Niño and earlier during opposite. Himalayas and Rocky Mountains), tem-
la Niña years, the onset of the wet perature changes will cause high runoff
season is delayed during el Niño and Changes in rainfall pattern and periods to shift to earlier in the spring,
advanced during la Niña years, a length of the rainy season will have when irrigation water demand is still low
substantial reduction of dry season serious implications for the agricul- (see chapter 12).60 Such changes could
rainfalls occur during el Niño and a ture sector and current cropping
incite demand for new water control in-
substantial increase during la Niña patterns. In most rice-growing areas
years, and long dry spells occur dur- of Indonesia two rice crops are
frastructure to compensate for changes in
ing the monsoon period, particularly planted each year. The second plant- river runoff. Indonesia shows how climate
in Eastern Indonesia. ing depends heavily on irrigation change can influence weather variability
water. In years of extreme drought and make current farming and cropping
Historical data indicate that the irrigation water becomes very lim- systems unsustainable (box 7.6).
national rice production system is ited, causing severe production loss.
vulnerable to extreme climate events. Under a changing climate, drought Options for water management in
During el Niño years rice production will occur more frequently, and so agriculture
declined due to drought, with losses retaining this cropping pattern may It is possible to produce enough food and
during 1991-2000 averaging three expose farmers to more frequent
other agricultural products at a global
times greater than during 1980-90. crop failures.
level to meet demand while reducing
It is very likely that in Bali and Java Source: BertJan Heij, co-chair, WWAP the negative impacts of water use in
the rainy season may shorten as a Expert Group on Climate and Water, based agriculture.61 But doing so will require
result of climate change, though the on Government of Indonesia 2007. a change from today’s food production
and environmental trends, which, if
2 Chapter 7E
Energy and water low, less than 10% of total water with- forcing industries to target greater water
drawals, but there are large differences in efficiency and report on their progress
are inextricably
efficiency of use. Industry creates more (as in the Global Reporting Initiative, for
linked pressure on water resources from the example65). Industrial water productivity
impacts of wastewater discharges and their (ratio of value of water withdrawn to value
pollution potential than by the quantity of industrial output using the water) is a
used in production. general indicator of performance in water
use. The intensity of water use in industry,
There is no simple relation between a in overall terms, is believed to be increas-
country’s production index (volume, value ing, as is the value added by industry per
and jobs) and its total industrial demand unit of water use. Industrial water use is
for water. Demand depends first on the only partially linked to a country’s level
composition of the industrial sector, the of industrialization, as exemplified by
processes in use and the degree of recy- the large difference in water productivity
cling that is in place in each sector. Dif- between two high-income countries: more
ferent industries demand different water than $138 per cubic metre in Denmark
quality (the high-technology industry and less than $10 per cubic metre in the
requires water of a higher quality than United States (figure 7.8).
drinking water) and quantities (table 7.4).
After rising between 1960 and 1980, water
The diminishing quality of water supplies, withdrawal for industrial use in developed
increasing costs of water purchases and countries has stabilized and has even
strict environmental effluent standards are started to decline in some countries, as in-
dustrial output continues to expand while
Table 7.4 Water use per tonne of product produced, falling in absolute terms (because of ef-
selected industries ficiency gains and the energy transition).66
In Eastern Europe demand for water in the
(cubic metres per tonne) industrial sector fell following advances
in production technology and structural
Product Water usea change.67 In emerging market economies
Paper 80-2,000
industrial demand for water is expected
to rise with the region’s rapid growth in
Sugar 3-400 manufacturing output.
Steel 2-350
Petrol 0.1-40 Some industries, such as tourism, show
large seasonal variations in water use that
Soap 1-35
can lead (on coastlines, islands and moun-
Beer 8-25 tain areas) to supply difficulties in peak
a. Amount varies with process used. seasons. Around the Mediterranean Sea
seasonal water demands from the tourism
Source: Margat and Andréassian 2008.
industry increase annual water demand by
an estimated 5%-20% (box 7.7).
Figure 7.8 Industrial water productivity varies greatly
across countries Energy and water
Energy and water are inextricably linked.
1995 US$ per cubic metre per year, latest year available Water is an integral part of energy re-
source development and use; it is needed
150
for cooling and energy production (figure
125 7.9) but is also consumed passively as
reservoirs built for energy production
100 and other purposes evaporate substan-
tial amounts of water. Total evaporation
75
from reservoirs in the 22 countries of
50 the Mediterranean Action Plan is esti-
mated at around 24 km3 a year – nearly
25 the water use of Argentina – almost half
of it in Egypt.68 For hydroelectric, wave
0
or tidal energy production water offers
k
ia
ic
nd
ia
va
ria
e
ar
ni
ar
in
tio
bl
tv
an
at
do
ua
ra
ng
pu
La
St
ra
m
Po
ol
Uk
l
en
th
Bu
Hu
de
Ro
Re
Li
ite
Fe
h
Un
ec
ss
Ru
2 Chapter 7E
Hydropower Water use for energy production. Cooling Current and projected trends in hydropower.
in the energy sector is one of the main Hydropower supplies about 20% of the
supplies about
industrial water uses, with final consump- world’s electricity,71 a share that has
20% of the tion (evaporation) estimated at around 5% remained stable since the 1990s. Hydro
world’s electricity of withdrawals. Outflows of water used power stations are spread across the globe
in cooling nuclear power plants demand (map 7.6) and have shaped water infra-
sufficient river flow to reduce the tempera- structure in many parts of the world.
ture in order to mitigate adverse ecological The first large hydropower stations were
impacts. Thus non-directly productive but developed in Norway, Sweden, Switzer-
substantial flows are required. land, Canada, the United States, Australia
and New Zealand. The largest hydropower
Hydropower generation requires large station in operation is the Itaipu Dam
quantities of water, but unlike in other on the Rio Parana River between Brazil
major water use sectors (agriculture and and Paraguay, with an installed capacity
domestic), the nature of the use is non- of more than 14,000 megawatts. Brazil
consumptive: water is returned to the river produces more than 90% of its electricity
after passing through turbines. However, from hydropower.
substantial losses occur through evapora-
tion from reservoirs, and thus this use is Hydropower development was stimulated
not entirely non-consumptive. by the oil crisis of the 1970s, fell off for
a few decades and then returned to the
Water use efficiency in the energy sector agendas of many countries in response to
differs with the power generation technol- the energy demands created by develop-
ogy used, as illustrated by an assessment of ment. Hydropower continues to be the
19 power generation systems in the United most important and economic source of
States (figure 7.10). This suggests consider- commercial renewable energy worldwide,
able potential for improving efficiency. and its popularity is increasing with the
surge of interest in clean energy prompt-
Figure 7.10 Water consumption for various power ed by concerns about climate change.
generation technologies in the United States, Hydropower plants, when managed for
2006 multiple uses, should also allow for flow
regulation and flood management, water
for irrigation and drinking water supply
Geothermal steam, CL tower
during dry seasons and rapid response
Solar trough, CL tower to grid demand fluctuations due to peak
Solar tower, CL tower demands.
Gas CCGT, dry
According to the International Energy
Gas CCGT, CL tower Agency, electricity generation from hydro-
Gas CCGT, open loop power and other renewable energy sources
Natural gas supply is projected to increase at an average an-
nual rate of 1.7% from 2004 to 2030, for
Nuclear, dry
an overall increase of 60% through 2030
Nuclear, CL pond (figure 7.11).
Nuclear, CL tower
Development of hydropower will be lim-
Nuclear, open loop
ited by two main factors. The first is the
Nuclear fuel mining and processing modest spatial and geophysical potential
Coal ICGT for new hydropower installations. In
Fossil steam, dry
many developed countries – including
Australia, the United States and most of
Fossil steam, CL pond Western Europe – most of the suitable
Fossil steam, CL tower sites for hydropower installations have
Fossil steam, open loop already been developed. Other limiting
factors are investment capacity (including
Coal slurry
the availability of funds) and the social
Coal mining and environmental impacts of large dams
1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 and the controversy surrounding them,
which collectively explain why so little
Gallons per megawatt hours of electricity, log scale hydroelectric potential has been tapped in
developing countries.
Note: CL is closed loop cooling, CCGT is combined cycle gas turbine, and ICGT is inte-
grated gasification combined-cycle.
Source: US Department of Energy 2006.
Oil prices and energy choices. Volatile prices
of oil and natural gas, which are expected
to persist over the medium term, encour- Figure 7.11 Renewable energy sources are expected
age the use of renewable energy, which is to meet only a small part of total energy
also attractive for environmental reasons. demand to 2030
Government policies and incentives can
also increase the use of renewable energy Global production of electricity by energy source, 1971-2030
(thousands of terawatt hours)
sources even when renewable energy
cannot compete economically with fossil 40
Geothermal, solar, tide and wave
fuels. Nonetheless, the renewable energy Wind
Biomass and waste
share of world electricity production is 30 Hydro
projected to fall slightly, from 19% in
Nuclear
2004 to 16% in 2030, as growth in the
consumption of coal and natural gas for 20 Gas
electricity generation worldwide exceeds
Oil
that in renewable energy sources. The 10
capital costs of new power plants using
renewable energy remain high compared
Coal
with those for coal- or natural gas-fired 0
plants. 1971 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
2 Chapter 7E
Freshwater pressures are mounting, and there are activities such as fisheries and pastoral
likely to be increased calls for action to activities also depend on in-stream use of
ecosystems provide
deal with greenhouse gas emissions in water. Recreational activities such as tub-
an extensive array coming decades in ways that can alter ing and kayaking do not deplete water, but
of services to the energy production landscape. Yet demand releases of water and maintenance
the International Energy Agency’s World of minimum flows at times that may not
support human Energy Outlook 2007 forecasts that fossil be compatible with demands by other
well-being fuels will continue to provide the major users.
part of the increased energy demand.73
Nonetheless, the pressure and prospects Water for transport
for hydropower development may also The 25 largest cities, the 25 largest produc-
increase as part of efforts to mitigate tion locations, the 25 most prosperous
climate change. areas and the 25 most densely populated
areas in the world are all located near
In-stream water uses waterfronts, almost all of them by the
sea.74 This has been the case for at least
Freshwater ecosystems provide an exten- 2,000 years. River navigation was part of
sive array of services to support human the Indus Valley Civilization in Northwest
well-being, many of them extremely India around 3300 BCE. Many major rivers
valuable. Yet some environmental services of the world are used for navigation today.
continue to receive inadequate policy at- The development of waterways for trans-
tention. Shifting attitudes away from con- port lies behind many large-scale river
sidering the environment as a victim of transformations and dam constructions.
human uses of water and towards viewing Of 230 major world rivers some 60% are
environmental sustainability as central to considered to be seriously or moderately
sustainable development remains a signifi- fragmented by dams, dikes and dredging,
cant challenge. (For further discussion, see with improved river transport often being
chapters 6 and 9.) an objective.75
FINLAND 6,675 KM
SWEDEN 2,052 KM
CANADA 3,000 KM
UNITED KINGDOM 3,200 KM KAZAKHSTAN 3,900 KM
GERMANY 7,500 KM RUSSIAN FEDERATION 95,900 KM
NETHERLANDS 5,046 KM POLAND 3,812 KM
BELGIUM 1,570 KM UKRAINE 4,499 KM
HUNGARY 1,373 KM
FRANCE 14,932 KM ROMANIA 1,724 KM (1984)
UNITED STATES 41,009 KM JAPAN 1,770 KM
ITALY 2,400 KM
IRAQ 1,015 KM CHINA 110,000 KM
EGYPT 3,500 KM
BANGLADESH 8,046 KM
MEXICO 2,900 KM
INDIA 16,180 KM MYANMAR 3,200 KM
SUDAN 5,310 KM LAO PDR 4,587 KM
NIGERIA 8,575 KM THAILAND 4,000 KM VIET NAM 17,702 KM
VENEZUELA 7,100 KM CAMBODIA 3,700 KM
GUYANA 5,900 KM MALAYSIA 7,296 KM
COLOMBIA 18,140 KM CONGO 15,000 KM
INDONESIA 21,579 KM PAPUA NEW GUINEA 10,940 KM
BRAZIL 50,000 KM
PERU 8,808 KM ZAMBIA 2,250 KM
BOLIVIA 10,000 KM MOZAMBIQUE 3,750 KM
AUSTRALIA 8,368 KM
Five longest waterway
networks (kilometres)
ARGENTINA 10,950KM 1. China 110,000
2. Russia 95,900
3. Europe 51,996
4. United States 41,009
5. Indonesia 21,579
2 Chapter 7E
Figure 7.12 Global freshwater fish production has grown the contribution of fish to total animal
rapidly in recent decades protein intake in 2005 was about 20%,
and may be higher than indicated by of-
Millions of tonnes
ficial statistics because of the unrecorded
contribution of subsistence fisheries. Fish
50 contribute to diets in many regions of the
Aquaculture world, offering a valuable supplement for
Capture
40 a diversified and nutritious diet, includ-
ing high-value protein and a wide range
30
of essential micronutrients, minerals and
fatty acids.
20
Landing more than 10 million tonnes in
2006, inland capture fisheries contributed
10 11% of global capture fisheries produc-
tion. Although much lower than marine
0 fisheries, fish and other aquatic animals
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2006 from inland waters remain irreplace-
able to the diets of both rural and urban
Source: FAO forthcoming. inhabitants in many parts of the world,
especially in developing countries. For de-
mographic and cultural reasons, however,
Figure 7.13 Inland capture fisheries vary greatly by levels of exploitation differ considerably
region, 2006 across major geographic regions (figure
7.13). And although statistics are improv-
Percent of total inland fish capture ing in some countries, collecting accurate
Europe information on inland fisheries can be
Americas 3.5% Oceania 0.2%
5.9% difficult and costly, and many govern-
ments still do not gather such informa-
tion or assess the status of inland fishery
resources.
Notes out on behalf of the Bill and Melinda 59. IPCC 2007a.
1. UNDP 2006; WHO and UNICEF Gates Foundation by a consortium of 60. Bennett, Haberle, and Lumley 2000.
2008a. Cranfield University, Aguaconsult and
IRC International Water and Sanita- 61. Comprehensive Assessment of Water
2. Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture 2007.
tion Centre. Various documents can
Management in Agriculture 2007; 62. Comprehensive Assessment of Water
be downloaded from www.irc.nl/
World Bank 2007. Management in Agriculture 2007.
page/35947.
3. MEA 2005; UNEP 2007. 63. Water can accumulate in the soil
28. EHP 2003.
4. Margat and Andréassian 2008. profile through runoff and ground
29. Wright 1997.
5. Comprehensive Assessment of Water water recharge and from irrigation if
30. UNDP 2006. the rate of input exceeds the rate of
Management in Agriculture 2007.
31. UN-Water 2008. crop consumption (see chapter 8).
6. Shiklomanov and Rodda 2003.
32. Comprehensive Assessment of Water This accumulation can lead to water-
7. FAO-AQUASTAT database (www. fao. logging (when soil pores are filled
Management in Agriculture 2007.
org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index. with water and oxygen is lacking) and
stm). 33. World Bank 2007.
salinization (when the rising water in
8. Comprehensive Assessment of Water 34. FAOSTAT database (http://faostat.fao. the soil profile brings diluted salts to
Management in Agriculture 2007. org/). the surface). Worldwide, about 10%
35. See Comprehensive Assessment of of irrigated land suffers from water-
9. World Bank 2007.
Water Management in Agriculture logging.
10. Cosgrove and Rijsberman 2000; MEA
2007, chapter 9. 64. Comprehensive Assessment of Water
2005; Comprehensive Assessment of
36. WWAP 2006. Management in Agriculture 2007.
Water Management in Agriculture
2007. 37. FAO 2006b. 65. www.globalreporting.org/.
11. This is one of the tasks set for the 38. FAO 2006a. 66. WWAP 2006.
scenarios process that is under way 39. FAO 2006b. 67. Somlyódy and Varis 2006.
by the World Water Assessment Pro-
40. FAO 2008c. 68. Blue Plan, MAP, and UNEP 2007.
gramme, to be reported in the next
World Water Development Report. 41. FAO 2008c. 69. Global Water Intelligence 2007.
12. Blue Plan, MAP, and UNEP 2005. 42. Worldwatch Institute 2008. 70. Dornbosch and Steenblik 2007.
13. Hoekstra and Chapagain 2007. 43. FAO 2008c. 71. ICOLD 2007.
14. UNSGAB 2006. 44. Bioethanol and biodiesel are typi- 72. World Development Indicators
cally mixed with gasoline and diesel, database (2005 data; http://ddp-ext.
15. WHO and UNICEF 2008b.
respectively, as so-called flex-fuel. worldbank.org/ext/ddpreports/).
16. WHO and UNICEF 2008b. Blends vary between a few percent of 73. IEA 2007.
17. Pilgrim et al. 2008. biofuel to nearly 25% in Brazil.
74. BVB 2008.
18. The Joint Monitoring Programme for 45. Müller et al. 2008; De Fraiture,
75. WWF 2008.
Water Supply and Sanitation, man- Giodano, and Yongsong 2007; OECD
aged by the World Health Organiza- and FAO 2008. 76. BVB 2008.
tion (WHO) and the United Nations 46. OECD and FAO 2008. 77. PIANC 2008.
Children’s Fund (UNICEF), is the UN 78. WWF website (www.panda.org/
mechanism for monitoring progress 47. FAO 2008a.
about_wwf/what_we_do/fresh-
towards the Millennium Development 48. OECD and FAO 2008.
water/problems/infrastructure/
Goal target on access to water supply 49. Dornbosch and Steenblik 2007. river_navigation/).
and sanitation.
50. De Fraiture, Giodano, and Yongsong 79. Comprehensive Assessment of Water
19. WHO and UNICEF 2006. 2007. Management in Agriculture 2007.
20. UNDP 2006. 51. De Fraiture, Giodano, and Yongsong 80. Béné, Macfayden, and Allison 2007.
21. UN-Water 2008. 2007.
81. This section is based on FAO
22. UN Millennium Project 2005. 52. Dornbosch and Steenblik 2007. forthcoming.
23. UNDP 2006. 53. Dornbosch and Steenblik 2007. 82. For example, Southern Africa, in
24. WHO and UNICEF 2008a. 54. Zah et al. 2007; Dornbosch and Béné, Macfadyen, and Allison (2007).
25. AfricanSan +5 Conference on Sanita- Steenblik 2007. 83. Thorpe et al. 2005.
tion and Hygiene 2008. 55. IPCC 2007b. 84. Wilson 2004.
26. van Ginneken and Kingdom 2008. 56. FAO 2008b 85. Sana 2000.
27. A comprehensive review of ap- 57. IPCC 2007a. 86. Ahmed et al. 1998.
proaches and technologies for water, 58. IPCC 2007c. 87. Thompson and Hossain 1998; Hog-
sanitation and hygiene was carried garth et al. 1999.
2 Chapter 7E
88. Including fish, crustaceans and mol- Water for Food, Water for Life: A Compre- Conference on World Food Security:
lusks, and excluding aquatic mam- hensive Assessment of Water Management The Challenges of Climate Change and
mals and aquatic plants. in Agriculture. London: Earthscan, and Bioenergy, 3-5 June 2008, Rome.
89. FAO forthcoming. Colombo: International Water Manage- ———. 2008c. Soaring Food Prices: Facts,
ment Institute. Perspectives, Impacts and Actions
90. Gowing 2006.
Cosgrove, W., and F. Rijsberman. 2000. Required. Contribution to the High Level
World Water Vision: Making Water Every- Conference on World Food Security:
References body’s Business. London: Earthscan. The Challenges of Climate Change and
AfricaSan + 5 Conference on Sanitation De Fraiture, C., M. Giodano, and Yong- Bioenergy, 3-5 June 2008, Rome.
and Hygiene. 2008. The eThekwini Dec- song L. 2007. Biofuels: Implications for ———. Forthcoming. The State of World
laration and AfricaSan Action Plan. WSP Agricultural Water Use: Blue Impact of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2008. Rome:
(Water and Sanitation Program) – Africa. Green Energy. Paper presented at the Food and Agriculture Organization of
Ahmed, M., H. Navy, L. Vuthy, and M. International Conference Linkages be- the United Nations.
Tiongco. 1998. Socio-Economic Assess- tween Energy and Water Management Global Water Intelligence. 2007. Global
ment of Freshwater Capture Fisheries in for Agriculture in Developing Countries, Water Market 2008: Opportunities in
Cambodia. Report 185. Phnom Penh: 28-31 January 2007, Hyderabad, India. Scarcity and Environmental Regulation.
Mekong River Commission, Department DHI. 2008. Linking Water, Energy and Oxford: Global Water Intelligence.
of Fisheries and Danida. Climate Change. A Proposed Water Government of Indonesia. 2007. Indonesia
Aliev, S., P. Shodmonov, N. Babakhanova, and Energy Policy Initiative for the UN Country Report. Climate Variability and
and O. Schmoll. 2006. Rapid Assess- Climate Change Conference, COP15, in Climate Changes and Their Implications.
ment of Drinking-Water Quality in Copenhagen 2009, Draft Concept Note, Jakarta: Ministry of Environment, Repub-
the Republic of Tajikistan. Dushanbe, Danish Hydrological Institute, Horsholm, lic of Indonesia. www.undp.or.id/pubs/
Ministry of Health of the Republic of Denmark. docs/Final%20Country%20Report%20
Tajikistan, United Nations Children’s Dornbosch, Richard, and Ronald Steenb- -%20Climate%20Change.pdf.
Fund, World Health Organization. lik. 2007. Biofuels: Is the Cure Worse Gowing, J. 2006. A Review of Experience
Béné, C., G. Macfadyen, and E. Allison. than the Disease? Round Table on with Aquaculture Integration in Large-
2007. Increasing the Contribution of Sustainable Development, 11-12 Sep- Scale Irrigation Systems. In Integrated Ir-
Small-Scale Fisheries to Poverty Allevia- tember 2007, Paris. SG/SD/RT(2007)3, rigation and Aquaculture in West Africa:
tion and Food Security. FAO Fisheries Organisation for Economic Co-operation Concepts, Practices and Potential, eds.,
Technical Paper 481, Food and Agricul- and Development. www.foeeurope. M. Halwart and A. A. van Dam. Rome:
ture Organization of the United Nations, org/publications/2007/OECD_Biofuels_ Food and Agriculture Organization of
Rome. Cure_Worse_Than_Disease_Sept07.pdf. the United Nations.
Bennett K. D., S. G. Haberle, and S. H. EHP (Environmental Health Project). Hoekstra, A. Y., and A. K. Chapagain.
Lumley. 2000. The Last Glacial-Holocene 2003. The Hygiene Improvement Frame- 2007. Water Footprints of Nations:
Transition in Southern Chile. Science work: A Comprehensive Approach for Pre- Water Use by People as a Function of
290 (5490): 325-28. DOI:10.1126/ venting Childhood Diarrhoea. Washing- Their Consumption Pattern. Water Re-
science.290.5490.325. ton, DC: Environmental Health Project. sources Management 21 (1): 35-48.
Blue Plan, MAP (Mediterranean Action FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization ———. 2008. Globalization of Water: Shar-
Plan), and UNEP (United Nations Envi- of the United Nations). 2006a. World ing the Planet’s Freshwater Resources.
ronment Programme). 2005. The Blue Agriculture towards 2030/2050. Prospects Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Plan’s Sustainable Development Outlook for Food, Nutrition, Agriculture, and
Hoggarth, D. D., V. J. Cowan, A. S. Halls,
for the Mediterranean. Sophia Antipolis, Major Commodity Groups. Interim Report.
M. Aeron-Thomas, J. A. McGregor, C.
France: Blue Plan. www.planbleu.org/ Rome: Food and Agriculture Organiza-
A. Garaway, A. I. Payne, and R. Wel-
publications/UPM_EN.pdf. tion of the United Nations.
comme. 1999. Management Guidelines
———. 2007. Water Demand Management, ———. 2006b. The State of Food Insecurity for Asian Floodplain River Fisheries. Part
Progress and Policies: Proceedings of the in the World 2006. Eradicating World 1: A Spatial, Hierarchical and Integrated
3rd Regional Workshop on Water and Hunger – Taking Stock Ten Years after the Strategy for Adaptive Co-management.
Sustainable Development in the Mediter- World Food Summit. Rome: Food and FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, 384/1.
ranean Zaragoza, Spain, 19-21 March. Agriculture Organization of the United Rome: Food and Agriculture Organiza-
MAP Technical Reports Series 168. Nations. tion of the United Nations.
Athens: United Nations Environment ———. 2008a. Report of the Co-Chairs Hoogeveen, J., J.-M. Faurès, and N. van
Programme. of the Informal Open-ended Contact de Giesse. Forthcoming. Increased
BVB (Bureau Voorlichtin Binnenvaart). Group. Contribution to the High-Level Biofuel Production in the Coming Dec-
2008. The Power of Inland Naviga- Conference on World Food Security: ade: to What Extent Will It Affect Global
tion: The Future of Inland Navigation The Challenges of Climate Change and Freshwater Resources? Irrigation and
on European Scale. Rotterdam: Bu- Bioenergy, 3-5 June 2008, Rome. ftp:// Drainage Journal.
reau Voorlichtin Binnenvaart. www. ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/meeting/013/
ICOLD (International Commission on
bureauvoorlichtingbinnenvaart.nl/ k2359e.pdf.
Large Dams). 2007. Dams and the
images/download/waardevoltransport/ ———. 2008b. Climate Change, Water and World’s Water. An Educational Book that
The_power_of_inland_navigation.pdf. Food Security. Technical background Explains How Dams Help to Manage the
www.inlandshipping.com/ document from the expert consulta- World’s Water. Paris: International Com-
Comprehensive Assessment of Water tion held in Rome, 26-28 February mission on Large Dams.
Management in Agriculture. 2007. 2008. Contribution to the High Level
2 Chapter 7E
Wright, A. M. 1997. Toward a Strategic Nations Educational, Scientific and Zah, Rainer, Heinz Böni, Marcel Gauch,
Sanitation Approach: Improving the Cultural Organization, and New York: Roland Hischier, Martin Lehmann, and
Sustainability of Urban Sanitation in Berghahn Books. Patrick Wäger. 2007. Life Cycle Assess-
Developing Countries. Washington, DC: WWF. 2008. Infrastructure Problems: River ment of Energy Products: Environmen-
World Bank. Navigation Schemes. WWF. www.panda. tal Assessment of Biofuels – Executive
WWAP (World Water Assessment Pro- org/about_wwf/what_we_do/freshwater/ Summary. Empa, Swiss Federal Institute
gramme). 2006. The United Nations problems/infrastructure/river_navigation/ for Materials Science and Technology,
World Water Development Report 2. Water: index.cfm. Technology and Society Lab, Gallen,
A Shared Responsibility. Paris: United Switzerland.
Key messages
The pattern and intensity of human activity have disrupted –
through impacts on quantity and quality – the role of water as the
prime environmental agent. In some areas depletion and pollution
of economically important water resources have gone beyond the
point of no-return, and coping with a future without reliable water
resources systems is now a real prospect in parts of the world.
Progress in mitigating the negative effects the silting of dams and nutrient loss be-
of water development has been slow, while cause of the fragmentation of rivers. Many
accelerated economic growth has placed of these impacts are caused by cities, in-
additional burdens on resources. There is dustry and agriculture that lack incentives
clear evidence of the degradation of water or obligations to act and report on their
quantity and quality: drying rivers, aquifers performance on water use and pollution
and groundwater basins; bioaccumulation mitigation. Overexploitation and pollution
of agrochemicals and heavy metals in fish; are mainly externalities of the activities
algal blooms from high nutrient loads; and of users and polluters: users and polluters
2 Chapter 8I
An increasing seldom directly suffer the consequences to meet all the demands placed on them,
of their actions. Internalizing these effects and competition among users can be in-
number of river
thus seems a good way to reduce misuse tense (see chapter 9).
basins lack and pollution. Examples include providing
sufficient water incentives through payments for ecosystem Available information hides the full reality
services (such as to local communities for of scarcity at local or basin level. This is
to meet all the maintaining the integrity of forested water- particularly problematic in large countries
demands placed sheds) and for sustaining benefits provided such as the United States, where average
to others (see box 14.23 in chapter 14) and water use nationally accounts for only 25%
on them, and applying the ‘polluter pays’ principle. of available resources, but can reach 80%
competition on a subnational scale.1
How water use affects water
among users resources Degradation of ecosystems. The Millennium
can be intense Ecosystem Assessment has demonstrated
Humans have settled near water bodies for how modifying landscapes to increase
millennia, and human alteration of coast- food production and allow development
lines, rivers, lakes and wetlands has gone has resulted in adverse ecological changes
hand in hand with social and economic to many ecosystems, with accompanying
development. While this has increased loss and degradation of ecosystem servic-
the demand to produce more food, urban es.2 Synergistic and cumulative effects can
growth and industrial development have make it difficult to attribute changes to a
pushed cities to look increasingly farther single cause. Losses have adverse effects
for the water they need, often taking water on livelihoods and economic production,3
from, and perhaps hurting, other users – and some ecosystems have passed thresh-
agriculture and nature. olds into regime shifts, with a collapse in
ecosystem services, making the cost of
Disturbing impacts: ecosystems restoration (if possible) very high.
under stress
Increasing water scarcity. Water scarcity There are many instances where con-
occurs when so much water is withdrawn sumptive use and water diversion have
from lakes, rivers or groundwater that severely degraded downstream wetlands
supplies can no longer adequately satisfy or closed basins. Examples include the
all human and ecosystem requirements, drastic shrinking Aral Sea in Central Asia
resulting in more competition among and Lake Chapala in Mexico, the world’s
potential users (map 8.1). An increasing largest shallow lake. With some of the
number of river basins lack sufficient water largest rivers becoming small streams close
Map 8.2 Restoration of the Mesopotamian Marshlands in Iraq, March 2003-December 2005
IRAQ
Me y m e h
IRAQ
Me y m e h
Do
Do
ve y
ve y
ig ig
ric
ric
T
ri s ris
T
Water
S ha tt a
Ka
S ha tt a
Ka
Dry soil
r kh r kh
eh eh
l-G ha ra
l-G ha ra
2
Wet soil or very shallow water 1 1
f
Dark soil 3
1
Light soil 8
Al-Nasiriyah Al-Nasiriyah 4
Terrestrial vegetation E uphra te
s
Al-Qurnah E uphra te
s
Al-Qurnah
Karun
Al-Basrah Al-Basrah
Dense hydrophytes (marsh vegetation) 3 7
S ha tt
Shatt
Abadan Abadan
Medium hydrophytes (marsh vegetation)
tt a l-A rab t al-Arab
S ha Shat
6
al-
al-B
5
Basr
as r
Khawr Khawr
ah
al-Zubair al-Zubair
2 Chapter 8I
systems (wetlands). Some ecosystems Of the world’s 292 largest river systems in
disappear when rivers are regulated or im- 20058 (accounting for 60% of the world’s
pounded because of the altered flow and runoff), more than a third (105) were con-
new barriers to the movement of migra- sidered to be strongly affected by fragmen-
tory species. Humans can also suffer from tation, and 68 moderately affected.9 Wet-
forced migration and population displace- land ecosystems feel the greatest impact,
ment, two well documented social impacts but terrestrial ecosystems such as forests
of dams.7 and grasslands are also affected (figure 8.2).
Figure 8.2 Effects of river fragmentation and flow Ecosystem change has accelerated in many
regulation vary by region and biome type, 2005 areas, and there is concern that large-scale
changes will make some ecosystems more
Effects by region vulnerable to water-related agricultural
activities. The non-linear dynamics of eco-
Percent Strongly affected Moderately affected
systems may lead to abrupt changes that
can affect their resilience and capacity to
Australasia
absorb disturbances.10
South America
Variability and flexibility are needed to
Africa maintain ecosystem resilience. Attempts
Asia
to keep systems in some perceived optimal
state, whether for conservation or produc-
North and Central America tion, have often reduced long-term resil-
ience, making the system more vulnerable
Europe
to change.11 Modifications of landscapes
0 25 50 75 100 and reductions of other ecosystem services
have diminished the capacity of ecosys-
Effects by biome type tems to cope with larger-scale and more
Percent Strongly affected Moderately affected complex dynamics through reduced eco-
system resilience locally and across scales.12
Tundra
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests Water can accumulate in the soil profile
through runoff and groundwater recharge
Deserts and xeric shrublands and from irrigation if the rate of input
exceeds the rate of crop consumption. This
Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrub
accumulation can lead to water-logging
0 25 50 75 100 (when soil pores are filled with water and
oxygen is lacking) and salinization (when
Note: The fragmentation and flow indicator was developed by Umea University in Sweden, the rising water in the soil profile brings
in collaboration with the World Resources Institute, for assessing the state of large river diluted salts to the surface). Worldwide,
systems. Unaffected river systems have no dams in their catchments but can have dams about 10% of irrigated land suffers from
in tributaries if flow regulation is less than 2%. A river system is considered ‘affected’ if water-logging, resulting in a 20% drop in
there are dams in the main channel but is never classified as ‘strongly affected’ if there are water-logged areas.14
no dams in the main channel. All river systems with no more than a quarter of their main
channel length left without dams are considered strongly affected.
Although a problem worldwide, saliniza-
Source: Based on WWF 2006.
tion is particularly acute in semi-arid areas
2 Chapter 8I
systematic updating and collection of data and the Asian alluvial plains of the Pun-
on national groundwater use and resource jab and Terai (map 8.4). Less evident is
status inventories on a global scale.24 The the conjunctive use associated with the
situation is improving in Europe, driven concentration of irrigated agriculture and
by the monitoring requirements of the urban development in many alluvial fan
EU Water Framework Directive and a joint and delta environments (such as those of
information system for sharing data, the the Chao Praya, Ganges-Brahmaputra, Go-
European Environment Information and davari, Indus, Krishna, Mekong, Narmada,
Observation Network (EIONET). Map 8.3 Nile, Mississippi, Po, Yangtze and Yellow
presents the state of knowledge on renew- Rivers). Reducing stress on these ground-
able and fossil aquifer withdrawals. water systems involves more than ground-
water resources management. It requires
Irrigated agriculture is the principal user reducing land-based pollution, rehabili-
of the major sedimentary aquifers of the tating degraded habitats and conserving
Middle East, North Africa, North America water resources.
Map 8.3 Annual withdrawals of renewable groundwater sources and non-renewable fossil
aquifers, most recent year available, 1995-2004
Annual withdrawals
(cubic kilometres)
0-5
5-20
20-100
More than 100
No data
Note: National averages can mask the true situation, which can vary dramatically on a local scale.
Source: Based on Margat 2008.
Annual withdrawals
(cubic kilometres)
0-5
5-25
25-50
50-200
No data
2 Chapter 8I
Map 8.5 Groundwater use for drinking water on a country basis, most recent year available, 1995-2005
Annual withdrawals
(cubic kilometres)
0-1
1-5
5-10
10-30
No data
African cities are using boreholes to im- emergencies. In Europe land use zoning is
prove water security, with the aim of eas- now used to protect vulnerable key aqui-
ing pressure on water facilities in densely fers that provide municipal water supply,
populated suburbs. or deeper confined groundwater sources
are developed that are naturally protected
Social, economic and environmental from urban pollution.
risks
Three aquifer characteristics determine A recent study of the water economics of
whether groundwater services will ulti- the Middle East and North Africa region
mately prove sustainable: estimates that groundwater resource deple-
tion has substantially reduced GDP in
• Vulnerability to pollution under some countries – Jordan by 2.1%, Yemen
contaminant pressure from the land 1.5%, Egypt 1.3% and Tunisia 1.2%.26 Re-
surface. ductions in groundwater stocks (whether
renewable or non-renewable) appear to
• Susceptibility to irreversible degrada- have been translated into reduced eco-
tion from excessive exploitation. nomic productivity of water. More difficult
to assess are the positive economic impacts
• Renewability of storage reserves under of groundwater abstraction and where
current and future climate regimes. access to and use of groundwater results
in economic liberation. Oman, Saudi
These characteristics vary widely by Arabia and the United Arab Emirates,
aquifer type and hydrogeologic setting. for example, rely almost exclusively on
Vulnerability to pollution is generally non-renewable groundwater and desalina-
linked to an aquifer’s accessibility. Aqui- tion for water supply. In all such calcula-
fers that are shallow and ‘open’ to regular tions, however, it should be kept in mind
and dependable recharge are more likely that values for groundwater ‘reserves’ or
to suffer pollution from agrochemicals and ‘stocks’ and ‘sustainable yield’ are not
urbanization (in particular, from low-cost precise, while the partition between ‘re-
wastewater disposal and careless disposal newable’ and ‘non-renewable’ is a further
of industrial chemicals). Aquifer develop- complication.27
ment and effluent disposal for urban water
supply have far-reaching implications for Sharp points of competition over ground-
public health, municipal planning and water resources between urban and rural
resource sustainability. The presence of users are now becoming more apparent.
groundwater initially relieves financial Expanding municipalities and expanding
pressure on urban water service utilities, light industrial and commercial activi-
but often at the cost of degrading shallow ties in peri-urban and linked rural areas
aquifers and complicating public health are competing with agriculture over
2 Chapter 8I
Information While the trend towards more precision systems. Many industries – some of them
agriculture will boost overall groundwater known to be heavily polluting (such as
about pollution
productivity, it will not necessarily relieve leather and chemicals) – are moving from
loads and water abstraction pressure on aquifers because it high-income countries to emerging market
quality changes will potentially improve the feasibility of economies (box 8.1), where they benefit
abstraction by larger pumping lifts. from various incentives, a lower-cost work-
is lacking in many force and, in some cases, less stringent
countries because The tension between private and public environmental regulations.
services derived from aquifers remains.
of inadequate More convergent and sustainable resource Information about pollution loads and
monitoring systems use will be achieved only through substan- water quality changes is lacking in many
tial investment in management operations countries because of inadequate monitor-
on the ground, working primarily through ing systems. As a result, the often-serious
community consultation and cross- impacts of polluting activities on human
sectoral policy dialogue. Such dialogue is and ecosystem health remain unreported
supported by shared knowledge and com- or underreported.
mon understanding of the current situa-
tion and future options, as illustrated in An overview of water quality issues:
the country policy support programmes of the increasing threat from pollution
the International Commission on Irriga- Pollution’s increasing threat to water quality.
tion and Drainage that have been tested in Human-generated water pollution is a
river basins in China (Jiaodong Peninsula serious threat to human and ecosystem
and Qiantang River) and India (Brahmani health, but its impact is hard to quantify.
and Sabarmati). Dialogue on these basins Despite monitoring inadequacies, there are
was supported by a user-friendly model for local signs that the declining quality of
investigating risks and adaptation strate- domestic water supply sources is becoming
gies using a scenario approach for looking a major concern in many countries.
at supply and demand and quantity and
quality for different sectors of use. Pollution typically refers to chemicals or
other substances in concentrations greater
Growing risks: pollution and than would occur under natural condi-
degradation of water quality tions. Major water pollutants include
microbes, nutrients, heavy metals, organic
Despite improvements in some regions, chemicals, oil and sediments; heat, which
water pollution is on the rise globally. raises the temperature of the receiving
And unless substantial progress is made in water, can also be a pollutant. Pollutants
regulation and enforcement, pollution is are typically the cause of major water qual-
expected to increase as a result of eco- ity degradation around the world. Virtu-
nomic development driven by urbaniza- ally all goods-producing activities generate
tion, industries and intensive agriculture pollutants as unwanted by-products (see
chapter 10).
Box 8.1 Asian ‘Tigers’ and the hidden tip of the
pollution iceberg Water pollutants are categorized as point or
non-point according to their primary sourc-
es (table 8.1). Point sources are pollutants
Industrial and economic develop- Current strategies for economic
ment in Asia, especially among rapidly development have propelled river
from pipelines and other readily identifiable
growing ‘Asian Tiger’ economies, has degradation to the top of the water sources. Non-point sources are pollutants
in many cases come at the expense of use agenda. Malaysia, for example, mobilized by precipitation as it flows over
water resources. Rapid urbanization recently witnessed an increase in the the land and infiltrates the soil. Non-point
across Asia and the Pacific will continue number of rivers deemed slightly pol- source pollutant loads in a drainage basin
to shape the parameters of water use luted and a decline in the number of are a function of precipitation patterns and
trends, which affect prospects for water rivers considered clean. As recognition the range of human activities in the basin
scarcity. Although rural populations in of the problem grows, more efforts (especially agriculture). The ecological foot-
Asia are projected to remain stable over are being directed towards river print of consumption31 shows where human
the next 20 years, urban populations rehabilitation.
activities to meet a population’s needs are
are likely to increase by 60% before
2025. While attention focuses on the Source: Le-Huu Ti, Chief, Water Security
well above the respective region’s biocapac-
multiple challenges of megacities, Section, United Nations Economic and ity (map 8.6), implying that such regions are
smaller urban areas, with few financial Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, running an ecological deficit and depend
and technical resources due to their based on information from the Asian River increasingly on the natural wealth and
weak political clout, are set to continue Restoration Network and the fresh and resources of other countries.
current trends of poor wastewater man- coastal waters session at the 3rd Southeast
agement, posing graver threats to water Asia Water Forum Regional Workshop, 23 The most important water contaminants
resources than physical scarcity does. October 2007, Kuala Lumpur. created by human activities are microbial
pathogens, nutrients, oxygen-consuming
Note: Ecological footprint is a measure of the area needed to support a population’s lifestyle. This includes the consumption of food, fuel, wood and fibres.
Pollution, such as carbon dioxide emissions, is also counted as part of the footprint. Biocapacity measures how biologically productive land is. It is meas-
ured in ‘global hectares’ – a hectare with the world average biocapacity. Biologically productive land includes cropland, pasture, forests and fisheries.
Source: Ewing et al. 2008.
2 Chapter 8I
Globally, the most materials, heavy metals and persistent high-nutrient loads (mainly phosphorus
organic matter, as well as suspended sedi- and nitrogen), which substantially impairs
prevalent water
ments, nutrients, pesticides and oxygen- beneficial uses of water (see the example of
quality problem consuming substances, much of it from the Baltic Sea in box 8.2). Major nutrient
is eutrophication non-point sources. The most important sources include agricultural runoff, do-
pollutant affecting human health is micro- mestic sewage (also a source of microbial
bial contamination. Inadequate sanitation pollution), industrial effluents and atmos-
facilities, improper wastewater disposal pheric inputs from fossil fuel burning and
and animal wastes are the major sources bush fires. Lakes and reservoirs are partic-
of microbial pollution. In at least 8 of the ularly susceptible to the negative impacts
United Nations Environment Programme’s of eutrophication because of their complex
13 Regional Seas Programme regions, over dynamics, relatively longer water residence
50% of the wastewater discharged into times and their role as an integrating sink
freshwater and coastal areas is untreated, for pollutants from their drainage basins.33
rising to over 80% in 5 regions.32 Nitrogen concentrations exceeding 5 mil-
ligrams per litre of water often indicate
Pollution-causing activities pollution from human and animal waste
Globally, the most prevalent water qual- or fertilizer runoff from agricultural areas.
ity problem is eutrophication, a result of
Excessive nutrient inputs can also cause
Box 8.2 Addressing eutrophication and its effects in harmful algal blooms. Cyanobacteria, also
the Baltic Sea known as blue-green algae, have increased
in freshwater and coastal systems such
as the East China Sea in recent decades
In 1998 approximately 90% of the population growth and urbanization,
coastal and marine biotopes in the increased sea and road traffic, inef-
(figure 8.4). The toxins produced by the
Baltic Sea were threatened by loss fective laws and regulations to control excessive algal blooms are concentrated
of area or reduction in quality from emissions and inadequate transport by filter-feeding bivalves, fish and other
eutrophication, contamination, policy. marine organisms and can cause fish and
fisheries and settlements. Agriculture, shellfish poisoning. In people they can
urbanization and atmospheric deposi- Environmental protection legisla- cause acute poisoning, skin irritation and
tion were considered the root causes tion and several new measures in gastrointestinal illnesses. There are global
of eutrophication. For agriculture the the region have resulted in some warming implications associated with this
primary causes were mainly inad- improvement, as reported in the Hel- phenomenon, as cyanobacteria have a
equate adoption of modern agri- sinki Commission 2003 assessment.
competitive advantage over other types of
cultural technology and inadequate Phosphorus inputs have decreased
integration of environmental and ag- considerably following measures taken
algae at higher temperatures.
ricultural practices. The causes of pol- by the Baltic Sea riparian countries,
lution from urban sources were lack but eutrophication still remains an Organic materials, particularly from do-
of investment in wastewater facilities urgent problem in most coastal areas. mestic wastewater treatment plants, food-
and high growth rates. Atmospheric processing discharges and algal blooms,
pollution was caused by energy pro- Source: Helsinki Commission 2007; Lääne, are decomposed by oxygen-consuming
duction and transport in response to Kraav, and Titova 2005. microbes in water bodies, as measured
by biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
Thermal stratification in nutrient-enriched
Figure 8.4 Increasing frequency of harmful algal blooms lakes with high BOD levels can produce
in East China Sea associated with increasing chemical conditions allowing nutrients
fertilizer use and heavy metals in lake bottom sedi-
ments to re-enter the water column. Lake
Algal blooms per year Area covered (thousands of square kilometres) Erie’s oxygen-depleted bottom zone, for
example, has expanded since 1998, with
100 25 harmful environmental impacts on the
lake’s fisheries. The eastern and southern
80 20 coasts of North America, the southern
coasts of China and Japan and large areas
60 15 around Europe have also undergone
oxygen depletion.34 One of the world’s
40 10 largest ‘dead zones’ has appeared off the
mouth of the Mississippi River in the Gulf
20 5 of Mexico, attributed to excessive nitrogen
loads from the river, with harmful impacts
0 0 on biodiversity and fisheries.35 Projected
1993 2000 2001 2002 2003 food production needs and increasing
wastewater effluents associated with an
Source: UNEP/GIWA 2006. increasing population over the next three
decades suggest a 10%-15% increase in the
2 Chapter 8I
Most countries cost. One-tenth of the global burden of treats and monitors performance. How-
disease (measured in disability-adjusted ever, investments for such approaches
have legislation to
life years) can be attributed to water, sani- are lacking at all levels (from household
protect their water tation and hygiene, and water and envi- sanitation and industrial processes to
resources, but ronmental factors.41 Other pollution costs city waste treatment plants). Experience
include clean-up, additional treatment from high-income countries shows that
implementation and damage to fisheries, ecosystems and a combination of incentives, including
often lags because recreation. Most countries have introduced more stringent regulation, enforcement
legislation to protect their water resources, and targeted subsidies (where justified),
responsibilities are but implementation often lags because re- can boost investments in water pollution
dispersed and the sponsibilities are dispersed across multiple prevention and treatment. Sanitation
institutions and the costs of control and systems and sewage treatment (prefer-
costs are high monitoring are high. ably with industrial discharges separated
from domestic sewage) can reduce the risk
There are examples, mostly in develped of discharge into natural systems. Such
countries, where the ‘polluter pays’ prin- practices increase production costs for
ciple has stimulated changes in attitudes water services, and effective cost-recovery
towards pollution and led to recycling systems are needed to ensure that pollu-
and reuse, clean processes for industry, tion control remains sustainable.
organic farming and so on or collect
and treat effluents with an ‘end of the Urban settlements are the main source
pipe’ approach that collects, controls, of point-source pollution. In contrast,
While pollution-abatement technologies Hazardous industrial sites, water pollution and mining hotspots in the
exist for hazardous substances, their use Balkans, 2007
in economies in transition is limited to Krsko
1
a small number of economically viable (Slovenia)
ZAGREB
Subotica
Niksic Pernik
D
R Kriva Feja
zinc mine in northeastern FYR Macedonia I
A
Kotor Djakovic
Badovac
Kosovo Cr & Sb mine &
Tivat PODGORICA
released some 486,000 tonnes of mine T
I Cetinje Cu mine &
beneficiation complex
Gnjilan
Jegunovce Kriva
beneficiation mill
Pb-Zn
C Lojane Palanka
tailings into the Kamenicka River. Deposits S
Shkoder
Sasa
tailings dam
Kumanovo Probistip Zletovo
of large quantities of toxic heavy metal ITALY E
A
Fushe-Arrez
Tetovo
SKOPJE Kocani
Rubik Gostivar
(including arsenic, cadmium, copper, Veles Cu mine & mill
Pb-Zn mine
Bucim
lead, manganese, nickel and zinc) and the Hazardous
industrial site
Furshe-Kruje Kicevo Radovis
Negotino
Sharra MACEDONIA
release of acidic drainage to surface and Mining site
Mining industry Durres TIRANA
Kavadarci
hot spots Ohrid
groundwater led to acidification, degrada- Nuclear power
Smelter complex -
Ferrochromium, Fe Suvodol
2 Serious water pollution (steel) & Ni smelters Elbasan Fe-Ni & Sb mine(s)
tion of water resources, accumulation of generation site Bitola & ferronickel smelter
2 Chapter 8I
Box 8.7 Setting target for pollution mitigation and air. Some 60% of the sludge produced by
limits for reuse – the example of Europe treatment plants in France is used as ferti-
lizer in agricultural areas after undergoing
additional treatment, though convinc-
The Urban Wastewater Treatment For smaller agglomerations and those
Directive of the European Union equipped with a collecting system,
ing people to use the sludge remains a
prescribes the level of treatment treatment must be appropriate, struggle.46
required before discharge. Collecting meaning that the discharge allows the
systems must be provided for agglom- receiving waters to meet relevant qual- Sewage: a resource to use? Increasingly, sew-
erations of more than 2,000 people, ity objectives. The European AQUAREC age is being seen as a resource. A European
and secondary treatment (biologi- project proposes seven categories of Commission–funded project, AQUAREC
cal treatment) must be provided for water quality for different types of reuse (Integrated Concepts for Reuse of Up-
agglomerations of more than 2,000 and compiles microbial and chemical graded Wastewater), identifies several uses
people discharging into freshwater and limits for each category. The limits are for treated sewage: agricultural irrigation,
estuaries and agglomerations of more based on recently published guidelines
urban landscaping and recreational uses,
than 10,000 people discharging into and risk estimates, including the most
coastal waters. Special requirements important microbial parameters.
industrial cooling and processing and in-
are placed on five determinants of direct potable water production (through
treatment performance. Source: www.eea.europa.eu; Salgot et al. 2006. groundwater recharge, for example).47
Sp y
A ain
en ia
Ko we rk
a, n
Fi ep.
ew Fr nd
al e
Cz or d
h y
ite ana .
d da
Ire tes
Ja d
n
Po aly
ng d
Ic ary
G nd
lg e
Po ium
Tu al
ey
Un C Rep
ec wa
Ze nc
Be eec
re de
pa
N an
Hu lan
D ustr
g
S a
G ou
K n
rk
xe rla
la
a
It
a
m
rtu
R
d
d rla
a
m
nl
el
St
r
b
ite the
sanitation agencies?
Un Ne
2 Chapter 8I
Note: Data are based on the ISO 14001 certification of the International Organization for
To improve environmental performance,
Standardization and registration under the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) of intervention is needed for non-point
the European Commission. source activities such as agriculture to
Source: ISO 2007. limit the use of nutrients and change pro-
duction processes. Interest in sustainable
2 Chapter 8I
19. Foster and Chilton 2003. And con- 37. France, Ministry of Health 2007. 60. WWAP 2003.
temporary groundwater issues and 38. US EPA 2007. 61. www.minesandcommunities.org/
management options are discussed on 39. UNECE 2007. Action/press973.htm.
the Websites and publications of the 62. OECD 2008c.
40. OECD 2008b.
World Bank-Groundwater Manage-
41. Fewtrell et al. 2007. 63. IFEN 2006.
ment Advisory Team GW-MATE (www.
worldbank.org/gwmate) and UNESCO’s 42. There are three main types of waste 64. WBCSD 2005.
Groundwater Resources Assessment water treatment systems. Primary treat- 65. Benoit and Comeau 2005.
under the Pressures of Humanity and ment (mechanical treatment technol- 66. FAO-AQUASTAT database (www.fao.
Climate Change (GRAPHIC) programme ogy) removes part of the suspended org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm).
2 Chapter 8I
M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, Wetlands and Water Synthesis. Washing- Observation System. United Nations En-
P. J. van der Linden, and C. E. Hanson. ton, DC: World Resources Institute. vironment Programme, Division of Early
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Molle, F., and J. Berkoff. 2006. Cities versus Warning and Assessment/GRID-Europe,
Press. Agriculture: Revisiting Intersectoral Water Geneva. www.grid.unep.ch/activities/
ISO (International Organization for Transfers, Potential Gains and Conflicts. sustainable/tigris/mmos.php.
Standardization). 2007. The ISO Survey Comprehensive Assessment of Water UNEP (United Nations Environment Pro-
of Certifications 2006. Geneva: Interna- Management in Agriculture Research gramme)/GIWA (Global International
tional Organization for Standardization. Report 10. Colombo: Comprehensive Waters Assessment). 2006. Challenges
IWMI (International Water Manage- Assessment Secretariat. to International Waters: Regional Assess-
ment Institute). 2003. Confronting Muir, P. S. 2007. Human Impacts on Eco- ments in a Global Perspective. Global
the Realities of Wastewater Use in systems. Online Study Book for Students, International Waters Assessment Final
Agriculture. Water Policy Briefing Issue Oregon State University, Corvallis, Report. Nairobi: United Nations Envi-
9. International Water Management Oregon. ronment Programme. www.giwa.net/
Institute, Colombo. www.iwmi.cgiar.org/ publications/finalreport/.
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-
Publications/Water_Policy_Briefs/PDF/ operation and Development). 2008a. UNEP (United Nations Environment Pro-
wpb09.pdf. OECD Environmental Data Compendium. gramme)/GPA (Global Programme
———. 2005. Environmental Flows: Environ- Paris: Organisation for Economic Co- of Action for the Protection of the
ment Perspectives on River Basin Manage- operation and Development. www.oecd. Marine Environment from Land-
ment in Asia 2 (1). www.eflownet.org/ org/document/49/0,3343,en_2649_ Based Activities). 2006. The State of
download_documents/EnvFlowsNL_ 34283_39011377_1_1_1_1,00.html. the Marine Environment: Trends and
Vol_2_Issue_1.pdf. Processes. The Hague: United Na-
———. 2008b. Service Delivery in Fragile tions Environment Programme/Global
Keraita, B., F. Konradsen, P. Drechsel, and Situations: Key Concepts, Findings and Les- Programme of Action for the Protection
R. C. Abaidoo. 2007a. Effect of Low- sons. OECD/DAC Discussion Paper. Off- of the Marine Environment from Land-
Cost Irrigation Methods on Microbial print of the Journal on Development 9 (3). Based Activities.
Contamination of Lettuce Irrigated with Organisation for Economic Co-operation
Untreated Wastewater. Tropical Medicine and Development, Paris. UNEP (United Nations Environment
and International Health 12 (S2): 15-22. Programme)/Global Resource Informa-
———. 2008c. OECD Environment Outlook to tion Database Arendal. 2007. Balkan
———. 2007b. Reducing Microbial Contam- 2030. Paris: Organisation for Economic Vital Graphics: Environment without
ination on Wastewater-Irrigated Lettuce Co-operation and Development. Borders. United Nations Environment
by Cessation of Irrigation before Harvest- Salgot, M., E. Huertas, S. Weber, W. Dott, Programme/Global Resource Information
ing. Tropical Medicine and International and J. Hollender. 2006. Waste Water Database Arendal, Arendal, Norway.
Health 12 (S2): 8-14. Reuse and Risks Definition of Key Objec- UNEP (United Nations Environment
Koo, Sasha. 2003. Preliminary Remedial In- tives. Desalination 187 (1-3): 29-40. Programme)/OCHA (Office for the Co-
vestigation of the Potential Impact of an Scott, C. A., N. I. Faruqui, and L. Raschid- ordination of Humanitarian Affairs).
Environmental Accident on Agriculture Sally, ed. 2004. Wastewater Use in Irrigat- 2000. Cyanide Spill at Baia Mare. Spill of
and Irrigation in the Affected Region. ed Agriculture: Confronting the Livelihood Liquid and Suspended Waste at the Aurul
Macedonia Mission Report, 27-31 Octo- and Environmental Realities. Wallingford, S.A. Retreatment Plant in Baia Mare.
ber, Food and Agriculture Organization UK: Cabi Publishing. Assessment Mission Romania, Hungary,
of the United Nations, Rome.
Shah, T., O. P. Singh, and A. Mukherji. Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, United
Kraemer, R. A., Z. G. Castro, R. Seroa da 2006. Some Aspects of South Asia’s Nations Environment Programme,
Motta, and C. Russell. 2003. Economic Groundwater Irrigation Economy: Geneva.
Instruments for Water Management: Ex- Analyses from a Survey in India, Pakistan, United Nations. 1976. Groundwater in the
periences from Europe and Implications for Nepal and Bangladesh. Hydrogeology Western Hemisphere. Natural Resources/
Latin America and the Caribbean. Regional Journal 14 (3): 286-309. Water Series No. 4. New York: United
Policy Dialogue Study Series. Washing-
Shiklomanov, I. A., ed. 2002. Comprehen- Nations Department of Technical Coop-
ton, DC: Inter-American Development
sive Assessment of Freshwater Resources eration for Development.
Bank.
of the World: An Assessment of Water ———. 1982. Groundwater in the Eastern
Lääne, A., Kraav, E. and G. Titova. 2005. Resources and Water Availability in the Mediterranean and Western Asia. Natural
Global International Waters Assessment. World. Stockholm: Stockholm Environ- Resources/Water Series No. 9. New York:
Baltic Sea, GIWA Regional Assessment ment Institute. United Nations Department of Technical
17. Sweden: University of Kalmar, Global
Thornton, J. A., W. Rast, M. M. Holland, Cooperation for Development.
International Water Assessments.
G. Jolankai, and S.-O. Ryding, ed. ———. 1983. Groundwater in the Pacific
Leschen, W., D. Little, and S. Bunting. 1999. Assessment and Control of Nonpoint Region. Natural Resources/Water Series
2005. Urban Aquatic Production. Urban Source Pollution of Aquatic Ecosystems. No.12. New York: United Nations De-
Agriculture Magazine 14: 1-7. Man and the Biosphere Series, Volume partment of Technical Cooperation for
Marcussen, H., K. Joergensen, P. E. Holm, 23. Paris: United Nations Educational, Development.
D. Brocca, R. W. Simmons, and A. Scientific, and Cultural Organization. ———. 1986. Groundwater in Continental
Dalsgaard. 2008. Element Contents and UNECE (United Nations Economic Asia. Natural Resources/Water Series
Food Safety of Water Spinach (Ipomoea Commission for Europe). 2007. Our No.15. New York: United Nations De-
aquatica Forssk) Cultivated with Wastewa- Waters: Joining Hands across Orders. First partment of Technical Cooperation for
ter in Hanoi, Vietnam. Environmental Moni- Assessment of Transboundary Rivers, Lakes Development.
toring and Assessment 139 (1-3): 77-91. and Groundwaters. Geneva and New ———. 1988a. Groundwater in North and
Margat, Jean. 2008. Les eaux souterraines York: United Nations. www.unece.org/ West Africa. Natural Resources/Water
dans le monde. Orléans, France: Editions env/water/publications/assessment/ Series No.18. New York: United Nations.
BRGM. assessmentweb_full.pdf.
———. 1988b. Groundwater in Eastern,
MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment). UNEP (United Nations Environment Central, and Southern Africa. Natural
2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Programme). 2006. Iraq Marshlands
2
Chapter 9
Managing
competition for water
and the pressure
on ecosystems
Author: François Molle and Domitille Vallée
Contributors: Cécile Brugère, Thierry Facon, Jean Margat,
Léna Salamé, Ti Le-Huu and Jon Martin Trondalen
Coordinator: Jean-Marc Faurès (FAO)
Facilitator: Domitille Vallée
Key messages
Competition for water and shortcomings in managing it to meet
the needs of society and the environment call for enhanced soci-
etal responses through improved management, better legislation
and more effective and transparent allocation mechanisms.
Competition for water exists at all levels include wise planning for water resources;
and is forecast to increase with demands evaluation of availability and needs in
for water in almost all countries. In 2030, watersheds; possible needs for reallocation
47% of world population will be living in or additional storage; the need to balance
areas of high water stress.1 Water man- equity, efficiency and ecosystem services
agement around the world is deficient in in water use; the inadequacy of legislative
performance, efficiency and equity. Water and institutional frameworks and the in-
use efficiency, pollution mitigation and creasing financial burden of ageing infra-
implementation of environmental meas- structure. Substantial efforts are needed in
ures fall short in most sectors. Access to regulation, mitigation and management,
basic water services – for drinking, sanita- primarily through community consulta-
tion and food production – remains insuf- tion and cross-sectoral policy involving
ficient across developing regions, and more the private sector.
than 5 billion people – 67% of the world
population – may still be without access to Type, extent and effect of
adequate sanitation in 2030.2 competition for water
Increased competition for water and short- Competition among uses and users is
comings in its management to meet the increasing in almost all countries, as are
needs of society and the environment call the links connecting them, calling for
for enhanced societal responses through more effective negotiation and allocation
improved water management. Challenges mechanisms.
The lower Jordan River, downstream of Sea because of diversions in Israel and Syria, declining Dead Sea that now receives
Lake Tiberias, flows through the Jordan 45,000 hectares of irrigated land, mush- less than 250 million cubic metres of
rift valley before emptying into the Dead rooming cities swollen by waves of refugees water).
Sea. Because of Israel’s redirection of the from Palestine and Iraq and immigrants
upper course, the river now receives water from the Gulf countries, and the new Weh- • A surge in costly supply augmenta-
mostly from the Yarmouk River, a tributary dah Dam reservoir on the Yarmouk River. tion projects aimed at tapping distant
originating in Syria, and from a few lateral aquifers, transferring water from the
wadis that incise the two mountain ranges The consequences of this squeeze are Red Sea to the Dead Sea or desalinat-
that run parallel to the valley on each side. broad, and some are dire: ing saline water.
Most of the population and cities, togeth-
er with the bulk of the country’s rain-fed • Limited (though still desirable) scope • Increased irregularity and uncertainty
agriculture and increasing groundwater- for efficiency improvement. in water supply for irrigation in the val-
based irrigation, are concentrated in these ley, the residual user.
highlands. In the east bank of the valley • Increased recycling and use of treated
some 23,000 hectares of irrigated land wastewater for irrigation. • A more politicized and contested water
have been developed as a result of diver- policy, with costs and benefits appor-
sion of the Yarmouk and side wadis. • Reallocation of water from the valley tioned across social and ethnic groups
(irrigation) to the highlands (cities). and subregions, yielding different
The lower Jordan River basin has under- levels of power.
gone a drastic squeeze, with 83% of its • Environmental degradation (overdraft
flow consumed before it reaches the Dead of aquifers in the Azraq oasis and a Source: Courcier, Venot, and Molle 2005.
2 Chapter 9
Upstream
Downstream
Variable
Upstream
Water harvesting Wells on qanatsa;
diversion scheme Cities on irrigation
Quantity (or small tanks) on a deep wells on
on downstream wells (out-pumping)
downstream dam shallow wells
irrigation area
a. Qanat is an ancient system of tunnels and wells built to capture water Point, large-scale user Diffuse, scattered users
in a mountain and channel it to a lower level. or intervention or interventions.
Source: Based on Molle 2008.
nested nature of these scales also means Perhaps the most common conflict is
that the modes of governance will have to between agriculture and cities. Half the
be consistent and interrelated. world lives in cities – and this share is
increasing – while agriculture is gener-
Sectoral conflicts. Sectoral conflicts oppose ally the largest user of water. Moving
users from different sectors (domestic, hy- water from agriculture to uses with higher
dropower, irrigation, industries, recreation economic value is frequently proposed, for
and so on), including ecosystems, whose several reasons. Agriculture gets by far the
sustainability depends on environmental largest share of diverted water resources
flows. These conflicts are both economic and also consumes the most water through
(the return per cubic metre differs greatly plant evapotranspiration. Cities are also
across these uses) and political (the social thirsty. The value-added of water in non-
importance and the political clout of each agricultural sectors is usually far higher
sector also varies). Box 9.2 illustrates the than in agriculture. This apparent misal-
case of conflict between agriculture and location is often attributed to government
industry in Orissa, India. failure to allocate water rationally.5
Box 9.2 Conflict between agriculture and industry over water in Orissa, India
The Hirakud Dam in Orissa, India, was the pumping from the reservoir. In 2006 the gathered at the reservoir to protest. This
first multipurpose dam to become opera- state government signed memorandums large turnout surprised even the protest
tional after India’s independence in 1947. of understanding with 17 companies to organizers and demonstrated the despera-
Built across the Mahanadi River, it is the provide them water from the reservoir. tion of farmers over their water supply. Both
longest and largest earthen dam in the Meanwhile, 50 years after the dam’s con- events were covered by the media. Under
world, and its reservoir is the largest artificial struction, many downstream areas had yet pressure by the opposition party, Orissa’s
lake in Asia. The dam helps control floods to receive irrigation water, and tension was chief minister assured farmers’ representa-
in the Mahanadi, provides irrigation to building between reservoir authorities on tives that not a single drop of the farmers’
155,600 hectares of land and generates up one side and local governments and farmers share would be diverted to industries and
to 307.5 megawatts of electricity through associations on the other on water releases announced a 20 billion rupees package for
its two power plants. Thanks to irrigation from the dam. In June 2006, 25,000 farm- canal repair work in the Hirakud area.
provided by the dam, Sambalpur District is ers, fearing that diversion of water could
referred to as the rice bowl of Orissa. deprive more than 20,000 hectares of ir- Source: Thierry Facon, Food and Agriculture
rigation water, formed an 18 kilometre-long Organization of the United Nations, Bangkok
With new state development policies human chain near Sambalpur to protest the regional office, adapted from Kalinga Times 2007
based on industrialization, the reservoir provision of water to industries. Five months and South Asia Network on Dams, Rivers and
started supplying water to industrial plants later, in November 2007, 30,000 farmers People 2006.
2 Chapter 9
Figure 9.2 Three types of response to water scarcity and 15). A recent shift in emphasis from water
competition sharing to benefit sharing promises greater
transboundary cooperation.
es,
Managing competition
c t ic
en
t pra through supply and demand
ons
state
em
ag nstit
u ti Se
ct management and reallocation
an , i an
or
a
m ing
g
Al
d
ric
in
l r kets
wa ater
local
There are many shortcomings in how water
lo
ea
Chan
rp
rv
ent g
,w
ll o
eo
ar
c
em
te
fc
ca
is managed today in a context of increased
nt
ag
se
ro
at
, equ
dars
tio
n ps
me
a ity;
,b
len
ic
m co o
Con
n,
ing
ca scarcity: low efficiency, environmental deg-
e
asi
etr
e nfl
g
d ow
qu
brib
rv
an fl ic
ana
n-l
ov
l um
n ery
tur radation, and inequity. Despite some im-
ar
ota
pr
ev e
re ;g ts,
iet
mm
s
im
s, vo
ue
s, w
l
ies
i
l ins
provements competition is increasing and
niq
tig
on,
iv
c
; ar
du
eu
l lining, improved da
atio
awareness campaign
ater ri
ech
titutio
Adopt microirrigati
, re
rang
n; w
ge cropping t
rage
rele
ghts
ements for great
ns
Responses
a
ase water)
o
ter grabbing,
t
to basin
m
closure
r
al loc
loc Tap
al ability. Rather, a combination of supply and
r,
te
g roundwate sta demand management measures is needed.
sta te
gate
small drains,
intr
use
es
oduc
e conjunctive
i
Three common responses to
as
n
R
er
iv vo
n sb te competition
r
er ir
d
sio bu tr a a
w
n,
wa
ild
ing gate
d,
r tu
al The responses to increased competition for
, grou s v i
ste ndwate drain g, water are supply augmentation, conserva-
wa
te r r abstraction, di n
treat see
ment, desalination, cloud tion and reallocation (figure 9.2). The most
conventional response is to develop new
Developing resources. For the state this typically means
building new reservoirs or desalination
Source: Based on Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture 2007. plants or interbasin transfer. For users this
means more wells or farm ponds or gating
drains to store water. Conserving water
and can lead to conflict. The Mekong River includes increasing the efficiency of use
basin has been an exception, with concerns by reducing losses. Changes in allocation,
around water arising only recently. Partly to ease competition or to maximize water
because of conflicts unrelated to water the use, are based on economic, social, envi-
river has long-remained undisturbed, but ronmental or other criteria. Augmentation
dam development to meet the growing is a supply management strategy, while
need for energy in most of the riparian conservation and reallocation are demand
countries is putting other downstream uses management strategies, roughly defined as
at risk – particularly fisheries (box 9.4). ‘doing better with what we have’.9
Non-conventional water resources, especially Figure 1 Desalination capacity in selected countries, 2002
marginal-quality water (urban wastewater, agri-
cultural drainage water and saline surface water Installed capacity (cubic kilometres a year)
or groundwater), are an important source of 2.5
water that is still undervalued.
2.0
Urban wastewater use in agriculture remains
1.5
limited, except in a few countries with very
meagre water resources (40% of uses in the
1.0
Gaza Strip, 15% in Israel and 16% in Egypt with
the reuse of drainage water). Elsewhere, even
0.5
where water is scarce, wastewater use accounts
for less than 4% of all uses (2.3% in Cyprus, 0.0
2.2% in Syria, 1.1% in Spain and 1.0% in
es
r ia
n
ya
ly
n
ar
ae
ep
ai
te
bi
in
ai
pa
Ir a
ai
It a
at
at
ir i
w
ge
ir a
Isr
Ch
Sp
ra
hr
.R
Tunisia). The use of urban wastewater – treated
Ja
Q
St
ah
Ku
iA
Al
Ba
Em
em
d
m
ud
te
or not – is growing, particularly for farming
Ja
D
ab
ni
Sa
ab
a,
Ar
U
re
Ar
around cities, often because higher quality
Ko
te
an
water resources are not available. ni
by
U
Li
Source: Based on Maurel 2006.
Desalination based on brackish water sources Figure 2 Rapid growth of global installed capacity for desalination,
(48%) and seawater (52%) is increasingly af- 1966-2004
fordable as a result of new membrane technol-
ogy ($0.60-$0.80 per cubic metre). It is used Installed capacity (cubic kilometres a year)
mostly for drinking water (24%) and industrial 15
supplies (9%) in countries that have reached
the limits of their renewable water resources 12
(such as Cyprus, Israel, Malta and Saudi Arabia;
9
figure 1). Little is used for agriculture (1%), but
its use for high-value crops in greenhouses is
6
gradually increasing. Desalination accounted
for only 0.4% of water use in 2004 (nearly 14
3
cubic kilometres a year; figure 2), but produc-
tion should double by 2025. 0
1966 1970 1980 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Source: Blue Plan, MAP, and UNEP 2007.
Source: Based on Maurel 2006.
use limited to urban supply. Other non- Figure 9.3 Importance of non-conventional sources
conventional sources of supply include of water for selected Middle East and
wastewater, secondary sources (such as Mediterranean region countries, 2000-06
treated irrigation drainage) and the mining
of fossil (non-renewable) aquifers (box 9.5). Desalination
Wastewater treatment and reuse
Figure 9.3 shows the relative importance of Withdrawals on secondary resources (drainage from irrigation)
these sources in selected Middle East and Withdrawals on non-renewable resources (mining fossil aquifers)
Mediterranean region countries. Withdrawals on primary resources (renewable resources)
Percent
Because of reuse of water in basins and
100
users’ adjustments to scarcity, fully devel-
oped basins or aquifers tend to have much
less ‘slack’ than is often thought, and the 80
potential for net water savings at the basin
level is often overstated. When limits 60
are reached and improved efficiency and
demand management possibilities are ex- 40
hausted, there are often no win-win solu-
tions to meet additional demands. Rather, 20
resources must be reallocated from one
source to another. These demand manage-
0
ment options are discussed in more detail
Saudi Cyprus Egypt United Israel Jordan Libyan Malta Oman Tunisia
in the following section. Arabia Arab Arab
Emirates Jamahiriya
Countries rarely resort to all three options
at once unless pressure over the resource Source: FAO-AQUASTAT; Benoit and Comeau 2005.
is severe, as in Tunisia (see chapter 15).
2 Chapter 9
Large Mechanisms are needed to make optimal the water lost can effectively be recovered
choices along the spectrum of options. technically and at a reasonable cost. Cities
improvements
Optimal choices should emerge from such as Rabat and Tunis have cut their
are expected informed processes of consultation and ne- losses to 10%.11 Even when the water is
from demand gotiation that assess the costs and benefits returned to the water system, these losses
of all options, while considering basin and leakages constitute a failure of the sup-
management, interconnectedness, relationships between ply infrastructure as they result in signifi-
with savings in land and water resources and environ- cant financial costs (for producing drink-
mental sustainability. Decisions should be ing water and pumping and transporting
water, energy and coherent with other government policies. water) and additional environmental and
money through health risks. Technology (canal lining,
Scope for improving demand micro-irrigation) can often solve part of
increased efficiency management the problem, but a large part of the losses
Large improvements are expected from de- are due to management or regulatory flaws.
mand management, with savings in water,
energy and money through increased While irrigation losses and inefficiency
efficiency. Among the strategies that have appear high, with only a third of the
contributed to improved water demand water supplied reaching plant roots, most
management are: of the losses become return flows, which
are tapped by other users elsewhere in the
• Technological improvements. These include basin or serve important environmental
reducing leakage in urban networks, functions. There may be little water to be
changing equipment and shifting to saved in fully developed basins, and con-
micro-irrigation, biotechnology and servation interventions can often end up
other water-conserving agricultural tech- as reallocation.12
niques. Attention must be directed to im-
pacts on flow pathways to properly assess Localized irrigation (micro-irrigation), for
overall water savings (see chapter 3). example, has a limited impact on water
depleted by evapotranspiration in the fields
• Management approaches. Examples and chiefly reduces return flows. Thus water
include cropping-pattern change, water ‘saved’ by upstream irrigators can come at
reuse through sequential uses in irriga- the expense of downstream users, allow-
tion schemes or urban processes, reuse ing upstream irrigators to expand their
in closed-loop systems (industry and cultivation. This may be desirable from the
energy sectors) and reallocation across perspective of the upstream farmer, but the
sectors. result is increased water depletion.
Hundreds of cubic
kilometres a year
0.025-7
0.1 8-14
3.7 0.15 15-21
22-28
29-35
0.3 36-42
15.6 0.025
1.1 1.3
16.3
3.2
16.5
0.09 12.2
1.2 0.08 0.7
4.5 0.1
0.4
1.8
1.5 42.0
Source: Jean Margat, adapted from Benoit and Comeau 2005; Blue Plan, MAP, and UNEP 2007.
companies can play a key role. In some Box 9.6 Signs of progress in urban areas: examples in
countries public intervention through Asia and Australia
subsidies or more stringent enforcement are
necessary. The international competitive-
Water withdrawals increased in Asia In Bangkok and Manila leak detection
ness of companies in the global market is and Australia in all sectors until the programmes have lowered estimated
enhanced by a commitment to best envi- 1980s, when withdrawals for agricul- unaccounted-for water and allowed
ronmental practices, which reduce pollution ture declined and growth in overall postponing the development of new
and improve the efficiency of water use. water withdrawals slowed. There is still infrastructure. Effluent charges have
considerable potential for improve- been an important instrument for stim-
At the national level a growing number of ment. Some recent efforts have been ulating efficient water uses in house-
companies are introducing clean pro- stimulated by the United Nations Eco- holds and commercial establishments.
duction processes – often for pollution nomic and Social Commission for Asia
reduction – that result in substantial water and the Pacific, which has promoted In 2008 Sydney Water in Australia
the concept of eco-efficiency of water began providing homes in the Hoxton
savings. These efforts are supported by
use and water infrastructure develop- Park area with two water supplies –
various UN programmes (United Nations ment, and by complementary research. recycled water and drinking water
Environment Programme, United Nations (dual reticulation). Recycled water
Industrial Development Organization) Implementation of demand manage- is to be used for gardens and other
through a network of cleaner production ment measures has been uneven outdoor needs, toilet flushing and po-
centres in 27 countries. across the region, but interest in tentially as cold water in washing ma-
improving water use efficiency is chines and for certain non-residential
Chapters 14 and 15 present several exam- growing in many countries. Singapore purposes. The recycled water taps,
ples of approaches to demand management. has reduced urban domestic water pipes and plumbing are coloured pur-
demand from 176 litres per person a ple to distinguish recycled water from
day in 1994 to 157 litres in 2007 as a drinking water.
Reallocation, efficiency and equity
result of additional and targeted pub-
issues lic expenditure for improved demand Source: www.sydneywater.com.au;
Water, like any resource, when it is scarce management. UNESCAP 1997, 2004; Kiang 2008.
or requires scarce resources to supply
2 Chapter 9
Once basic human it, rises in economic value. Once basic have been created for regular water trad-
human and environmental water needs ing (see box 4.2 in chapter 4). There,
and environmental
have been met, the remainder should water markets are commonly used by
water needs ideally go to where water has the highest farmers wanting supplementary water for
have been met, value to society. Since much water is used valuable crops during drought conditions
for productive or ‘lifestyle’ purposes, it is or by cities to create reserves in anticipa-
the remainder appropriate to apply economic criteria to tion of impending droughts. Prices set in
should ideally go its allocation. But water pricing alone will these markets signal the marginal values
not produce the necessary reallocation, of water in these different uses, which
to where water since prices in many sectors do not reflect are usually much higher than average
has the highest underlying economic values, and there are values.16
many cases of market or service failure. In
value to society several Eastern European countries price These ‘efficiency’ criteria need to be
increases resulted in reductions in urban reconciled with society’s desire for equity
water consumption to half the level of two (the satisfaction of basic needs) and en-
decades ago.15 Flow reductions can lead vironmental sustainability. Such balanc-
to secondary water quality problems in ing of water needs can be achieved by a
supply networks (increase of water resi- combination of administrative allocation,
dence time), odour problems in sewerage tariff structures with adequate provisions
systems and added burdens at wastewater to protect the poor and other relevant
treatment plants, which become hydrauli- measures. There is a role for subsidies in
cally underloaded and have to treat much water services, but they should be care-
denser raw wastewater than before. fully targeted to specific functions. Poor
people and other disadvantaged groups
Reallocation from lower- to higher-value without sustainable access to safe water
uses can be achieved by enabling the and adequate sanitation are usually
traditional markets as well as by applying willing to pay within their means for
administrative measures, creating water reliable access to service because improv-
markets or trading water rights. In each ing access (through standpipes or house-
case society should set appropriate limits hold connections) yields large financial
on transfers to protect third parties, the dividends.
environment and wider social interest.
Subject to these conditions, competition The Comprehensive Assessment of Water
for water can be healthy. Management in Agriculture argues for
reforms to enable more efficient use of
In countries that recognize water trading water.17 Policy-makers need to recognize
rights, many cities have met their grow- the incentives and resource constraints
ing water needs by purchasing farms or confronting small farmers, but it would
properties with water rights and taking be a mistake to assume that farmers do
over the rights. Some non-governmental not respond to market incentives (food
organizations ‘compete’ on behalf of the prices have an impact on cropping pat-
environment by purchasing the rights terns). Farmers will invest in inputs and
to a certain volume of water in a river irrigation technology (meaning higher
or lake, which they then leave in the water costs) if they believe that they will
water body. These are examples of one- achieve higher returns. There is no reason
off transactions. But in certain regions for efficiency, equity and environmental
(Chile, parts of Australia, some western sustainability to be out of alignment in
states of the United States) the conditions that case.
Notes 8. Wolf, Yoffe, and Giordano 2003. 16. Winpenny 1994; Molle and Berkoff 2005.
1. OECD 2008. 9. Winpenny 1994. 17. Comprehensive Assessment of Water
2. OECD 2008. 10. Molle and Berkoff 2008. Management in Agriculture 2007.
3. Molle, Wester, and Hirsch 2007. 11. Blue Plan, MAP, and UNEP 2007.
4. Barreteau, Bousquet, and Attonaty 12. Molle, Berkoff, and Barker 2005; Molle, References
2001; Barbier and Thompson 1998; Wester, and Hirsch 2007; Molle et al.
Barbier, E. B., and J. R. Thompson. 1998.
Neiland et al. 2000. 2008.
The Value of Water: Floodplain versus
5. Molle and Berkoff 2005. 13. Molle and Berkoff 2008. Large-Scale Irrigation Benefits in North-
6. Wolf, Yoffe, and Giordano 2003; Gleick 14. WBCSD n.d.; World Economic Forum ern Nigeria. Ambio 27 (6): 434-40.
2008. 2008. Barreteau O., F. Bousquet, and J.-M. At-
7. van der Molen and Hildering 2005. 15. Somlyódy and Varis 2006. tonaty. 2001. Role-Playing Games for
PART
Chapters 10-12
Coordinator
Andras Szöllösi-
Nagy (UNESCO),
with the support
of Anil Mishra
Chapter
(UNESCO) and
Siegfried Demuth
10 The Earth’s natural water cycles
(UNESCO)
11 Changes in the global water cycle
Facilitator
Denis Hughes
12 Evolving hazards – and emerging opportunities
Chapter 13
13 Bridging the observational gap
Coordinator
Andras Szöllösi-
Nagy (UNESCO)
Associate
coordinator
Wolfgang Grabs
(WMO)
Facilitator
Denis Hughes
PART
Part 3 of the Report highlights the key modification through human use and
issues associated with the Earth’s natu- abuse are sources of water crises in
ral water cycles (chapter 10) and identi- many parts of the world. Broad over-
fies the changes occurring in the water views at the global scale are difficult be-
cycle (chapter 11) and how they affect cause of the spatial and temporal com-
hazards and opportunities for using plexity arising from the conjunction of
water resources (chapter 12). It con- land, water and atmospheric elements
cludes with a discussion of the available – made worse by incomplete monitoring
information – and the information that and fragmented availability of data to
is lacking – to quantify the resource quantify the resource and its changes.
and patterns of change (chapter 13).
The main components of water have
Water resources are made up of many come to be designated as blue, green
components associated with water in and white water:
its three physical states (liquid, solid
and gas). Under natural conditions • Blue water is liquid water moving
water results from complex interactions above and below the ground and
between atmospheric, land surface and includes surface water and ground-
subsurface processes that affect its dis- water. As blue water moves through
tribution and quality. The components the landscape, it can be reused until
of the water cycle (rainfall, evaporation, it reaches the sea.
runoff, groundwater, storage and oth-
ers) therefore all differ in their chemical • Green water is soil moisture
and biochemical qualities, spatial and generated from rainfall that in-
temporal variability, resilience, vulner- filtrates the soil and is available
ability to pressures (including land use for uptake by plants and evapo-
and climate change), susceptibility to transpiration. Green water is non-
pollution and capacity to provide useful productive if evaporated from soil
services and to be used sustainably. A and open water.
consequence of this variability is that
while human pressures have resulted in • White water (sometimes considered
large modifications to the global cycle, the non-productive part of green
the directions and degrees of change water) is water that evaporates di-
are complex and difficult to ascertain. rectly into the atmosphere without
having been used productively and
The uneven distribution over time and includes losses from open water and
space of water resources and their soil surfaces.
PART
In addition, grey and black water refer highly modified by land use changes,
to the quality of the resource. which can both accelerate (for example,
through urbanization and vegetation
• Grey water, usually wastewater, degradation) and dampen (for exam-
may be poor in quality, but usable ple, through afforestation) hydrologic
for some purposes. responses. It is also modified by engi-
neered systems, including in-stream ef-
• Black water is so heavily pol- fects (such as dams, direct abstractions,
luted (usually with microbes) as to return flows and interbasin transfers)
be harmful (to humans and eco- and off-stream effects (such as irriga-
systems) or at least economically tion). Climate change is being superim-
unusable. posed on an already complex hydrolog-
ic landscape, making its signal difficult
About 60% of total global water fluxes to isolate, and yet making its influence
(flows, movements and transfers be- felt throughout the water supply, de-
tween physical states) are attributable mand and buffering system. There are
to green water flow, the component already detectable changes in some
of the water cycle most susceptible to parts of the world in the first-order
land use and land cover changes, and climate parameters of temperature and
to changes in atmospheric conditions rainfall. But this signal is not yet dis-
that control evaporative demand, such cernable in many parts of the world in
as temperature, solar radiation and second-order parameters of importance
atmospheric vapour pressure deficit. to water resources managers, such as
In addition, there is the Earth’s ‘solid’ changes in runoff and groundwater.
water, the contribution that snow and
ice make to the global resource and Chapter 11 reviews the scientific evi-
how these components may be affected dence of change in the components
by changes in climate conditions. of the water cycle, focusing on im-
pacts related to climate change. While
Detecting and quantifying changes trends in precipitation have been noted
involve separating natural variability in in some parts of the world, in other
climate and hydrologic processes from areas precipitation patterns have re-
the variability and trends caused by mained about the same within the
other factors that influence the hydro- period of observed data. There is evi-
logic landscape and then measuring dence of changes in seasonality and
and quantifying this variability. This frequency of heavy precipitation events
hydrologic landscape has already been in some areas. Despite the evidence of
PART
changes in erosion and sediment trans- systems for hazardous events, improved
port. In some developing countries rap- risk-based approaches to management
idly expanding population has driven and greater community awareness of
land clearing and rapid expansion of sustainable water resources use.
cultivated land. The water quality and
ecology of many of the world’s rivers Management of global water resources
have been altered partly by changes requires reliable information about
in flow and partly by inputs of chemi- the state of the resource and how it is
cal and biological waste from human changing in response to all the drivers
activities. Global warming is expected that affect it. Worldwide, water observa-
to lead to changes in water tempera- tion networks are inadequate for cur-
ture, with substantial effects on energy rent and future management needs and
flows and matter recycling, resulting in risk further decline (chapter 13). There
algal blooms, increases in toxic cyano are insufficient data to understand and
bacteria bloom and reductions in biodi- predict the current and future quantity
versity, among other impacts. and quality of the resource. Political
protocols and imperatives for sharing
The increased exposure to potential data are also inadequate. While new
climate change hazards has led to more technologies in satellite remote sensing
awareness of water resources manage- and modelling present opportunities,
ment. The response of management their value is limited by our inability
strategies to potential climate change to ground truth and validate much of
threats is an opportunity to implement the simulated information. To improve
more resource-sustainable policies monitoring and to use data more effec-
and practices. For example, in areas of tively and efficiently, countries need to
increasing water stress, groundwater place observations and continual as-
is often an important buffer resource, sessments of water resources higher on
capable of responding to increased the political and development agendas.
water demands or compensating for The financial and human resources
the declining availability of surface that countries can commit to achieving
water. There are significant opportuni- these improvements will differ greatly.
ties for both mitigation and adaptation But unless a worldwide effort is made
strategies, such as stronger observation to improve our knowledge and under-
networks (chapter 13), increased integra- standing of changes in the global water
tion of groundwater and surface water resource, future management will
supplies (including artificial recharge), be undertaken in an environment of
improved early warning and forecasting greater uncertainty and high risk.
PART
3
Chapter 10
The Earth’s natural
water cycles
Author: Charles J. Vörösmarty
Contributors: Daniel Conley, Petra Döll, John Harrison, Peter Letitre,
Emilio Mayorga, John Milliman, Sybil Seitzinger, Jac van der Gun and Wil Wollheim
Coordinator: Andras Szöllösi-Nagy (UNESCO)
Facilitator: Denis Hughes
Key messages
Table 10.1 Estimates of renewable water supplies, access to renewable supplies and population served
by freshwater, 2000
Eastern Middle
Europe, the East and Sub-
Caucasus and Latin North Saharan Global
Indicator Asia Central Asia America Africa Africa OECD total
Area (millions of square
kilometres) 20.9 21.9 20.7 11.8 24.3 33.8 133.0
Total precipitation (thousands of
cubic kilometres a year) 21.6 9.2 30.6 1.8 19.9 22.4 106.0
Evaporative returns to atmosphere
(percent of precipitation) 55 27 27 86 78 64 63
Total renewable water supply
(blue water flows; thousands of
cubic kilometres a year) [% of 9.8 4.0 13.2 0.25 4.4 8.1 39.6
global runoff] [25] [10] [33] [1] [11] [20] [100]
Renewable water supply (blue
water flows accessible to humans;
thousands of cubic kilometres a
year) [percent of total renewable 9.3 1.8 8.7 0.24 4.1 5.6 29.7
water supply] [95] [45] [66] [96] [93] [69] [75]
Note: Means computed based on methods in Vörösmarty, Leveque, and Revenga (2005). Estimates are based on climate data for 1950-96, computed
using estimates of population living downstream of renewable supplies in 2000.
Source: Fekete, Vörösmarty, and Grabs 2002.
3 Chapter 10T
Table 10.2 Definitions of key components of the land-based hydrologic cycle and examples of their
reconfiguration by humans
Water system Space and time Typical roles in water Management challenges, vulnerabilities and
element variability resources systems opportunities
Green water • Very high • Direct support to rainfed • Highly sensitive to climate variability (both
• Soil moisture (non- over both cropping systems drought and flood); limited capacity to control
productive green dimensions • Can be augmented by rainfall-harvesting
water is evaporated techniques (many traditional and widely
from soil and open adopted)
water surfaces) • Weather and climate forecasts help in scheduling
planting, harvest, supplemental irrigation and
other activities
• Performance improved or compromised by land
management
• Selection of improved crop strains for climate-
proofing
Blue water (natural • High over both • Farm ponds and check dams • Highly sensitive to climate variability (both
and altered) dimensions augment green water in drought and flood) and ultimately climate
• Net of local rainfed cropping systems change
groundwater • Source waters and entrained • Some capacity to control
recharge and surface constituents delivered • Habitat management highly localized
runoff, streamflow downstream within • Many small engineering works can propagate
watersheds strong cumulative downstream effects
• Poor land management heightens possiblities of
flash flooding followed by dry streambeds
• Inland water • Decreased • Key resource over district, • Water losses through net evaporation occur
systems (lakes, variability with national, and multinational naturally and through human use
rivers, wetlands) increased size domains • Legacy of upstream management survives
• Important role in transport, downstream (e.g., irrigation losses, pollution)
waste management, and • Multiple sector management objectives may be
domestic, industrial and difficult to attain simultaneously
agricultural sectors • Potential upstream-downstream conflicts
(human to human; human to nature), including
international
• Ground water • Moderate • Locally distributed shallow • Intimate connection to weather and climate
(shallow) over both well systems serving means water yields subject to precipitation
dimensions; drinking water and irrigation extremes
links to streams needs • Easily polluted
• Easily overused, resulting in temporary depletion;
some loss of regional importance to oceans
• Fossil groundwater • Extremely • Critical (and often sole) • Large repositories of water but with limited
(deep) stable source of water in arid and recharge potential
semi-arid regions • Use typically non-sustainable, leading to
declining water levels and pressure, increasing
extraction costs
• Low replenishment rates mean pollution often
effectively becomes permanent
Blue water • Stable to very • Critical (and often sole) • Large quantities of water with high recharge
(engineered) stable source of water in arid and potential
• Diversions, including semi-arid regions • Modified flow regime, with positive and negative
reservoirs and • Altered blue water balance impacts on humans and ecosystems
interbasin transfers as flows stabilized or • Can destroy river fish habitat while creating lake
• Reused waters redirected from water-rich fisheries by fragmenting habitat
times and places to water • Natural ecosystem ‘cues’ for breeding and
poor times and places migration removed
• Multiple uses: hydropower, • Water supplies stabilized for use when needed
irrigation, domestic, most by society
industrial, recreational, flood • Sediment trapping, leading to downstream
control inland waterway, coastal zone problems
• Secondary reuse as effluents • Potential for introduction of exotic species
in irrigation • Greenhouse gas emission from stagnant water
• Health problems (e.g., schistosomiasis) from
stagnant water
• Social instability due to forced resettlement
(continued)
Water system Space and time Typical roles in water Management challenges, vulnerabilities and
element variability resources systems opportunities
Virtual water (not • Stable, but • Water embodied in • Can implicitly off-load water use requirements
an additional water linked to production of goods and from more water-poor to more water-rich
system element) fluctuations services, typically with crops locations
in global traded on the international • Particularly important where rainfed agriculture
economy market is restricted and irrigation relies on rapidly
• Not explicitly recognized depleting fossil groundwater sources
as a water resources
management tool until
recently
Desalination • Stable • Augmentation in water- • Costly, special use water supply; technologies
scarce areas rapidly developing for cost-effectiveness
Map 10.1 Contrasts between geophysical and human-dimension perspectives on water, most
recent year available
Runoff
(millimetres a year)
Less than 0
0-10
10-50
50-100
100-250
250-500
500-750
750-1,000
More than 1,000
Population served by
source area runoff
(thousands per grid area)
0-10
10-50
50-100
100-500
500-1,000
More than 1,000
No people or no runoff
Note: The top map shows runoff-producing areas in absolute terms, with darker blue indicating areas that generate intense local-scale runoff. This is the tra-
ditional view of the global distribution of the renewable water resources base. The bottom map shows the importance of all of the world’s runoff-producing
areas, as measured by the human population served. Thus, runoff produced across a relatively unpopulated region like Amazonia, while a globally significant
source of water to the world’s oceans, is much less critical to the global water resources base than runoff produced across a region like South Asia.
Source: Vörösmarty, Leveque, and Revenga (2005), updated from Fekete, Vörösmarty, and Grabs (2002).
3 Chapter 10T
The global redistribution of water to oceans and take their supply from ancient aquifers
land masses. The position of mountain (aquifer mining), interbasin transfers
distribution of
ranges across the continents can be used and desalinized seawater. Except in the
freshwater must to divide the Earth into two domains – exorheic mountain regions, where water is
be considered exorheic zones, where water flows to the relatively abundant, most of the popula-
oceans, and internally draining endor- tion has only a small share of the global
together with heic zones, many in the ‘rain shadow’ freshwater resource. Using high resolu-
its accessibility of the world’s main precipitation belts tion global maps of population and water
(figure 10.1). Much of the endorheic land supply, a study showed that 85% of the
is positioned mid-continent and distant world’s population resides in the drier half
from the ocean, resulting in a character- of the Earth.4 More than 1 billion people
istically dry environment. Here, 10%-15% living in arid and semi-arid parts of the
of the global land mass generates only 2% world have access to little or no renewable
of global renewable freshwater resources. water resources. However, there is still
Mountain systems are important as the uncertainty surrounding estimates of the
world’s ‘water towers’ and generate a sub- renewable supply, water use and derived
stantial share of the global water resourc- statistics (table 10.3; see also chapter 7).
es base for the billions of people who live
downstream. By contrast, the margins of There is great variation in flow reliabil-
the continents (exorheic plains), because ity, with variability greatest in regions
of their intimate connection with ocean- with the lowest levels of runoff (the drier
derived moisture, generate about half of regions; map 10.2). Patterns of reliable
all renewable freshwater resources, col- monthly river flows also confirm the
lectively greater than all mountain water sensitivity of arid and semi-arid regions,
towers. There are many concerns about defined from a hydrologic (local runoff
the impact of climate change on this and river corridor supplies) rather than
geography of precipitation and runoff- a climatic (rainfall variability alone) per-
producing areas. 2 spective.5 This variability reduces projec-
tions of average annual GDP growth rates
The global distribution of freshwater must by as much as 38%, and even a single
be considered together with its accessibil- drought event within a 12-year period
ity. With about 75% of total annual runoff can reduce growth rates over the period
accessible to humans (see table 10.1) and by 10%. Flooding can also have devastat-
with slightly more than 80% of the world’s ing effects, particularly in areas with high
population (4.9 billion people) served by population density and without adequate
renewable and accessible water,3 almost early warning and emergency response
20% of people are unserved by naturally systems (map 10.3). During 1992-2001
occurring renewable resources and must floods accounted for 43% of recorded
Figure 10.1 Distribution of global runoff to the oceans (exorheic) or internal receiving waters
(endorheic) and the corresponding distribution of contemporary population served
Exorheic Endorheic
Plateaus
Plateaus
Oceans Hills Hills
Plains Plains
Area
(millions of square
kilometres) 63 11 14 28 6 2.5 0.4 9
Depth change
(millimetres a year) 293 445 153 424 86 38 102 35
Total resources
(thousands of cubic
kilometres a year) 18.4 4.9 2.1 11.8 0.5 0.09 0.04 0.3
Population served
(bilions) 3.3 0.8 0.4 1.5 0.2 0.03 0.02 0.2
Source: Updated from Vörösmarty and Meybeck (2004); land form categories from Meybeck, Green, and Vörösmarty (2001).
Map 10.2 Global variations in the relationship between low flows and mean flows (percentage
deviation of 1 in 10 year low flows relative to mean flows measured over 1961-90)
Percent
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-50
50-90
More than 90
No data
3 Chapter 10T
Map 10.3 Impact of flood losses (comparative losses based on national GDP)
Risk deciles
1st-4th (low)
5th-7th (medium)
8th-10th (high)
Note: Deciles refer to the level of risk, normalized for comparing 10 categories.
Source: Based on Dilley et al. 2005.
Figure 10.2 Impact of the Davis Dam on the Colorado increasing water scarcity due to climate
River hydrograph change. At the same time, because of the
strong interdependence between ground-
Cubic kilometres per second water and surface water, the overall re-
120 source is difficult to quantify, and there is
a risk of double counting available water
100
resources.
80
60 Recent estimates put the mean renew-
40
able groundwater resource at 2,091 cubic
metres per person a year, or about a
20 third of total renewable resources per
0 capita.9 Although groundwater systems
1 Jan 1906 2 Apr 1906 2 Jul 1906 1 Oct 1906 31 Dec 1906 are often highly localized, groundwater
120 clearly makes a substantial contribution
to the water resources base, constituting
100
20%-50% of municipal water supply.10 As
80 much as 60% of groundwater withdrawal
60 is used to irrigate crops in arid and semi-
arid regions. Information on groundwater
40
storage is scarce and not very accurate
20 because of the enormous effort and cost
0 required to explore and assess ground-
1 Jan 1956 2 Apr 1956 2 Jul 1956 1 Oct 1956 31 Dec 1956 water reservoirs. The geographic distribu-
120
tion of long-term average diffuse ground-
water recharge and of the known larger
100
groundwater reservoirs are in maps 10.4
80 and 10.5.
60
Relationship of water to global
40
biogeochemical cycles
20
Millimetres a year
0-2
2-20
20-100
100-300
300-1,000
3 Chapter 10T
Millimetres a year
In major groundwater basins
More than 300
100-300
20-100
2-20
Less than 2
In areas with complex
hydrogeological structure
More than 300
100-300
20-100
Less than 20
In areas with local and shallow aquifers
More than 100
Less than 100
No data
Figure 10.3 Human activities are sources for dissolved inorganic nitrogen, organic nitrogen,
inorganic phosphorus and organic phosphorus in coastal zones
3 Chapter 10T
New modelling may also be changing.24 Shifting nutrient Scientific and Cultural Organization’s
ratios alter the composition of biologi- Intergovernmental Oceanic Commission,
approaches
cal assemblages in freshwater and coastal apply a consistent framework and datasets
now include systems, including the occurrence and to calculate river exports of carbon, nitro-
mechanisms that recurrence of harmful algal blooms.25 gen and phosphorus (dissolved and par-
ticulate, inorganic and organic), enabling
hold promise Recent progress in describing an integrated assessment of impacts of a
for predicting patterns in global water quality range of human pressures on receiving
Despite limitations in characterizing waters.27 But such models are static and
global patterns human processes that determine the have limited process representation, so
of water quality chemical characteristics of freshwater they are unable to account for variability
resources, syntheses of river observations over relatively short time scales (less than
and process studies have substantially ad- 1 month), which is critical in characteriz-
vanced our ability to quantify the trans- ing water quality.
formation of watershed-derived inputs
into river loads and exports to coastal Recently developed spatially distributed,
zones.26 Recent models predict mean an- mechanistic models of nutrient fluxes
nual nutrient status based on geospatial through river systems have been applied
datasets defining watershed inputs (natu- to numerous basins and are important for
ral and human), hydrologic and physical understanding the mechanisms control-
properties and biological processing po- ling material fluxes.28 Such efforts have
tentials within rivers. They rely on global also been applied globally to integrate spa-
calibration of basin-scale parameters with tially distributed controlling mechanisms.
river mouth observations to provide a For example, global terrestrial nitrogen
consistent, spatially explicit picture of models now account for within-basin pat-
worldwide nutrient exports to coastal terns of nitrogen loading, hydrologic con-
zones. Submodels of Global-NEWS (Nutri- ditions, land surface characteristics and
ent Export from Watersheds), organized ecosystem processes to predict nitrogen
under the United Nations Educational, export fluxes.29
Figure 10.4 The spatial distribution of surface area and Recently, a spatially distributed model-
nitrogen inputs and removal by types of ling approach was applied to global inland
water bodies differ by latitude, most recent aquatic systems to estimate the relative
year available importance of small rivers, large rivers,
lakes and reservoirs in the global aquatic
Surface area (thousands of square kilometers) nitrogen cycle by integrating the spatial
distribution of inputs from land, discharge
200
Lake conditions, network geomorphology,
position of various water bodies and rates
150
of biological activity (figure 10.4). The rela-
tive importance of different types of water
100 bodies varies with latitude because of the
distribution of channel bottom surface
50 Large river Reservoir
area relative to the position of nitrogen
Small river inputs, which are increasingly determined
0 by human inputs of fertilizers, sewage and
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 animal wastes and by atmospheric depo-
Latitude sition.30 These approaches now include
key mechanisms that hold promise for
Flux (millions of kilograms a year) predicting global patterns of water quality
3,200 and thus of water supply compromised by
Aquatic N load
pollution, changes in runoff and stream-
2,400 flow, runoff variability, temperature and
hydraulic modification.
1,600
Water pollution as a constraint on
Large river water supply
800 Lake
Reservoir
Small river Good water quality is important to human
health and the health of aquatic ecosys-
0 tems. Increasing pressures from develop-
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
ment lead to deteriorating surface water
Latitude
and groundwater quality (table 10.5),
Source: Based on Wollheim et al. 2008. rising human health challenges, grow-
ing requirements for water treatment and
Table 10.5 Principal symptoms of human-river system interactions and human pressures on water use
Note: Amplitude of change ranges from + to + + + (increase) and – to – – – (decrease). The × symbols refer to magnitude of change without an indication
of direction.
Source: From Meybeck 2003.
3 Chapter 10T
2. IPCC 2007. B. Lehner, T. Rösche, and S. Siebert. Döll, P., F. Kaspar, and B. Lehner. 2003. A
2003. Global Estimates of Water With- Global Hydrological Model for Deriving
3. Vörösmarty, Leveque, and Revenga drawals and Availability under Current Water Availability Indicators: Model Tun-
2005. and Future ‘‘Business-As-Usual’’ Condi- ing and Validation. Journal of Hydrology
4. Vörösmarty, Leveque, and Revenga tions. Hydrological Sciences Journal 48 (3): 270 (1): 105–134.
2005. 339-48. Driscoll, C. T., K. M. Driscoll, K. M. Roy,
5. Vörösmarty et al. 2005. Alexander, R. B, P. J. Johnes, E. W. Boyer, and M. J. Mitchell. 2003. Chemical
6. CRED 2002. and R. A. Smith. 2002. A Comparison of Response of Lakes in the Adirondack
Models for Estimating the Riverine Export Region of New York to Declines in Acidic
7. Olden and Poff 2003.
of Nitrogen from Large Watersheds. Deposition. Environmental Science and
8. Margat 2008. Biogeochemistry 57/58: 295-339. Technology 37: 2036-42.
9. Döll and Fiedler 2007; Vörösmarty, Ball, J., and S. T. Trudgill. 1995. Overview Driscoll, C. T., Y. J. Han, C. Y. Chen, D. C.
Leveque, and Revenga 2005. of Solute Modeling. In Solute Modelling Evers, K. F. Lambert, T. M. Holsen, N.
10. Morris et al. 2003; Zekster and Margat in Catchment Systems, ed. S. T. Trudgill. C. Kamman, and R. K. Munson. 2007.
2003. Chichester, UK: John Wiley and Sons. Mercury Contamination in Forest and
11. Vörösmarty and Meybeck 2004. Battin, T. J., L. A. Kaplan, S. Findlay, C. S. Freshwater Ecosystems in the North-
Hopkinson, E. Marti, A. I. Packman, eastern United States. BioScience 57 (1):
12. Seitzinger et al. 2006; Cole et al. 2007; 17-28.
Battin et al. 2008. J. D. Newbold, and F. Sabater. 2008.
Biophysical Controls on Organic Carbon Dumont, E., J. A. Harrison, C. Kroeze, E.
13. Meybeck and Vörösmarty 2005. Fluxes in Fluvial Networks. Nature Geo- J. Bakker, and S. P. Seitzinger. 2005.
14. Shiklomanov and Rodda 2003. sciences 1 (2): 95-100. Global Distribution and Sources of
15. Imhoff et al. 2004; Haberl et al. 2007. Bouwman, A. F., G. Van Drecht, J. M. Dissolved Inorganic Nitrogen Export
Knoop, A. H. W. Beusen, and C. R. Mei- to the Coastal Zone: Results from a
16. Green et al. 2004; Bouwman et al. 2005.
nardi. 2005. Exploring Changes in River Spatially Explicit, Global Model. Global
17. Harrison, Caraco, and Seitzinger 2005; Biogeochemical Cycles 19, GB4S02,
Nitrogen Export to the World’s Oceans.
Seitzinger et al., 2005. doi:10.1029/2005GB002488.
Global Biogeochemical Cycles 19, GB1002,
18. Syvitski et al. 2005. doi:10.1029/2004GB002314. Ericson, J. P., C. J. Vörösmarty, S. L. Ding-
19. Vörösmarty et al. 2003. Boyer, E. W., R. W. Howarth, J. N. Gallo- man, L. G. Ward, and M. Meybeck.
20. Ericson et al. 2006. way, F. J. Dentener, P. A. Green, and C. 2006. Effective Sea-Level Rise in Deltas:
J. Vörösmarty. 2006. Riverine Nitro- Causes of Change and Human-Dimen-
21. Dumont et al. 2005; Harrison et al. sion Implications. Global & Planetary
2005. gen Export from the Continents to the
Coasts. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 20, Change 50 (1): 63-82.
22. Rabalais et al. 2007. GB1S91, doi:10.1029/2005GB002537. Federer, C. A., C. J. Vörösmarty, and B.
23. Wang 2006. Cole, J. J., Y. T. Prairie, N. F. Caraco, W. H. Fekete. 2003. Sensitivity of Annual
24. Seitzinger et al. 2005. McDowell, L. J. Tranvik, R. G. Striegl, C. Evaporation to Soil and Root Properties
M. Duarte, P. Kortelainen, J. A. Down- in Two Models of Contrasting Complex-
25. Wang 2006.
ing, J. J. Middelburg, and J. Melack. ity. Journal of Hydrometeorology 4 (1):
26. Seitzinger et al. 2006; Seitzinger et al. 1276-90.
2007. Plumbing the Global Carbon
2005; Cole et al. 2007; Green et al.
Cycle: Integrating Inland Waters into the Fekete, B. M., C. J. Vörösmarty, and W.
2004; Boyer et al. 2006; Smith et al.
Terrestrial Carbon Budget. Ecosystems 10 Grabs. 2002. High Resolution Fields
2003; Wollheim et al. 2008.
(1): 171-84. of Global Runoff Combining Observed
27. See Seitzinger et al. 2005 and recent River Discharge and Simulated Water Bal-
CRED (Centre for Research on the Epide-
special issue of Global Biogeochemical ances. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 6 (3),
miology of Disasters). 2002. EM-DAT:
Cycles. doi:10.1029/1999GB001254.
Emergency Events Database. www.cred.
28. Ball and Trudgill 1995; Lunn et al. 1996; be/emdat. Green, P. A., C. J. Vörösmarty, M. Mey-
Alexander et al. 2002. beck, J. N. Galloway, B. J. Peterson,
Dilley, M., R. S. Chen, U. Deichmann, A. L.
29. Bouwman et al. 2005. Lerner-Lam, M. Arnold, with J. Agwes, and E. W. Boyer. 2004. Pre-Industrial
30. Wollheim et al. 2008. P. Buys, O. Kjekstad, B. Lyon, and G. and Contemporary Fluxes of Nitrogen
Yetman. 2005. Natural Disaster Hotspots: through Rivers: A Global Assessment
31. MEA 2005. Based on Typology. Biogeochemistry 68
A Global Risk Analysis: Synthesis Report.
32. Meybeck 2003; Meybeck and Vörös- New York: Columbia University. (1): 71-105.
marty 2005. Haberl, H., K. H. Erb, F. Krausmann, V.
Dirmeyer, P., X. Gao, and T. Oki. 2002.
33. Hinga and Batchelor 2005. GSWP-2: The Second Global Soil Wetness Gaube, A. Bondeau, C. Plutzar, S.
34. Mukherjee et al. 2006. Project Science and Implementation Plan. Gingrich, W. Lucht, and M. Fischer-
IGPO Publication Series No. 37, Interna- Kowalski. 2007. Quantifying and Map-
35. Driscoll et al. 2007.
tional GEWEX (Global Energy and Water ping the Human Appropriation of Net
36. Townsend et al. 2003. Primary Production in Earth’s Terrestrial
Cycle Experiment) Project Office.
37. WHO/UNICEF 2004. Ecosystems. Proceedings of the National
Döll, P., and K. Fiedler. 2007. Global-Scale
38. Driscoll et al. 2003; Warby, Johnson, Academy of Sciences of the United States of
Modelling of Groundwater Recharge.
and Driscoll 2005. America 104:12942-45.
3 Chapter 10T
Environmental Science & Technology 39 WHYMAP. 2008. Groundwater Resources Distributed, within-Basin Approach. Glo-
(17): 6,548-54. of the World. Hannover: BRG and Paris: bal Biogeochemical Cycles 22, GB2026,
United Nations Educational, Scientific, doi:10.1029/2007GB002963.
WHO (World Health Organization)/
UNICEF (United Nations Children’s and Cultural Organization. Zektser, I., and J. Margat. 2003.
Fund). 2004. Meeting the MDG Drinking Wollheim, W. M., C. J. Vörösmarty, A. Groundwater Resources of the World
Water and Sanitation Target: A Mid-term F. Bouwman, P. A. Green, J. Har- and Their Use. Paris: United Nations
Assessment of Progress. Geneva: World rison, E. Linder, B. J. Peterson, S. Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Health Organization and New York: Seitzinger, and J. P. M. Syvitski. Organization–International Hydrologi-
United Nations Children’s Fund. 2008. Global N Removal by Fresh- cal Programme.
water Aquatic Systems: A Spatially
Key messages
Among the consequences of a changing hydrologic cycle is its
interaction with the terrestrial carbon cycle. The terrestrial bio-
sphere may have taken up roughly 25% of anthropogenic car-
bon emissions during the last century; it is unclear how long
this can continue.
3 Chapter 11C
observations human and natural systems that depend on assessment of observed precipitation trends
it (see chapter 7 for the implications of cli- in the 20th century at global and regional
of precipitation
mate change and changes in the hydrologic scales based on six station and satellite ob-
do not show a cycle on uncertainty in agriculture). servation datasets.3 Over global land areas
continuous trend precipitation shows an increasing trend
Another critical problem is that pre- superimposed on large interdecadal oscil-
throughout the cipitation observations can be subject to lations from the beginning of the century
century but rather considerable measurement error. Measure- to the 1950s.4 This is followed by a decreas-
ment station densities in many mountain- ing trend until the end of the century,
variable trends at ous regions and remote areas are low and still superimposed on large interdecadal
multidecadal scales uneven, precluding proper estimates of variability. In other words, observations
regionally averaged values. While remotely of precipitation do not show a continuous
sensed measurements offer a global and trend throughout the century but rather
regularly spaced picture, they are based on variable trends at multidecadal scales.
uncertain conversions of radiometric data
into precipitation rates. Furthermore, pre- Map 11.1 shows the geographic distribu-
cipitation variability at multidecadal scales tion of annual precipitation for 1901-2005
can mask long-term trends. Because this and 1979-2005. During the second period
variability increases as the spatial scale anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions
decreases, identifying regional and local are estimated to be dominant in determin-
trends is especially difficult.2 ing global warming.5 The two precipita-
tion patterns differ greatly due to the
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate large multidecadal variability of regional
Change recently completed a thorough precipitation.
Trend in annual
precipitation, 1901-2005
(percent per century)
-100 to -80
-80 to -60
-60 to -40
-40 to -20
-20 to -5
-5 to 5
5 to 20
20 to 40
40 to 60
60 to 100
No data
Trend in annual
precipitation, 1979-2005
(percent per decade)
-100 to -60
-60 to -45
-45 to -30
-30 to -15
-15 to -3
-3 to 3
3 to 15
15 to 30
30 to 45
No data
Map 11.2 Geographic distribution of the trend in the Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) and
annual variations in the globally averaged PDSI, 1900-2000
PDSI
Less than -4
-4 to -3
-3 to -2
-2 to -1
-1 to 1
1 to 2
2 to 3
3 to 4
More than 4
No data
PDSI
-1
Trend line for decadal variations
-2
-3
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Note: The PDSI is a measure of drought severity based on precipitation and temperature information. Positive values imply more severe drought conditions.
Source: Based on IPCC 2007, chapter 3.
3 Chapter 11C
Current methods Territories of North America. Areas with little or no direct plot scale data on actual
reduced drought trends include southern evaporation that are long-term or accurate
of measuring
South America, the eastern United States, enough.
evaporation are Northeastern Europe and the Ethiopian
either too recent or highlands. In the absence of sufficient data, alterna-
tive methods have been used. Some stud-
too inaccurate to Several similarities are evident when these ies have diagnosed changes as the residual
be used in analyses 20th century trends in the PDSI are com- in the area-average water balance,12 but
pared with projections of annual precipita- most studies have used the measured rate
of long-term tion change from 22 coupled atmosphere- of evaporation from evaporation pans,
gradual change ocean general circulation models at the rates calculated using estimation equa-
end of the 21st century prepared for IPCC tions, or both. Because many of these stud-
in evaporation scenario A1B (in the middle of the IPCC ies used the language of early evaporation
scenario range).7 The Mediterranean Basin, theory instead of that of the physics and
Central America, Southern Africa, South- physiology of evaporation, confusion has
eastern Brazil and Eastern Australia, where resulted, generating much controversy.13
the PDSI trend shows increased drought
conditions, are projected to receive sub- Two main explanations have been ad-
stantially less precipitation. These areas vanced for observed reductions in pan
thus appear most at risk of water stress, evaporation. The first is that open water
presumably due to anthropogenic climate evaporation has decreased because the net
change. West Africa and the Sahel, where radiation available to support evaporation
the positive PSDI trend is at a maximum, at the ground has declined, whether be-
are not projected to be affected by large cause of higher concentrations of atmos-
precipitation changes. This might be an pheric aerosols, increasing cloud cover,
indication that the Sahel drought of the climate change or a combination of these.
last part of the 20th century was a natural If a decline in net radiation were the only
climate fluctuation not directly tied to reason for the reduction in pan evapora-
global warming. Similarly, areas of Cen- tion, and if all other meteorological, soil
tral and East Asia where the PDSI trend moisture and plant physiology influences
was positive in the 20th century show on actual evaporation had remained
increased precipitation in the 21st century unchanged, that would indicate an as-
model projections. sociated reduction in area-average actual
evapotranspiration.14
As mentioned, the mode of precipitation
may be more important than average pre- Enhancement of the hydrologic cycle is
cipitation in determining hydrologic im- an important feature of climate change
pacts. Widespread increases in heavy pre- projections, not only because water vapour
cipitation events have been observed in is the most important greenhouse gas but
some places where total precipitation has also because the additional water in the
decreased, and more precipitation now atmosphere may alter cloud cover and thus
falls as rain rather than snow in northern affect surface solar radiation. The extent
regions.8 At the same time, the length, fre- to which cloud cover may increase is not
quency and intensity of heat waves have yet clear. Some observational studies have
increased widely. Consistent with a warmer calculated reductions in solar radiation of
atmosphere with a greater water-holding a few percent per decade based on calcu-
capacity, these changes are also found in lated changes in open water and reference
IPCC climate projections under different crop evaporation using historical data on
greenhouse gas emission scenarios.9 hours of sunshine, implying cloud cover
may be increasing in some regions.15
Changes in evaporation and Meanwhile, studies reporting significant
evapotranspiration changes in observed solar radiation have
Contributor: W. James Shuttleworth confidently ascribed them to local or
regional changes in atmospheric aerosol
Actual evaporation can be measured either concentration.16 Regionally varying, but
by integrating the water transferred into nonetheless widespread, impacts of in-
the atmosphere using micrometeorologi- creasing atmospheric aerosols and associ-
cal techniques or by measuring the liquid ated reductions in surface solar radiation
water loss from representative sample are now well documented17 and modelled
volumes of the soil-atmosphere interface.10 in general circulation models.18 One study
All available methods, however, are either estimates reductions in solar radiation of
too recent or too inaccurate to be used about 2.75% a decade,19 while the IPCC
in analyses of long-term gradual change estimates the change in global radiative
in evaporation.11 Consequently, there are forcing due to sulphate aerosols since 1750
3 Chapter 11C
Inconsistencies in Advanced soil moisture sensors such as a fixed version of a numerical weather
neutron probes, time domain reflectrom- prediction model, with assimilation of
national hydrologic
etry, frequency domain reflectometry and atmospheric and other data as though
monitoring tensiometers provide more continuous the model were being run in real time.
networks, data measurements. The Soil Climate Analysis Analyses of the variability in soil moisture
Network of the US Department of Agri- in output from several recent global rean-
access and data culture National Resources Conservation alyses found no long-term linear trends at
quality prevent Service reports real-time soil moisture the global scale.36 An analysis of output
observations using meteor burst commu- from climate simulations of 25 general
systematic and nication, with some records going back to circulation models found that the models
comprehensive the early 1990s.29 were unable to reproduce observed trends
in soil moisture over the Russian Federa-
global assessments Gravimetrically observed soil moisture tion and Ukraine in the second half of the
of trends in runoff data for the Russian Federation and 20th century.37
Ukraine for about 40 years show that sum-
and streamflow mer soil moisture increased significantly Remote sensing estimates of soil moisture
from 1958 to the mid-1990s. Researchers offer another alternative to in-situ observa-
suggest that solar dimming, a decrease in tions. Surface soil moisture can be retrieved
evaporation and an increase in carbon di- from low-frequency microwave satellite
oxide could be responsible, although con- data. Current satellite-based estimates of
trary to model predictions based on global soil moisture (using mostly shorter wave-
warming related to greenhouse gases.30 length sensors) reflect the water content of
only the upper 1-2 centimetres of the soil
A study found strong correlations between column, because vegetation can mask the
the PDSI for 1870-2002 based on global signature of the soil below. Data from the
gridded precipitation and surface tempera- Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment
ture records and observed soil moisture (GRACE) satellite have been used to repre-
content to 1 metre in depth during warm sent terrestrial water storage variability in
season months in China, Mongolia, the several studies since its launch in 2002. 38
former Soviet Union and the United States Major drawbacks to GRACE data are the low
(Illinois).31 The study found that global spatial resolution (hundreds of kilometres)
land areas in both very dry (PDSI less than and a wide ‘visual’ field that encompasses
-3.0) and very wet (PDSI more than +3.0) the total signature of variations in moisture
conditions have increased from approxi- storage from the centre of the Earth to the
mately 20% to 38% since 1972, suggesting top of the atmosphere, so that sources of
surface warming as the primary cause after variations other than soil moisture (such as
the mid-1980s. atmospheric moisture, snow water storage,
groundwater, lakes and reservoirs) must be
Land surface models are a more so- removed to analyse soil moisture trends
phisticated method than the PDSI for and variability.
reconstructing long-term soil moisture
variations. While the ability of models to Runoff and streamflow trends
faithfully reproduce observations is always Contributors: Harry Lins with Lena Tallaksen
an issue, studies using observations over
Illinois32 and a transect over Eurasia33 Inconsistencies in national hydrologic
found that the variable infiltration capac- monitoring networks, data access and data
ity model accurately reproduced observed quality prevent systematic and compre-
interseasonal and interannual variability. hensive global assessments of trends in
Another study used the variable infiltration runoff and streamflow (see chapter 13).
capacity model to reconstruct soil mois- Sparse stream gauge networks in develop-
ture globally for 1950-2000 and found a ing countries, often coupled with national
small wetting trend at a global scale in the data policies that restrict dissemination
reconstructed soil moisture.34 The study to regional or international data centres,
attributes the wetting trend primarily to limit the comprehensiveness of world-
increasing precipitation. The reconstructed wide trend assessments.39 Several studies
trend in soil wetness in the United States is of trends in streamflow have neverthe-
consistent with other studies.35 less been published. Most used stream
gauge records that are ‘climate sensitive’,
An alternative to land service models meaning that the data are from stations
(which use observed records of surface cli- thought to be minimally affected by such
mate variables) is coupled land-atmosphere confounding anthropogenic influences as
model reanalysis output and coupled upstream regulation, diversions, ground-
model climate reconstructions. These are water extractions and land use change.
reconstructions of a past period using As a result, the trends reported in these
3 Chapter 11C
Groundwater is an 1962-95, 1930-95 and 1911-95 tested for apparent in low flows, with about 52% of
trends in hydrologic drought and detected stations exhibiting statistically significant
often neglected
no significant changes for most stations.50 trends in seven‑day low flows, all of them
part of the global The study concluded that there was no evi- increasing. This implies a reduction in the
water cycle, dence that drought conditions had become incidence of hydrologic drought, consist-
more severe or frequent. ent with the results of a study of global
partly because trends in soil moisture and drought.54
it is invisible Several recent studies have investigated These two broad-scale results are generally
trends in Siberian river discharge. Annual consistent with those from regionally spe-
and difficult to discharge from the six largest Russian cific investigations, and both studies con-
monitor and partly Arctic rivers (Kolyma, Lena, Ob, Pechora, clude that the results do not support the
Severnaya and Yenisei) increased 7% over hypothesis that global warming has as yet
because the data 1936-99, mostly in winter.51 These ob- caused an increase in hydrologic extremes
for understanding servations indicate a general increase in – more floods or hydrologic droughts.
freshwater flux to the Arctic Ocean. There
groundwater is concern that this increase may influence Groundwater trends
flows are limited the global climate system, through both Contributors: Willi Struckmeier
ocean circulation and the carbon cycle with Peter Letitre
(see next section). Another study found
significant positive trends in minimum Groundwater is an often neglected part
flows in many smaller rivers across Eu- of the global water cycle, partly because
ropean and Siberian Russian Federation, it is invisible and difficult to monitor and
suggesting an increasing contribution of partly because the data for understand-
groundwater to the hydrologic cycle of ing groundwater flows are limited. Thus,
northern Eurasia.52 despite its importance for river baseflow
and wetlands, groundwater is frequently
Two recent studies assessed global high ignored in water balance calculations and
and low flow trends by analysing trends in water resources planning and manage-
in annual maximum flow and in peaks ment. As long as groundwater levels are
over threshold and annual low flows. One roughly stable – or the annual variations
study analysed records from 195 stations lie within certain intervals – the ground-
on six continents, most of them (92%) water resource is regarded as constant.
in North America, Europe and Australia However, for longer-term evaluations of
(table 11.1). The records for 70% of the global change, trends in groundwater
stations showed no trend in the annual resources are crucial, since groundwater
maximum flow, 14% an increasing trend has a buffer function in short-term climate
and 16% a decreasing trend (box 11.1). variations and is a key element of adapta-
The trends for each continent were gener- tion strategies.
ally consistent with the aggregate totals.
Using a much smaller sample of stations Groundwater flow processes are usually
(21), another study found a mixed pattern much slower than atmospheric or surface
of trends in peaks over threshold, with water processes, often by two or three
approximately 30% of stations exhibiting orders of magnitude. In large aquifer
a trend and with more downward than up- systems containing most of their ground-
ward trends.53 A very different pattern was water in stock, sometimes more than 90%
Table 11.1 Trends in annual maximum streamflow, by continent, for 195 stream gauging stations
worldwide, various years
Note: The analysis was based on the Mann-Kendall test (two-sided, significance level 10%). Values may not sum to 100% because of rounding.
Source: Kundzewicz et al. 2004.
Although considerable attention has been Changes in the flow of major global rivers associated with water management
given to trends in discharge of unregu-
Nile River at the Aswan Dam, Egypt
lated rivers, most studies find that there Discharge (cubic kilometres a second)
are considerably more rivers with no 12
statistically significant trends that could be 10
attributed to long-term climate variations 8
and change than rivers with significant 6
trends. 4
Columbia River at The Dalles, Oregon, United States 2
River flow (thousands of cubic feet a second) 0
For instance, at the 10% significance level, 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
70% of the records analysed showed no 600
Syr Darya River at Tyumen Aryk,
statistically significant change. However, Historical naturalized flow Kazakhstan
the discharge of many large rivers has 500 Discharge (cubic kilometres a second)
indisputably been affected by water 12
400 Estimated range
of naturalized flow 10
management, especially dam construc-
with 2040s warming 8
tion but also within-basin diversions for 300
6
other beneficial uses such as irrigation and
200 4
municipal and industrial water supply, as Regulated flow 2
well as transbasin diversions. 0
100 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
The figure shows the observed flow of 0 Burntwood River near Thomson,
Manitoba, Canada
the Columbia River after construction of Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
Discharge (cubic kilometres a second)
large reservoirs in Canada and the United 12
States (totalling about 30% of the mean 10
annual discharge), as well as ‘naturalized’ 8
discharge (the discharge that would have 6
occurred in the absence of the dams) and 4
projected effects of climate change on 2
the naturalized flows by 2050 (the orange 0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
band reflects the range of climate model
projections). Although the projected ef- Source: Based on GWSP 2005.
fects of climate change are substantial,
they are much less than the observed ef- for irrigation or lost to reservoir evaporation. Burntwood River increased by a factor of
fects of water management (see chapter 9). Flows of the Syr Darya River have declined almost four following an upstream diversion
greatly because of irrigation diversions into the river basin in the 1970s for hydro-
The figure shows other observed effects of upstream (the Syr Darya is one of the major power production.
water management globally. Since construc- tributaries of the Aral Sea, whose declining
tion of the High Aswan Dam almost all the levels are closely related to reductions in the Source: Lins and Slack 2005; Kundzewicz et al.
Nile River’s discharge is now either diverted river’s flows). In contrast, the flow of the 2005; GWSP 2005.
3 Chapter 11C
By current aquifer in the humid region recharge was were constructed in North America, the
closely related to projected changes in southeast coast of South America, Aus-
estimates there
precipitation and its seasonal pattern, and tralia, China and the Russian Federation.
are more than for the particular climate scenario exam- About 350 large reservoirs are currently
50,000 large ined groundwater levels were predicted to under construction in China, India, Iran
decline slightly. For the aquifer in the drier and Turkey and countries in the Middle
dams, 100,000 climate river discharge dominated aquifer East and South-East Asia.63 Since the late
smaller dams and variations. Projected changes in ground- 20th century reservoirs have experienced
water level therefore closely followed pro- various changes, such as dam removals
1 million small jected changes in river discharge, which in the United States; conflicts over res-
dams worldwide were higher in winter and early spring and ervoir water use between upstream and
lower in summer and fall. downstream countries along the Euphra-
tes, Mekong and Syr Darya Rivers; and
A modelling study of two sites in Australia, reservoir sedimentation. More than 25%
one with a Mediterranean climate and of global suspended sediment discharge
one with a subtropical climate, found that is thought to be trapped by reservoirs.64
in the Mediterranean climate changes Although storage of impounded water is
in evaporative demand related to rising known to have increased greatly over the
temperatures dominated the hydrologic re- main period of dam construction during
sponse, whereas in the subtropical climate the 20th century, trends in global reservoir
changes in rainfall characteristics domi- storage over the last 20 years of reduced
nated.59 A spatially distributed hydrologic dam construction are less clear. One study
simulation model – used to evaluate the suggests only a modest change in reservoir
combined effects of projected increases in storage over the last decade,65 and there
precipitation, temperature and potential have been suggestions that a prevalence
evapotranspiration in a future climate – of drought in key areas of the world may
predicted that groundwater recharge and have reduced global reservoir storage over
subsurface storage and discharge would the last decade.
increase in sandy soils but remain rela-
tively unchanged in clay soils.60 These and Lakes. Several studies have provided
other studies suggest that the sensitivity extensive global data on natural lakes.66
of groundwater recharge – and hence the Lakes store the largest volume of fresh sur-
availability of groundwater resources – to face water (about 90,000 km3), more than
climate change will depend on a balance 40 times that in rivers and streams and
between changes in precipitation and about 7 times that in wetlands. Together
evaporative demand, and site-specific with reservoirs, they cover an estimated
vadose zone and aquifer characteristics.61 2.7 million km2, or about 2% of surface
Much more work is needed to understand area outside the polar regions.67 Most
groundwater resources sensitivities to cli- lakes are small, but the 145 largest lakes
mate change globally. are estimated to contain more than 95%
of lake freshwater. Lake Baikal (Russian
Trends in reservoir, lake and wetland Federation), the world’s largest, deepest
storage and oldest lake, alone contains 27% of all
Contributors: Kuni Takeuchi with Jun Magomi lake freshwater. Lake water serves com-
merce, fishing, recreation and transport,
By current estimates there are more than and supplies water for much of the world’s
50,000 large dams (more than 15 metres population.
high or 3 million m3 storage capacity),
100,000 smaller dams (more than 0.1 While changes in lake coverage over the
million m3 storage) and 1 million small past few decades have been observed in
dams (less than 0.1 million m3 storage) many parts of the world, the primary
worldwide. Total reservoir storage capac- factors driving these changes are specific
ity of these dams is estimated at about to each region. The surface area of Lake
7,000 km3, and the total water surface of Chad shrank from 23,000 km2 in 1963
reservoirs is about 500,000 square kilo- to less than 2,000 km2 by the mid-1980s,
metres (km2). Although there are a huge due largely to drought. The Aral Sea has
number of reservoirs, 95% of total reservoir also shrunk dramatically, and the volume
capacity is accounted for by about 5,000 of water in the basin has plummeted 75%
large reservoirs (dams more than 60 metres since 1960 – changes attributable prima-
high), and more than 80% are used for rily to diversions of inflows for irrigation.
hydropower generation (see chapter 7).62 The level of the Caspian Sea fell 3 metres
between 1929 and 1977 but then rose 3
Reservoirs. In the past 100 years, but metres by 1995.68 In Siberia changes in
mainly during 1950-90, many reservoirs total lake area over the last three decades
Map 11.3 Example of decline in lake abundance and total lake area in the discontinuous
permafrost zone of western Siberia, 1973-97
Note: Changes such as those in this map are thought to be symptomatic of permafrost degradation. Net increases in lake abundance and area have occurred
in continuous permafrost, suggesting an initial but ephemeral increase in surface ponding. Decadal scale variations in lake, wetland and reservoir storage are
natural characteristics of the dynamics of these water bodies and cannot necessarily be ascribed to climate, land cover or other anthropogenic causes.
Source: Based on Smith, Sheng, et al. 2005.
3 Chapter 11C
Both current biogeochemical cycling.73 During the last Northern Hemisphere land area.74 Perma-
century numerous wetlands were de- frost exists mainly in high latitudes and
measurements
stroyed. Currently, extensive work is being high elevation regions (map 11.4). Per-
and climate model done through the ‘Wise Use’ campaigns mafrost in Eurasia occurs over the entire
projections show sponsored by Ramsar, WWF and the Arctic and boreal forest areas and includes
United Nations Environment Programme the mountainous regions of Central Asia
that climate to maintain critical services in water and (Tien Shan and Pamir), the Tibetan Plateau
changes in cold- related livelihood and food production and high elevated areas of the Himalayas.
areas of wetlands. Roughly half of the Over North America permafrost is distrib-
land regions world’s wetlands occur in high latitudes, uted mainly over Alaska and the Canadian
are among the and many of these owe their existence Arctic, with the southern boundary of the
at least in part to the drainage imped- latitudinal permafrost varying from 50oN
largest changes ance of permafrost. There is concern that to 57oN.75 Due to the effect of the Rocky
over the entire permafrost degradation may cause some Mountains, mountain permafrost can
of these wetlands to drain and be replaced extend as far south as 37oN.
globe and will by grasslands, with serious implications
continue to be so for the global carbon cycle and possible Changes in the regime of ground ice in
feedbacks to global climate change. permafrost directly regulate the hydro-
logic cycle of cold regions over the short
Permafrost trends and long term. Using information from
Contributors: Tinjun Zhang the Circum-Arctic Map of Permafrost and
with Vladimir Aizen Ground Ice Conditions,76 a study estimat-
ed that the volume of excess ground ice
Frozen ground includes soils affected by in the Northern Hemisphere ranges from
short-term freeze-thaw cycles, seasonally 10,800 km3 to 35,460 km3, or about 2.7-8.8
frozen ground and permafrost. Perma- metres sea-level equivalent.77 Assuming
frost regions occupy approximately 24% the average porosity of permafrost soil to
of the exposed land area of the Northern be about 40%, the total volume of ground
Hemisphere, while the long-term average ice (both pore and excess ground ice)
maximum area extent covered by season- varies from 54,000 km3 to 177,000 km3.
ally frozen ground (including the active Under global warming scenarios perma-
layer over permafrost) is about 51% of the frost is expected to degrade rapidly in the
21st century.78 As a result melt-water of
Map 11.4 Circumpolar permafrost extent, 2000 excess ground ice may participate directly
in the hydrologic cycle, while melt-water
Permafrost extent
of pore ground ice may become a signifi-
Continuous cant groundwater resource in cold regions.
Discontinuous Seasonal and interannual variations of soil
Sporadic
water storage within the active layer and
Isolated
Relict permafrost seasonally frozen layer in non-permafrost
Subsea permafrost limit regions can be substantial and have a sig-
Glaciers nificant impact on the hydrologic cycle in
cold seasons and cold regions.
3 Chapter 11C
Most studies freeze advanced 5-7 days in Eurasia over some generally cold continental interior
1988-2002, leading to an earlier start to climates.
suggest that over
the growing season but no changes in its
the Northern length.95 Over North America the onset Analyses of long-term changes in snow
Hemisphere the of the autumn freeze was delayed 5 days, cover extent and snow water equivalent
which was partly responsible for lengthen- over parts of the Northern Hemisphere
snow cover season ing the growing season 8 days over 1988- have used station data, available in some
has shortened 2001.96 cases since early in the 20th century, and
satellite estimates of snow cover extent,
and spring melt Snow trends available for almost 40 years. Using re-
has occurred Contributors: Stephan Harrison constructed snow cover extent for much
with Dennis P. Lettenmaier of the Northern Hemisphere, one study
earlier in the last found that winter snow water equiva-
50-100 years More than one-sixth of the world’s popula- lent increased about 4% per decade, as
tion lives in areas where surface water is did winter snow depth over the Russia
derived mainly from snowmelt, either Federation.98 In contrast, over Eurasia and
seasonally ephemeral snowpacks or peren- North America spring snow cover extent
nial glaciers.97 These areas also account and snow water equivalent decreased
for more than a quarter of global gross substantially beginning about 1980. A
domestic product. Changes in the seasonal study using the more recent period of
patterns of runoff or permanent changes satellite data found substantial declines
in runoff volume resulting from changes in snow cover extent over the Northern
in snow cover (map 11.5) are therefore of Hemisphere during 1972-2006, especially
great concern. in spring.99 Spring declines appeared to
be amplified poleward and were larger
Most studies suggest that over the for North America than Eurasia. An-
Northern Hemisphere the snow cover other study using the same satellite data
season has shortened and spring melt inferred trends of about 3-5 days per
has occurred earlier in the last 50-100 decade earlier snow melt and about the
years. Some studies suggest that these same increase in length of the snow-free
changes may have accelerated in the last season over the Northern Hemisphere.100
several decades, but inconsistencies in A study using reconstructed snow cover
data sources complicate the picture. The records for North America reached similar
mountainous areas of North America have conclusions.101
exhibited downward trends in snow water
equivalent that seem related primarily to A number of regional studies have also
increased temperature. At some high-lati- been conducted. One analysed manual
tude locations, however, mid-winter snow observations of snow depth and newly
water equivalent has increased, possibly fallen snow over the Swiss Alps during
in response to increased precipitation in 1931-99 and found that both the number
of days of continuous snow cover and the
Map 11.5 Changes in the duration of spring snowcover, number of days with snowfall increased
1978-2006 gradually until about 1980 and declined
thereafter.102 Trends were progressively
Days per
more pronounced with decreasing eleva-
decade tion. Increased temperature was the main
3 cause of reductions in the number of days
with snow on the ground at low elevation
in the Swiss Alps.103 Analysis of Russian
Federation snow depth data for 1936-83
from 119 stations showed a statistically
significant increasing trend in winter
snow depth.104 While annual snow cover
duration over southern Canada generally
has not changed, winter snow cover has
increased and spring snow cover has de-
creased, although changes in snow cover
were modest.105 Snowfall over Canada
-3 north of 55°N increased about 20% dur-
ing 1950-90, associated primarily with
increased winter precipitation.106 Snowfall
Source: US National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) from the US National Oceanic and changes in southern Canada are highly
Atmospheric Administration weekly snow cover maps. correlated with winter temperature, with
snowfall decreasing in the warmer areas
3 Chapter 11C
Interactions moisture flow over Central Asia are major disappearance) declined from 168 days
driving forces of glacier mass balance and to 138 days in 2007. The area of seasonal
between a
variability in river discharge. Glaciologic snow cover decreased 15% (by 120,000
changing observations conducted on the Tibetan km2), and the date of maximum snow
hydrologic cycle Plateau revealed that between the 1950s cover has come later. Further decline may
and 1960s 50% of glaciers retreated, 30% be accelerated by increased rainfall instead
and a changing advanced and 20% were stable. During of snowfall in the early spring at high
terrestrial carbon the 1970s glaciers were relatively stable, elevations and, consequently, a lesser heat
but since then recessions have accelerated, expenditure for the snowmelt.
cycle can be and in the 1990s up to 95% of 620 glaciers
correlated with studied were retreating. The recession rate Mathematical simulations of the current
was 4 metres a year at the north Tibetan state of the Tien Shan glacier area and fore-
climate change Plateau, intensifying up to 65 metres a casts of the potential impact of global and
year to the southeast.119 The total glacier regional climate change on the glaciers and
area of the Tibetan Plateau has shrunk glacier river runoff in the Tien Shan esti-
5.5% in the last 45 years.120 mate that an increase in air temperature of
1°C at equilibrium line elevation must be
Altai Mountain ridges define the northern compensated for by a 100 mm increase in
periphery of the Central Asian mountains precipitation to maintain glaciers in their
and the southern periphery of the Asian current state. Glaciers are predicted to de-
Arctic Basin. Altai glaciers cover 2,040 km2 cline to 94% of their current number, 69%
in southern Siberia, Mongolia and north- of current covered area and 75% of current
western China. The Pamir glacier, which volume. Glacier runoff is predicted to be
extends to the most western periphery of 75% of its current value.125
the Central Asian mountains (Tajikistan
and northwestern China), covered 12,100 While the Tien Shan glacier area has been
km2 in the late 1970s. In the last half continuously declining, the annual river
century annual precipitation increased discharge has been growing over the last
by 3.2 millimetres (mm) a year in Altai, decade due mainly to increased precipita-
notably in spring and summer months, tion. One of the main predictors of the
while no significant change in precipita- current year’s river discharge in Tien Shan
tion occurred in the adjacent lowlands. is the volume of river runoff the previ-
In the northwestern and central Pamir ous year, which could be replenished by
at elevations above 3,000 metres annual groundwater. The possible sharp change in
precipitation increased 8.1 mm a year over river runoff indicates the non-linear sys-
the last 17 years.121 Despite the increase in tem response caused mainly by the non-
precipitation, glacier recession occurred in linear response of evapotranspiration to
Altai and Pamir due to increases (0.03°C a changes in temperature and precipitation.
year) in spring and summer air tempera- Thus, a precipitation surplus accelerates
tures,122 which have intensified snow and evapotranspiration when air temperature
glacier melt and increased discharge to the rises, while a precipitation deficit slows
Ob and Yenisei Rivers by 7% and to the this process even with rising air tempera-
Pamir River by 13.5%. The Altai glacier ture, which increases the albedo of glacier
area shrank 7.2% on average between 1952 surface in summer and reduces potential
and 2006.123 snow and ice melt. Current glacier reces-
sion, while initially boosting river flows,
The glacier area of the Tien Shan, a moun- eventually causes runoff to decrease.
tain range in Central Asia, has decreased
by 1,620 km2 (10.1%) during the last 30 Glaciers in the Himalayas and European
years. The rate of glacier recession varied Alps are receding and disappearing faster
between 3.5% in central Tien Shan, with than glaciers in Central Asia.126 Recent
large high-elevated glacier massifs, and studies revealed that large Himalayan gla-
14.1% in the low western Tien Shan, with ciers are retreating at a rate of more than
small sparse glaciers. The rate of reces- 30 metres a year, resulting in a 21% reduc-
sion was three times faster during 1977- tion in glacier area since the 1980s.127
2003 than during 1943-77. The surface of
some glaciers dropped 100 metres during Links between the terrestrial
1977-2000 (map 11.6).124 Annual runoff carbon and water cycles
of the major Tien Shan rivers averages
67 km3 a year, including glacial melt of Contributors: Theodore Bohn with Dennis
about 14 km3 a year, or 20%. During P. Lettenmaier and Charles Vörösmarty
droughts the proportion of glacial runoff
increases to 30%. The duration of snow Interactions between a changing hydro-
melt (from maximum snow cover to its logic cycle and a changing terrestrial
Note: Top maps are aerial photogrammetry and Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) images. Bottom map is
aerial photogrammetry and Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data.
Source: Based on Aizen et al. 2006.
3 Chapter 11C
estimated net carbon cycle can be correlated with cli- through respiration (by plants or through
mate change. The terrestrial biosphere decomposition in the soil), export of
primary biomass
plays an important role in the global carbon into lakes and stream networks
productivity climate system, having taken up roughly and disturbances such as fire (or changes
increased 25% of anthropogenic carbon emissions in land use). Some of these stages lend
during the last century.128 It is not clear themselves to large-scale monitoring more
significantly over how long the biosphere can continue to easily than others.
25% of the global absorb atmospheric carbon at this rate.
Observations suggest that the rate of Productivity exhibits the tightest coupling
vegetated area carbon uptake depends on hydrologic and between the hydrologic and terrestrial
and decreased climate conditions as well as land use. carbon cycles, in the link between photo-
However, long-term observations are much synthesis and transpiration. Accordingly,
significantly over sparser for terrestrial carbon storage and productivity is subject to many of the
7% of the area flux, especially over large scales, than for same climate limitations as evaporation,
the hydrologic cycle, making it difficult including soil moisture, temperature, inci-
to discern the relationships of trends in dent solar radiation and humidity. Attribu-
global or regional carbon budgets with tion of changes in productivity to trends
climate and hydrologic factors. Nonethe- in climate factors is not entirely straight-
less, some of these relationships have forward, in part because more than one of
become apparent, while in other cases the these factors can be colimiting. Nonethe-
strong relationships between shorter-term less, because of its manifestation in the
hydrologic variability and carbon fluxes form of biomass, productivity (equivalent
have important implications for observed to photosynthesis minus plant respiration,
hydrologic trends. or ‘net productivity’) lends itself more eas-
ily to large-scale measurement than other
Because water plays different roles in each carbon fluxes and is often estimated on
stage of the terrestrial carbon cycle, it is global scales using satellite-based data.129
useful to consider each stage separately.
The vast majority of terrestrial carbon An analysis of global trends in net primary
is stored in soil, litter and above-ground biomass productivity (map 11.7) by the
vegetative biomass. Carbon enters these geographic distribution of climate factors
environmental compartments primarily limiting productivity and trends in those
through plant photosynthesis (productivi- factors during 1982-99 found that esti-
ty). Carbon may leave these compartments mated net primary productivity increased
Annual
percentage change
1.5
-1.5
3 Chapter 11C
There is a which snow melt timing is sensitive). Con- in subsurface drainage networks. If this
versely, several studies have found strong process is indeed occurring, it is conceiv-
consensus
negative correlations between trends in fire able that the increased flushing of the soils
among climate frequency and summer storm frequency.138 by groundwater, accompanied by longer
scientists that As mentioned, warmer summers and growing seasons and greater microbial
earlier snow melts tend to result in earlier activity during seasons in which the soils
climate warming exhaustion of soil moisture and onset of historically have been frozen, could lead
will intensify, water limited conditions, while more fre- to greater mobility and loss of soil carbon.
quent summer storms would be expected Establishing a link between these phenom-
accelerate or to delay the onset of water-limitation. ena will require further research. In addi-
enhance the global Thus, two major carbon fluxes, productivi- tion, the thawing of permafrost in Siberia
ty and fires, depend strongly on the annual may release large amounts of soil carbon
hydrologic cycle duration of water limitation. into streams in the future,144 but this is
based on a space-for-time substitution
The final major efflux of carbon from ter- rather than a direct observation of a trend.
restrial ecosystems is the export of carbon
from soils to aquatic systems as particu- In summary, while hydrologic processes
late organic carbon (POC) and dissolved are important in all stages of the carbon
organic carbon (DOC). Because much of cycle, trends in the carbon cycle are only
this carbon can be subsequently respired sometimes strongly correlated with trends
and returned to the atmosphere, either in the hydrologic cycle – namely, when
in streams or the ocean, this flux is an water availability is the dominant limit-
important loss term in the terrestrial car- ing factor. For some ecosystems water
bon budget. A substantial amount of POC availability may become a limiting factor
consists of organic carbon sorbed onto as other climate factors change. Direct
soil sediment particles, entering streams observations of carbon fluxes and storages
through erosion and mass wasting (see sec- have rarely been made over a long enough
tion on erosion and sediment transport), time period or a large enough region
so trends in sediment transport would be for significant trends to be detected, but
expected to have strongly correlated with strong evidence can still exist to indicate
trends in POC export (although other potential impacts of hydrologic trends on
factors such as soil carbon content and the carbon cycle.
in-stream chemistry would also exert an
influence on POC export). One study es- Is the hydrologic cycle
timated that, globally, 0.4-1.2 petragrams accelerating?
of carbon are transported to the oceans as
POC each year. However, no global trends Contributor: Tom Huntington
in POC export have yet been assessed.139
There is a consensus among climate scien-
Several studies have observed marked tists that climate warming will intensify,
increases in the annual fluxes of DOC accelerate or enhance the global hydro-
in many temperate and boreal streams logic cycle.145 Intensification could be
around the world. While it has been dif- evidenced or caused by increasing rates of
ficult to attribute all the observed trends evaporation, evapotranspiration, pre-
to a single cause,140 hydrology appears to cipitation and streamflow (in some areas).
play a role in some cases, through changes Associated changes in atmospheric water
in groundwater drainage. For example, content, soil moisture, ocean salinity
in the Arctic, several studies have found and glacier mass balance (seasonal) may
strong correlations between daily river also be implicated. The mechanism most
discharge and DOC concentrations.141 In often cited is that warmer air temperatures
this context, the increases in the annual result in higher saturation vapour pres-
discharge of the six major rivers of the sure (about 7% higher per degree Kelvin)
Russian Federation Arctic142 and especially and hence atmospheric water vapour
the recently discovered increase in mini- content.146 Some argue that recent satel-
mum flows across Northern Eurasian pan- lite observations do not support subdued
Arctic143 discussed in the section on runoff sensitivity, and report increases in water
and streamflow trends may have impor- vapour content, precipitation and evapora-
tant consequences for the carbon cycle. tion of about 6% per degree Kelvin.147 The
intensification response to future warming
Because minimum flows generally reflect remains a critical question in assessing
the influence of groundwater, the cause hydrologic response to climate warming.
of these trends has been speculated to be
a reduction in the intensity of seasonal The IPCC has found global average in-
soil freezing, allowing more connectivity creases in surface air temperatures over
3 Chapter 11C
many of the more future changes, this section considers the precipitation and temperature) and histori-
consequences for water management as cal general circulation models, and then
indirect impacts of
well as adaptation strategies for coping. applying the same relationships to general
climate change on circulation model simulations of future
surface water are The latest IPCC report describes water large-scale conditions.
cycle effects associated with projected
not fully known global warming ranging from a warmer Hydrologic impact studies assess the
atmosphere that holds more water vapour effects of climate change on individual
to more severe regional water shortages processes to infer how the process may
in semi-arid and arid regions.162 These change with a shifting climate. They typi-
projections result mostly from general cally use deterministic hydrologic models
circulation models of the coupled land- to estimate changes in water availability
atmosphere-ocean climate system. These and related impacts. Hydrologic sensitivity
models represent the climatic forcings and studies involve running models with and
response of the Earth’s systems to these without a particular process to determine
forcings and to anthropogenic changes in its contributions.
the composition of the atmosphere, typi-
cally at spatial resolutions of 2°-4° latitude Ensemble simulations provide another
by longitude. Although the reliability of technique for assessing the uncertainty
these projections is improving, a number in impact of changes due to climate and
of inherent uncertainties remain because other factors. On a global basis and for the
of poorly defined initial conditions, natu- Colorado River basin the nature of runoff
ral and human processes and feedbacks, changes is projected by a suite of general
inadequate process representation in cli- circulation models using this ensemble
mate models, scale mismatches, extremes information to estimate uncertainty in
of climate and long-term climate variabil- projections of future hydrologic change.164
ity, among other reasons. Furthermore,
accurate projections of future changes in Approaches to incorporating climate
land hydrologic processes based on general change information in decision-making
circulation model simulations are compli- can be either direct or indirect. Direct
cated by subgrid spatial heterogeneity and approaches incorporate climate change
the highly non-linear nature of the proc- information directly into decision-making
esses. Projected changes based on these – for example, climate scientists interact-
simulations are generally more accurate ing with partnering utilities to find space
at large scales and less so at the regional and time scales appropriate for adaptations
scales where mitigation and adaptation to reduce the risk of climate extremes.
must take place. Indirect approaches involve potentially
affected people in studies of the readiness
Due to the localized response of water of societies to adapt to climate change.
resources to large-scale forcings, global Although the indirect approach has
projections from climate models are of dominated to date, as water managers
limited value for water resources applica- and decision-makers become more seri-
tions unless accompanied by downscaling. ous about adaptation to climate change,
Hydrologic models are a central compo- the direct approach will likely begin to
nent of the tools used to assess the pos- predominate.
sible implications of a change in climate
for the hydrology of a location or a basin. Summary
Climate projections must be transformed
into values at points or for small areas for Table 11.2 summarizes the key findings of
use in impact assessments. Downscaling a literature review of ongoing changes in
can be conducted by statistical methods the land surface water cycle. The picture is
or dynamic regional climate models.163 incomplete – both because a brief summa-
Regional models can use global model ry such as this cannot be exhaustive and
outputs as their boundary conditions to because the most comprehensive studies
provide much higher resolution outputs have been conducted where the highest-
that account more fully for topography quality and lengthiest datasets are avail-
and more accurately represent critical able, resulting in non-uniform coverage
physical processes. Statistical downscal- globally. Furthermore, while confidence in
ing methods are easier to apply and hence projections of the thermal aspects of cli-
more widely used; they involve ‘training’ mate change is growing, many of the more
a statistical model that relates large-scale indirect impacts of climate change on
climate model output to local condi- surface water are not fully known. Improv-
tions using historical observations (for ing this knowledge by acquiring better
example, of physical climate variables like and more comprehensive data is critical
3 Chapter 11C
30. Robock et al. 2005; Li, Robock, and Wild 76. Brown and Goodison 1996. 126. Ageta et al. 2001; Paul et al. 2004.
2007. 77. Zhang et al. 1999. 127. Srivastava, Gupta, and Mukerji 2003;
31. Dai, Trenberthy, and Qian 2004. Kulkarni et al. 2007.
78. Lawrence and Slater 2005.
32. Maurer et al. 2002. 128. IPCC 2007.
79. Lachenbruch and Marshall 1986; Os-
33. Nijssen, Schnur, and Lettenmaier 2001. terkamp 2005. 129. Net primary productivity is gener-
ally estimated using satellite-derived
34. Sheffield and Wood 2008. 80. Osterkamp 2005.
a normalized difference vegetation
35. Groisman et al. 2004; Andreadis and 81. Smith, Burgess et al. 2005. index (NDVI).
Lettenmaier 2006. 82. Pavlov 1996. 130. Fang et al. 2003.
36. Lu et al. 2005 and Li et al. 2005. 83. Oberman and Mazhitova 2001. 131. Hicke et al. 2002.
37. Li, Robock, and Wild 2007. 84. Sharkhuu 2003. 132. Baldocchi et al. 2001; Nemani et al.
38. Tapley et al. 2004; Rodell et al. 2006; 85. Wu and Zhang 2008. 2003.
Yeh et al. 2006; Swenson and Wahr
86. Vonder Muhll et al. 2004. 133. See, for example, Dise et al. 1993.
2006; Syed et al. 2005.
134. Kirschbaum 2006.
39. Lins 2008.
3 Chapter 11C
Dai, A., I. Y. Fung, and A. D. Del Genio. Evapotranspiration over Canada for Dioxide–Altered Climates on Ground-
1997. Surface Observed Global Land the Period 1960-2000 Based on in Situ water Recharge. Vadose Zone Journal 6:
Precipitation Variations during 1900-88. Climate Observations and a Land Surface 597-609. doi:10.2136/vzj2006.0099.
Journal of Climate 10: 2943-62. Model. Journal of Hydrometeorology 8: Groisman, P. Y., and D. R. Easterling.
Dai, A., K. Trenberth, and T. Qian. 2004. A 1016-30. 1994. Variability and Trends in Total Pre-
Global Dataset of Palmer Drought Sever- Finaev, A. F. 2007. Impact of Climate and cipitation and Snowfall over the United
ity Index for 1870-2002: Relationship Water Resources Changes on Land Deg- States and Canada. Journal of Climate 7:
with Soil Moisture and Effects of Surface radation in Tajikistan. Proceedings of the 184-205.
Warming. Journal of Hydrometeorology 5 NASA LCLUC Workshop, 16-21 Septem- Groisman, P., R. Knight, T. Karl, D. Easter-
(6): 1117-30. ber 2007, Urumqi, China. ling, B. Sun, and J. Lawrimore. 2004.
De Bruin, H. A. R. 1983. A Model of the Foster, S., and D. P. Loucks, eds. 2006. Contemporary Changes of the Hydro-
Priestley-Taylor Parameter, α. Journal of Non-Renewable Groundwater Resources. logical Cycle over the Contiguous United
Applied Meteorology 22: 572-8. A Guidebook on Socially-Sustainable States: Trends Derived from In-Situ
———. 1989. Physical Aspects of the Management for Water-Policy Makers. IHP- Observations. Journal of Hydrometeorol-
Planetary Boundary Layer. In Estimation VI, Series on Groundwater No.10. Paris: ogy 5: 64-85.
of Areal Evaporation, eds. T. A. Black, D. United Nations Children’s Fund. GWSP (Global Water System Project).
L. Spittlehouse, M. D. Novak, and D. T. Francou, B., M. Vuille, P. Wagnon, J. 2005. The Global Water System Project
Price. Wallingford, UK: International As- Mendoza, and J.-E. Sicart. 2003. Science Framework and Implementa-
sociation of Hydrological Sciences . Tropical Climate Change Recorded by a tion Activities. Earth System Science
Del Genio, A. D., A. A. Lacis, and R. A. Glacier in the Central Andes during the Partnership Report No. 3. www.gwsp.
Ruedy. 1991. Simulations of the Effect Last Decades of the Twentieth Century: org/fileadmin/downloads/GWSP_Report_
of a Warmer Climate on Atmospheric Chacaltaya, Bolivia, 16S. Journal of No_1_Internetversion_01.pdf.
Humidity. Nature 351: 382-5. Geophysical Research 108 (D5): 4154. Hannaford, J., and T. J. Marsh. 2007. High-
doi:10.1029/2002JD002959. Flow and Flood Trends in a Network of
Déry, S. J., and R. D. Brown. 2007. Recent
Northern Hemisphere Snow Cover Frauenfeld, O., Zhang T., Roger G. Barry, Undisturbed Catchments in the U.K.
Extent Trends and Implications for and David G. Gilichinsky. 2004. In- International Journal of Climatology 27.
the Snow-Albedo Feedback. Geo- terdecadal Changes in Seasonal Freeze doi:10.10002.joc.1643.
physical Research Letters 34: L22504. and Thaw Depths in Russia. Journal of Harris, C., D. Vonder Muhll, K. Isaksen, W.
doi:10.1029/2007GL031474. Geophysical Research 109: D05101. Haeberli, J. L. Sollide, L. King, P. Hol-
doi:10.1029/2003JD004245. mlund, F. Dramis, M. Guglielmin, and
Dirmeyer, P. A., and K. L. Brubaker.
2006. Evidence for Trends in the Frei, A., D. A. Robinson, and M. G. D. Palacios. 2003. Warming Permafrost
Northern Hemisphere Water Cycle. Hughes. 1999. North American Snow in European Mountains. Global Planet
Geophysical Research Letters 33: L14712. Extent: 1900-1994, International Journal Change 39: 215-25.
doi:14710.11029/12006GL026359. of Climatology 19: 1517-34. Held, I. M., and B. J. Soden. 2000. Water
Dise, N. B., E. Gorham, and E. S. Verry. Frey, K. E., and L. C. Smith. 2005. Ampli- Vapour Feedback and Global Warming.
1993. Environmental Factors Controlling fied Carbon Release from Vast West Annual Review of Energy and the Environ-
Methane Emissions from Peatands in Siberian Peatlands by 2100. Geophysical ment 25: 441-75.
Northern Minnesota. Journal of Geo- Research Letters 32 (9). ———. 2006. Robust Responses of the
physical Research-Atmospheres 98 (D6): Garcia, N. O., and C. R. Mechoso. 2005. Hydrological Cycle to Global Warming.
10583-94. Variability in the Discharge of South Journal of Climate 19: 5686-99.
Dye, D. G. 2002. Variability and Trends in American Rivers and in Climate. Hydro- Hicke, J. A., G. P. Asner, J. T. Rander-
the Annual Snow-Cover Cycle in North- logical Sciences Journal 50: 459-78. son, C. Tucker, S. Los R. Birdsey, J. C.
ern Hemisphere Land Areas, 1972–2000. Gedney, N., P. M. Cox, R. A. Betts, O. Jenkins, and C. Field. 2002. Trends in
Hydrological Processes 16: 3065-77. Boucher, C. Huntingford, and P. A. North American Net Primary Productiv-
Stott. 2006. Detection of a Direct Car- ity Derived from Satellite Observations,
Dyurgerov, M. 2003. Mountain and
bon Dioxide Effect in Continental River 1982-1998. Global Biogeochemical Cycles
Subpolar Glaciers Show an Increase 16 (2).
in Sensitivity to Climate Warming and Runoff Records. Nature 439 (16): 835-7.
Intensification of the Water Cycle. Journal doi:10.1038. Hisdal, H., K. Stahl, L. M. Tallaksen, and
of Hydrology 282: 164-76. Giorgi, F. 2002. Dependence of Surface S. Demuth. 2001. Have Streamflow
Climate Interannual Variability on Spatial Droughts in Europe Become More Severe
Fang J. Y., Piao S., C. B Field, Pan Y., Guo or Frequent? International Journal of
Q., Zhou L., Peng C., and Tao S. 2003. Scale. Geophysical Research Letters 29:
2101. Climatology 21 (1): 317-33.
Increasing Net Primary Production in
China from 1982 to 1999. Frontiers in Golubev, V. S., J. H. Lawrimore, P. Y. Hobbins, M. T., and J. A. Ramirez.
Ecology and the Environment 1 (6): 293- Groisman, N. A. Speranskaya, S. A. 2004. Trends in Pan Evaporation
97. Zhuravin, M. J. Menne, T. C. Peterson, and Actual Evapotranspiration across
and R. W. Malone. 2001. Evaporation the Conterminous U.S.: Paradoxi-
Farahani, H. J., T. A. Howell, W. J. Shuttle- cal or Complementary? Geophysical
worth, and W. C. Bausch. 2007. Evapo- Changes over the Contiguous United
States and the Former USSR: a Reassess- Research Letters 31: L3503. doi:10,
transpiration: Progress in Measurement 1029/2004GL019846.
and Modeling in Agriculture. Transactions ment. Geophysical Research Letters 28
of the American Society of Agricultural and (13): 2665-68. Hodgkins, G. A., and R. W. Dudley. 2006a.
Biological Engineers 50(5): 1627-38. Green, T. R., B. C. Bates, S. P. Charles, and Changes in Late-Winter Snowpack
P. M. Fleming. 2007. Physically Based Depth, Water Equivalent, and Density in
Fernandes, R., V. Korolevych, and Maine, 1926-2004. Hydrological Processes
S. Wang. 2007. Trends in Land Simulation of Potential Effects of Carbon
20: 741-51.
3 Chapter 11C
of Atmospheric CO2 with Spaceborne International Journal of Climatology 21: tion over the Past 50 Years. Science 298:
Microwave Remote Sensing. Earth Inter- 1899-1922. 1410-11.
actions 8 (Paper No. 20): 1-23. Nijssen, B. N., R. Schnur, and D. P. Let- ———. 2004. Changes in Australian Pan
McNaughton, K. G., and T. W. Spriggs. tenmaier. 2001. Global Retrospective Evaporation from 1970 to 2002. Interna-
1986. A Mixed-Layer Model of Regional Estimation of Soil Moisture Using the VIC tional Journal of Climatology 24: 1077-90.
Evaporation. Boundary Layer Meteorology Land Surface Model, 1980-1993. Journal ———. 2005. Changes in New Zealand Pan
34:243-62. of Climate 14 (8): 1790-1808. Evaporation from the 1970s. Internation-
———. 1989. An Evaluation of the Priestley- Oberman, N. G., and G. G. Mazhitova. al Journal of Climatology 25: 2013-39.
Taylor Equation. In Estimation of Areal 2001. Permafrost Dynamics in the Roderick, M. L., L. D. Rotstayn, G. D.
Evaporation, eds. T. A. Black, D. L. Spit- Northeast of European Russia at the End Farquhar, and M. T. Hobbins. 2007. On
tlehouse, M. D. Novak, and D. T. Price. of the 20th Century. Norwegian Journal of the Attribution of Changing Pan Evapo-
Wallingford, UK: International Associa- Geography 55: 241-4. ration. Geophysical Research Letters 34:
tion of Hydrological Sciences. Ohmura, A., and M. Wild. 2002. Is the L17403. doi:10.1029/2007GL031166.
Meybeck, M. 1995. Global Distribution of Hydrological Cycle Accelerating? Science Scherrer, S. C., and C. Appenzeller. 2004.
Lakes. In Physics and Chemistry of Lakes, 298 (5597): 1345-6. Trends in Swiss Alpine Snow Days: The
eds. A. Lerman, D. M. Imboden, and J. R. Omran, M. A. 1998. Analysis of Solar Radia- Role of Local- and Large-Scale Climate
Gat. Berlin: Springer. tion over Egypt. Theoretical and Applied Variability. Geophysical Research Letters
Milly, P. C. D., J. Betancourt, M. Falken- Climatology 67: 225-40. 31. doi:10.1029/2004GL020255.
mark, R. M. Hirsch, Z. W. Kundzewicz, Osterkamp, T. E. 2005. The Recent Warm- Scibek, J., and D. M. Allen. 2006. Compar-
D. P. Lettenmaier, and R. J. Stouffer. ing of Permafrost in Alaska. Global Planet ing Modeled Responses to Two High-
2008. Stationarity Is Dead: Whither Change 49: 187-202. doi: 10.1016/j. Permeability, Unconfined Aquifers to
Water Management? Science 319: 573- gloplacha.2005.09.001. Predicted Climate Change. Global and
74. Planetary Change 50: 50-62.
Paul, F., A. Kaab, M. Maisch, T. Kel-
Milly, P. C. D., and K. A. Dunne. 2001. lenberger, and W. Haeberli. 2004. Sharkhuu, N. 2003. Recent Changes in
Trends in Evaporation and Surface Rapid Disintegration of Alpine Glaciers the Permafrost of Mongolia. In Proceed-
Cooling in the Mississippi River Basin. Observed with Satellite Data. Geo- ings of the 8th International Conference
Geophysical Research Letters 28: 1219-22. physical Research Letters 31: L21402. on Permafrost, 21-25 July 2003, Zurich,
Milly, P. C. D., K. A. Dunne, and A. V. Vec- doi:10.1029/2004GL020816. Switzerland, eds. M. Phillips, S. M.
chia. 2005. Global Pattern of Trends in Springman, and L. U. Arenson. Lesse,
Pavlov, A. V. 1996. Permafrost-Climate
Streamflow and Water Availability in a The Netherlands: A.A. Balkema.
Monitoring of Russia: Analysis of Field
Changing Climate. Nature 438: 347-50.
Data and Forecast. Polar Geography 20 Sheffield, J., and E. Wood. 2008. Global
Mitsch, W. J., and J. G. Gosselink. 2000. (1): 44-64. Trends and Variability in Soil Moisture
Wetlands. New York: John Wiley and and Drought Characteristics, 1950-2000,
Peterson, B. J., R. M. Holmes, J. W. McClel-
Sons. from Observation Driven Simulations of
land, C. J. Vörösmarty, R. B. Lammers,
Montgomery, D. R. 2007. Soil Erosion A. I. Shiklomanov, and S. Rahmstorf. the Terrestrial Hydrologic Cycle. Journal
and Agricultural Sustainability. Proceed- 2002. Increasing River Discharge to the of Climate 21: 432-58.
ings of the National Academy of Sciences Arctic Ocean. Science 298: 2171-3. Shenbin, C., L. Yunfeng, and A. Thomas.
104 (33): 13268-72. 2006. Climatic Change on the Tibetan
Raymond, P. A., J. W. McClelland, R. M.
Mote, P. W. 2003. Trends in Snow Holmes, A. V. Zhulidov, K. Mull, B. J. Plateau: Potential Evapotranspiration
Water Equivalent in the Pacific North- Peterson, R. G. Striegl, G. R. Aiken, Trends from 1961-2000. Climate Change
west and Their Climatic Causes. and T. Y. Gurtovaya. 2007. Flux and Age 76: 291-319.
Geophysical Research Letters 30. of Dissolved Organic Carbon Exported Shi Y. F. 2005. Glacial Inventory of China
doi:10.1029/2003GL017258. to the Arctic Ocean: A Carbon Isotopic (Synthesis volume). Shanghai: Science
Mote, P. W., A. F. Hamlet, M. P. Clark, Study of the Five Largest Arctic Rivers. Popularization Press.
and D. P. Lettenmaier. 2005. Declining Global Biogeochemical Cycles 21 (4). doi: Shiklomanov, I. A., and J. Rodda. 2003.
Mountain Snowpack in Western North 10.1029/2007GB002934. World Water Resources at the Beginning of
America. Bulletin of American Meteorologi- Robock, A., M. Mu, K. Vinnikov, I. Trofi- the 21st Century. Cambridge, UK: Cam-
cal Society 86: 39-49. mova, and T. Adamenko. 2005. Forty- bridge University Press.
Mudelsee, M., M. Börngen, G. Tetzlaff, Five Years of Observed Soil Moisture in Shuttleworth, W. J. 2008. Evapo-
and U. Grünewald. 2003. No Upward the Ukraine: No Summer Desiccation transpiration Measurement Methods
Trends in the Occurrence of Extreme (Yet). Geophysical Research Letters 32: 2008. Southwest Hydrology 7 (1): 22-3.
Floods in Central Europe. Nature 425: L03401. doi:10.1029/2004GL021914. www.swhydro.arizona.edu/archive/
166-9.
Rodell, M., Chen J., H. Kato, J. Famiglietti, V7_N1/.
Nemani, R. R., C. D. Keeling, Hashimoto J. Nigro, and C. Wilson. 2006. Estimat- Shuttleworth, W. J, A. S. Capdevila, M.
H., W. M. Jolly, S. C. Piper, C. J. Tucker, ing Groundwater Storage Changes L. Roderick, and R. Scott. Forthcom-
R. B. Myneni, and S.W. Running. 2003. in the Mississippi River Basin (USA) ing. On the Theory Relating Changes
Climate-Driven Increases in Global Ter- Using GRACE. Hydrogeology Journal. in Area-Average and Pan Evaporation.
restrial Net Primary Production from doi:10.1007/s10040-006-0103-7. ftp:// Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteoro-
1982 to 1999. Science 300 (5625): ftp.csr.utexas.edu/pub/ggfc/papers/ logical Society.
1560-3. Rodell2006_HJ.pdf.
Smith, S. L., M. M. Burgess, D. Risebor-
New, M., M. Todd, M. Hulme, and P. D. Roderick, M. L., and G. D. Farquhar. 2002. ough, and F. M. Nixon. 2005. Recent
Jones. 2001. Precipitation Measurements The Cause of Decreased Pan Evapora- Trends from Canadian Permafrost Moni-
and Trends in the Twentieth Century.
3 Chapter 11C
Zhang T. 2005. Influence of the Sea- Zhang T., O. W. Frauenfeld, M. C. Ser- Statistics and Characteristics of Perma-
sonal Snow Cover on the Ground reze, A. Etringer, C. Oelke, J. Mc- frost and Ground Ice Distribution in the
Thermal Regime: An Overview. Creight, R. G. Barry, D. Gilichinsky, Northern Hemisphere. Polar Geography
Reviews of Geophysics 43: RG4002. Yang D., Ye H., Ling F., and S. Chudi- 23 (2): 147-69.
doi:10.1029/2004RG000157. nova. 2005. Spatial and Temporal Vari- Zhang X., L. A. Vincent, W. D. Hogg, and
Zhang T., R. G. Barry, K. Knowles, F. ability of Active Layer Thickness over the A. Niitsoo. 2000. Temperature and
Ling, and R. L. Armstrong. 2003. Russian Arctic Drainage Basin. Journal Precipitation Trends in Canada during
Distribution of Seasonally and Peren- of Geophysical Research 110: D16101. the 20th Century. Atmosphere-Ocean 38:
nially Frozen Ground in the Northern doi:10.1029/2004JD005642. 395-429.
Hemisphere. In Proceedings of the 8th Zhang X., K. D. Harvey, W. D. Hogg, and Zhao L., Ping C. -L., Yang D., Cheng G.,
International Conference on Permafrost, T. R. Yuzyk. 2001. Trends in Canadian Ding Y., and Liu S. 2004. Changes of
Zurich, Switzerland, 21-25 July 2003, Streamflow. Water Resources Research 37: Climate and Seasonally Frozen Ground
eds. M. Phillips, S. M. Springman, and 987-98. over the Past 30 Years in Qinghai-Xizang
L. U. Arenson. Lesse, The Netherlands:
Zhang T., Roger G. Barry, K. Knowles, J. (Tibetan) Plateau, China, Global Planet.
A. A. Balkema.
A. Heginbottom, and J. Brown. 1999. Change 43: 19-31.
Key messages
A review of recent changes in the global Hazards vary with climate regions
water cycle that analysed more than 100
studies (based on observations) found ris- Just as regions are experiencing different
ing global and regional trends in runoff, degrees of change related to climate vari-
floods and droughts, and other climate- ations and population and development
related events and variables in the second pressures, so are they responding differ-
half of the 20th century that together ently to changes in hydrologic extremes.
support the perception of an intensifica- This chapter identifies the areas that are
tion of the hydrologic cycle.1 Meanwhile, most sensitive to changes in extremes and
substantial uncertainty remains about hazards and those that are likely to experi-
trends of hydroclimate variables due to ence the most negative impacts on water
differences in responses by variables and resources.
across regions, major spatial and tempo-
ral limitations in data (see chapter 13) • Deserts face conflicting influences
and the effects of modifications in water under climate change: potentially
resources development (withdrawals, seeing more vegetation with higher
reservoirs, land use changes and so on) on carbon dioxide levels, but overall
flow regimes. facing increases in drought and
3 Chapter 12E
Regions in the temperatures. With an already fragile more droughts and heat waves in this
environment, desert ecosystems could and other mid-latitude regions. Regional
transition zone
experience severe impacts. climate models suggest that towards the
between major end of the 21st century about every second
climate zones • Grasslands are influenced by precipita- summer could be as warm as or warmer
tion, both its total amount and its vari- (and as dry as or dryer) than the summer
are susceptible ability. Changing seasonal variability of 2003 in Europe.
to drought and is important even when total precipita-
tion is rising, and declining summer Snow cover has decreased in most re-
thus to potential rainfall could damage grassland fauna. gions, especially in spring and summer.
changes in climate Snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere
• Mediterranean ecosystems are diverse and observed by satellite from 1966 to 2005
vulnerable, susceptible to changes in decreased in every month except Novem-
water conditions. Even with a tempera- ber and December, with a step-wise drop
ture rise of 2ºC, the Southern Mediter- of 5% in annual mean in the late 1980s.
ranean may lose 60%-80% of species. In the Southern Hemisphere the few long
records or proxies show mostly decreases
• Tundra and Arctic regions face the loss or no changes in the past 40 years or
of permafrost and the potential for more.4
methane release with greater warming
at the poles. The Himalayan region is highly vulnerable
to climate change because its major river
• Mountains are seeing shortened and drainage systems depend on substantial
earlier snow and ice melt and related contributions from snow and glacier melt.
changes in flooding. At higher alti- In India the river systems originating from
tudes increased winter snow can lead the Himalayas (Ganges-Brahmaputra and
to delayed snow melt. Indus) contribute more than 60% to the
total annual runoff for all the rivers of
• Wetlands will be negatively affected India. These river systems hold immense
where there is decreasing water vol- potential as a future water source and
ume, higher temperatures and higher- drain the major plains of the country.
intensity rainfall. Some Himalayan rivers receive more than
half their flow from snow and glacier melt
Some studies have used climate models and runoff near the foothills of the Himalayas.
greenhouse gas emission scenarios from Melting of glaciers and a reduction in solid
the recent assessment by the Intergovern- precipitation in mountain regions would
mental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) directly affect water resources for domestic
to forecast differences between climate supplies, irrigated agriculture, hydropower
zones today and in 2100.2 They have found generation and other water-dependent
that under both high- and low-emission activities.
scenarios many regions would experience
biome-level changes, suggesting that rain- Changes in average streamflow
forest, tundra or desert areas may no longer
have the same type of vegetation by 2100 While hazards are normally associated
because of climate shifts (box 12.1).3 By the with hydrologic extremes, changes in
end of the 21st century large portions of average streamflow, especially in already
the Earth’s surface may experience climates water-stressed areas, could cause substan-
not found today, and some 20th century tial risks to human activities. The IPCC re-
climate characteristics may disappear. port suggests that by 2050 annual average
runoff will have increased by 10%-40% at
Regions in the transition zone between high latitudes and decreased by 10%-30%
major climate zones (particularly between over some dry regions at mid-latitudes and
temperate and dry climates) are susceptible semi-arid low latitudes.5 However, in many
to drought and thus to potential changes water-scarce regions land use change and
in climate. A shift in climate may create increasing water resources development
a new transition zone, with unknown and use could mask the effects of climate
feedback mechanisms. A northward shift change. At high latitudes, where an in-
is observed in Southern Europe, causing a crease in annual flow is predicted, the im-
decline in summer precipitation in Cen- pact on low flow and drought depends on
tral and Eastern Europe. Climate models the seasonal distribution of precipitation,
consistently predict an increase in sum- the storage capacity of the catchment (abil-
mer temperature variability in these areas ity to take advantage of higher winter pre-
and attribute it mainly to strong land- cipitation), changes in evapotranspiration
atmosphere interactions. This could cause and the length of the growing season.
The Mapped Atmosphere-Plant-Soil Average simulated change in vegetation leaf area index from five general
System (MAPSS), a biogeographic model, circulation model scenarios
predicts changes in vegetation leaf area
index, site water balance, runoff and With no change in water use efficiency
biome boundaries. Global equilibrium
impacts on these ecosystem proper-
ties were simulated under five general
circulation model (GCM) potential climate All-side leaf
area index
scenarios with doubled carbon dioxide Less than -10
concentration. -7.5 to -10
-5.0 to -7.5
-2.5 to -5.0
Leaf area index is the ratio of the vegeta- -1.0 to -2.5
-1.0 to 0
tion’s leaf surface area per unit of ground 0
area. The greater the leaf surface area, the 0 to 1.0
1.0 to 2.5
more rapidly the vegetation will extract 2.5 to 5.0
soil water. Most ecosystems will grow as 5.0 to 10.0
More than 10.0
much leaf area as can be supported by the
water available during an average growing
season. Thus, under normal conditions With increase in water use efficiency
many ecosystems are very near a drought
threshold. Warming lengthens the grow-
ing season, and evaporative demand
increases exponentially with rising tem- All-side leaf
perature. Consequently, entire landscapes area index
Less than -10
can extract all soil moisture before the -7.5 to -10
end of the growing season and become -5.0 to -7.5
-2.5 to -5.0
susceptible to sudden decline under -1.0 to -2.5
rapid warming, especially if coincident -1.0 to 0
0
with a short-term drying trend. Regional 0 to 1.0
increases in precipitation and benefits to 1.0 to 2.5
2.5 to 5.0
plant water use efficiency from elevated 5.0 to 10.0
carbon dioxide concentrations can offset More than 10.0
the increased drought stress in some
ecosystems. However, at global scales Note: All-side leaf area index is the leaf area (all-sides) per unit
most ecosystem models show that the ground area; it is a non-dimensional (unitless) measure.
rapid increases in evaporative demand can Source: Neilson and Marks 1994.
overwhelm these benefits over large areas,
possibly within the next few decades.
western Russia show particular sensitivity than of the vagaries of the GCMs and are
Regional patterns of vegetation change to drought-induced forest decline. Uncer- intrinsic to the landscape. Thus, spatial un-
and annual runoff are surprisingly con- tainties about potential evapotranspiration certainty maps can be drawn even under
sistent across the five GCM scenarios, and vegetation water use efficiency can the current generation GCMs.
considering the relative lack of consistency alter the sign of the simulated regional
in predicted changes in regional precipita- responses, but the relative responses of Source: Ronald P. Neilson, Department of Forest
tion patterns (see bottom map). Eastern adjacent regions appear to be a function Ecosystems and Society, Oregon State Univer-
North America and Eastern Europe to largely of the background climate rather sity; Neilson et al. 1998; Scholze et al. 2006.
The IPCC report notes increased annual Mekong River delta, for example, Cambodi-
runoff and earlier spring peak discharge in ans trap water and nutrients carried down
many glacier- and snow-fed rivers, indicat- by the sediment during flood periods and
ing a regime shift for some rivers. This use them to replenish rice paddies. Floods
trend is projected to continue in response can be important to the aquatic and ripar-
to increasing temperatures, resulting in ian ecology, as demonstrated during the
increased summer streamflow in down- artificial flooding of the Colorado River at
stream regions receiving melt water from the Grand Canyon in the United States. But
major mountain ranges, followed eventu- extreme water-related events also destroy
ally by reduced streamflow. lives and property. The most common ex-
treme events are floods and droughts.
Changes in extreme events
Floods and flooding
Extreme water-related events can have posi- With global climate change and pro-
tive as well as negative impacts. They re- jected increases in global temperature,
charge natural ecosystems, providing more scientists generally agree that the hy-
abundant water for food production, health drologic cycle will intensify and that
and sanitation (box 12.2). In the lower extremes will become more common.
3 Chapter 12E
Box 12.2 Managing urban stormwater in association with land use and land-cover planning can
convert a nuisance into a resource
Urban areas cause substantial changes in Traditionally planners decide on land pervious spaces, constructing low walls
stormwater hydrology, increasing runoff uses and land cover and then give around properties to make them into
volumes and peak discharges and altering engineers the task of designing drainage mini-detention basins that store and infil-
water quality. In the traditional view urban systems to remove the runoff. In a frame- trate runoff and directing excess water to
runoff is a nuisance to be removed as quick- work known as water-sensitive planning, playgrounds, planners can make better use
ly and effectively as possible. However, new water considerations are incorporated of stormwater runoff and reduce flooding
studies and initiatives in several countries in land use and land-cover planning damages in open public spaces and parks.
around the world have shown that storm- from the outset, following best manage- In the Coastal Plain of Israel, for example,
water can become a resource, not merely a ment practices on the distribution of where annual rainfall is just 500 millime-
nuisance. Optimal management of runoff pervious and impervious land cover and tres, it has been estimated that the aquifer
is determined by local conditions and can on constructed facilities for capturing, recharge could be increased by about
include recharge of aquifers, retention and detaining, storing and infiltrating runoff. 25,000-77,000 cubic metres per square
detention to improve water quality and Efficient water use and conservation, kilometre of urban area by connecting
reduce downstream flood impacts and the recycling of grey water and possible use roof drains to a 15% pervious area on the
cost of drainage systems, and on-site use of of treated wastewater should also be property and surrounding the property
the water (rainwater-harvesting) to irrigate incorporated in planning. with a low (approximately 20 centimetres)
and enhance the urban environment. wall.
Stormwater management can be exercised With some effort, water-sensitive de-
from the household level to the entire built signs can also be applied to existing Source: Carmon and Shamir 1997.
area of a city. urban areas. By connecting roof drains to
Peak Impact
discharge material
Meteorological (cubic metres damage Human
Date Location conditions per second) (US$ millions) losses
January 2008 Zambezi River, Heavy torrential precipitation in 3,800 2 20 dead,
Mozambique Mozambique and neighbouring 113,000 displaced
countries
May 2006 Lower Yukon, Snowmelt, ice-jam break-up na na na
United States
April-May Santa Fe, Saturated soil due to heavy 4,100 na 22 dead,
2003 Argentina precipitation in summer 2002 and 161,500 displaced
April 2003
February Limpopo River, Extreme precipitation in tropical 10,000 na 700 dead,
2000 Mozambique depression, enforced with 1,500,000 displaced
torrential rain of three cyclones
July 1997 Czech Republic Saturated ground after extreme 3,000 1.8 114 dead,
long-lasting precipitation and 40,000 displaced
extreme precipitation
June 1997 Brahmaputra River, Torrential monsoon rains during 10,200 400 40 dead,
Bangladesh monsoon season 100,000 displaced
March-April Red River, Heavy rains and snowmelt 3,905 16,000 100,000 homes flooded,
1997 United States 50,000 displaced
November Subglacial Lake Jökulhlaup flood 50,000 12 na
1996 Grímsvötn, Iceland
February West Oregon, Extreme spring snowmelt and na na 9 dead,
1996 United States heavy spring precipitation 25,000 displaced
July 1995 Athens, Storm of a short duration and 650 na 50,000 displaced
Greece extreme intensity
November Po River, Cold front associated with 11,300 na 60 dead,
1994 Italy cyclonic circulation and heavy 16,000 displaced
rainfall
February Meuse River, Heavy rain due to low pressure 3,100 na na
1994 Europe system
September Mississippi River, Heavy precipitation in June na 15,000 50 dead,
1993 United States and July; saturated soil due to 75,000 displaced
extremely high precipitation
November Hat Yai City, Brief torrential monsoon rain na 172 664 dead,
1988 Thailand 301,000 displaced
January 1983 Northern Peru El Niño situation with heavy rains 3,500 na 380 dead,
700,000 displaced
August 1979 Machu River, Exceptionally heavy rainfall, 16,307 100 1,500 dead,
India swollen river, resulting in collapse 400,000 displaced
of the Matchu Dam
June- Yangtze River, Intensive rainfall over several 66,800 na 30,000 dead,
September China months 18,000 displaced
1954
January 1953 North Sea, High spring tide and a severe na 504 1,835 dead,
Netherlands European windstorm 100,000 displaced
January 1910 Seine River, Very wet period for six months 460 na 200,000 displaced
France followed by heavy rains in January
May 1889 Johnstown, Extremely heavy rainfall due to na 17 2,200 dead
Pennsylvania, storm followed by breach of dike
United States
July 1860 Eastern Norway Frost and heavy snowfall 3,200 na 12 dead
followed by snowmelt and heavy
precipitation
3 Chapter 12E
In the past three occurrence and severity of droughts. But These trends in streamflow drought could
it is difficult to disentangle the impacts of be explained largely by changes in precipi-
decades droughts
climate change from those of other human tation or artificial hydrologic influences in
have become influences (engineered effects and land use the catchment. However, the period ana-
more widespread, changes) and multidecadal climate variabil- lysed and the selection of stations can also
ity. More intense droughts, affecting more influence regional patterns. Recent trend
more intense and people and linked to higher temperatures studies of long time series in the Czech Re-
more persistent and decreased precipitation, have been public show that, following a catastrophic
observed in the 21st century, in Europe and flood in 2002, extreme hydrologic drought
globally.9 A similar pattern is found for heat occurred in 2003 and 2004 as a result of an
waves. The high pressure system that devel- increasing trend in air temperature and a
oped over Western Europe in 2003 blocked long-term decline in precipitation, espe-
moist air masses from the west and allowed cially during the summer months.12 Ex-
warm, dry air masses from Northern Africa treme droughts occurred in Europe in 2003
to move northwards. The result was large and 2006. All these recent droughts could
precipitation deficits and record-breaking well change the spatial pattern of droughts
temperatures across most of Central and found for Europe in the earlier study.
Southern Europe, with drought conditions
lasting from March to September. The heat wave and drought between June
and mid-August 2003 in Europe were ac-
Several summaries of observed and companied by annual precipitation deficits
predicted impacts of climate change on of up to 300 millimetres. Vegetation and ec-
hydrologic droughts have been published.10 osystems suffered heat and drought stress,
A study of spatial and temporal changes and record wildfires were experienced
in streamflow droughts using a dataset of (more than 5% of the forest area of Portugal
more than 600 daily European streamflow burned). Gross primary production of ter-
records from the European Water Archive restrial ecosystems across Europe fell to an
of the UNESCO Flow Regime from Inter- estimated 30% of normal. Damages result-
national Experimental Data (FRIEND) ing from agricultural crop losses and higher
detected no significant changes for most production costs were estimated at more
stations.11 However, distinct regional dif- than €13 billion. Major rivers, including
ferences were found. For 1962-90, exam- the Danube, Loire, Po and Rhine, were at
ples of increasing drought were found in record low levels, disrupting inland naviga-
Spain, the eastern part of Eastern Europe tion, irrigation and power-plant cooling.
and large parts of the United Kingdom, Extreme glacier melt mitigated the effects
whereas examples of decreasing drought of low rainfall and high evaporation on
were found in large parts of Central Europe streamflows in rivers partly fed by glaciers,
and the western part of Eastern Europe. such as the Danube and the Rhine.
Box 12.3 Drought in Australia, 1996-2007 In the past three decades droughts have be-
come more widespread, more intense and
more persistent due to decreased precipita-
For large parts of southern and water brings (see box 4.2 in chapter
tion over land and rising temperatures,
eastern Australia dry conditions have 4). Australia understands that it must
persisted since October 1996. For secure water supplies for current
resulting in enhanced evapotranspiration
some areas the rainfall deficit over this and future needs, including from a and drying. The occurrence of droughts
period exceeded a full year’s normal range of new sources that rely less on seems to be determined largely by changes
rainfall. In the agriculturally important rainfall given the clear threat climate in sea surface temperatures, especially in
Murray-Darling River basin October change poses to traditional water the tropics, through associated changes in
2007 marked the sixth year of lower sources. atmospheric circulation and precipitation.
than average rainfall, with November In the western United States diminishing
2001-October 2007 being the driest Water restrictions have been put in snow pack and resultant reductions in soil
such six-year period on record. place in all major cities in response moisture also appear to be factors. In Aus-
to the severe drought. These include
tralia (box 12.3) and Europe the extremely
The recent drought in Australia has restrictions on watering lawns, using
contributed to changes in Australia’s sprinkler systems, washing vehicles,
high temperatures and heat waves ac-
management of water resources. hosing in paved areas, refilling swim- companying recent droughts have implied
Acknowledging that too much water ming pools and others. Restrictions direct links to global warming. Sahelian
has been taken from rivers and can be adjusted to current conditions. droughts have led to severe losses of live-
aquifers, particularly in the Murray- In some cities water inspectors moni- stock, with losses as high as 62% observed
Darling basin, Australia has decided tor water use and can impose fines or in part of Ethiopia in 1998-99.13 Globally,
that it must make better use of its shut off water supplies for water use very dry areas (land areas with a Palmer
water resources. This means improved infractions. Drought Severity Index of 3.0 or less) have
efficiency and productivity of water more than doubled since the 1970s (from
use and better use of water markets to Source: www.mdbc.gov.au/ and www.
about 12% to 30%), with a large jump in
optimize the economic benefits that bom.gov.au/.
the early 1980s due to an El Niño Southern
Box 12.4 Controlled exploitation and artificial recharge as effective measures against
detrimental subsidence
Industrial and agricultural development in than 0.5 millimetre a year, and the artesian subsidence in response to heavy pump-
the last century, accompanied by an ex- aquifers have begun to rebound. ing, effectively reducing aquifer storage.
ponential growth of cities, led to concen- As a result of rapid growth of Las Vegas,
trated pumping of groundwater resources The effects of rapid urbanization and Nevada, pumping rates have exceeded
worldwide. During the 1960s and 1970s industrialization are especially apparent in natural recharge since about 1960, despite
subsidence occurred in many parts of China, where increasing subsidence has led imports of Colorado River water. In the
the world, with widespread damage to to extensive environmental and economic late 1980s the Las Vegas Water Valley
property and infrastructure. Large cities damage in more than 45 cities, more than District initiated an artificial recharge pro-
built on highly compressible sediments 11 of which have experienced cumulative gramme, injecting Colorado River water
in coastal areas increasingly experienced subsidence of more than 1 metre. Tianjin into the principal aquifers. Net annual
flooding and salt intrusion. Controlled experienced related economic losses from pumpage has now been reduced to the
pumping schemes and artificial recharge 1959 to 1993 estimated at $27 billion. level of natural recharge. The water level
measures have managed to slow and even Shanghai took drastic measures in 1965, as drawdown has recovered from a maxi-
reverse subsidence. But with sea levels pro- total subsidence since 1920 had reached as mum of 90 metres to as few as 30 metres.
jected to rise as a result of global climate much as 2.63 metres. Pumping has been Subsidence has also decreased consider-
change, maintaining these schemes and reduced by 60%, and users are requested ably, although the depressurized aquifer
minimizing the contribution of subsidence to inject the same quantity of water into continues to compact, evidence that the
has become even more urgent. aquifers in winter as is used in summer. detrimental effects of overpumping can
While pumping-related subsidence has continue long after control measures have
Even as Venice experienced a relative sea been controlled, drainage for construction been taken.
level rise of 23 centimetres over the last and compaction of foundation layers have
century, the subsidence associated with been causing subsidence rates of up to 10 Source: Ger de Lange, the Netherlands Organisa-
aquifer depletion increased exponentially millimetres a year since 1990. tion for Applied Scientific Research, Built Environ-
until 1961. With curtailing of overexploita- ment and Geosciences; Poland 1984; Carbognin,
tion since 1970, subsidence has stabilized Many groundwater basins in the arid Teatini, and Tosi 2005; Hu et al. 2004; Chai et al.
at the rate of natural subsidence, at less and semi-arid United States experienced 2004; Wang 2007; Bell et al. 2008.
3 Chapter 12E
Increased and geomorphology. More intense rainfall has led to recent land clearance and rapid
could lead to more water-induced ero- expansion of cultivated land. Since 1960
erosion rates
sion, while drier climates could result in world population has approximately dou-
have important wind-induced erosion. And changes in bled, and cropland has increased by more
implications for the seasonal distributions of rainfall can than 10%.17
have significant implications for patterns
the sustainability of vegetation growth and thus for soil ero- From a global perspective, however, such
of the global soil sion. Climate and erosion are interdepend- recent increases in soil loss are likely
ent components of the Earth’s hydrologic to have been at least partially offset by
resource, food cycle and of the environment. In addition reduced erosion in other regions follow-
security and to being affected by shifts in climate, soil ing implementation of soil conservation
erosion can affect climate. Desertifica- programmes and improved land manage-
environment tion processes are intertwined with soil ment during the 20th century. In the
degradation and vegetation changes. These United States soil conservation and related
changes, possibly exacerbated by erosion, measures promoted by the Food Security
result in the loss of soil carbon and the Act of 1985 have reduced total annual ero-
release of carbon dioxide into the atmos- sion from cropland by an estimated 40%,
phere, contributing to global warming. from 3.4 gigatonnes (Gt) a year to 2.0 Gt.18
Changes in vegetative growth and land In China erosion control measures in the
use that are driven by accelerated erosion loess region of the Middle Yellow River
can also influence the hydrologic cycle basin after 1978 helped reduce the annual
and thus the climate. sediment load of the Middle Yellow River
from about 1.6 Gt in the mid-20th century
Changes in the key hydrologic drivers, to 0.7 Gt at the end of the 20th century.19
such as rainfall amount and intensity, sur- Elsewhere, the progressive introduction of
face runoff and river discharge, caused by no-till and minimum till practices – now
climate change and changes in land cover implemented on an estimated 5% of world
and land use, can be expected to cause cropland20 – has also reduced erosion rates
significant increases in global soil erosion on cultivated land. Such measures typi-
and in the sediment loads transported by cally reduce erosion rates by more than
rivers. Changes in sediment load could re- one order of magnitude.21
flect both changing rates of sediment mo-
bilization and supply to the river system While an accurate assessment of the rela-
and changes in transport capacity caused tive importance of these opposing trends
by changes in discharge and the impact for the contemporary global soil erosion
of reservoirs and other human-made sinks budget is still not possible, it is clear that
and stores in reducing downstream fluxes. significant changes are occurring. Fur-
In turn, changes in the sediment regimes thermore, there is increasing recognition
of rivers affect the storage capacity of that, with the greater variability of rainfall
reservoirs and the yield of water resources and the higher frequency of extreme
systems. Although data are limited, it is storm events accompanying future climate
possible to assess the general magnitude change, erosion rates in many areas of the
and direction of changes in erosion and world are likely to rise. A recent study in
sediment transport over the past decades. the Midwestern United States, combin-
ing the output from general circulation
Erosion rates models with erosion models that also took
The conversion of native vegetation to into account the likely impact of climate
agriculture has been shown to increase soil change on crop management and crops
erosion rates 10- to 100-fold.16 With agri- grown, suggested that erosion rates would
cultural land now occupying about 37% increase in 10 of the 11 study area regions.
of the ice-free area of the continents, it is Increases relative to 1990-99 were predict-
clear that agriculture has had an enormous ed to range from 33% to 274% by 2040-59.
impact on global erosion rates. Increased
erosion rates have important implications Sediment loads
for the sustainability of the global soil re- A river’s sediment load is sensitive to a
source, food security and the environment. range of environmental controls related to
both the supply of sediment to the river
Much of the world’s farmland has been and its ability to transport that sediment.
cultivated for centuries and in some re- Long-term sediment measurements are un-
gions for millennia. Major increases in soil available for most of the world’s rivers, pre-
erosion rates are unlikely to have occurred cluding detailed analysis of global trends,
within these areas in the recent past. But but available data show that important
in other areas, particularly in developing changes are occurring.22 For many riv-
countries, a rapidly expanding population ers there is evidence of reduced sediment
While the definition has been approved Relatively small increases in temperature
internationally, no unified map of the also accelerate energy flow and matter
distribution of landslides has ever been cycling: a 1°C warming enhances eco-
prepared. However, a global-scale landslide system productivity by 10%-20% at all
susceptibility map was produced by the trophic levels. An increase in zooplankton
International Programme on Landslides consumption may reduce the density of
with World Bank funding.26 Landslide this food source, resulting in a decline in
susceptibility is calculated from topog- the food base for fish, inhibiting growth
raphy, earthquake and rainfall data. The and favouring small species over large
model does not include the shear strength (an insufficient food base for larger spe-
of soils, which is difficult to quantify at cies). An overlapping of changing abiotic
the global scale. Recently, the US National conditions, such as rising temperature and
Aeronautics and Space Administration declining dissolved oxygen content, may
(an International Consortium on Land- be an additional stressor, contributing
slides member) also compiled a landslide to a lowering of biodiversity and ecosys-
susceptibility map using Shuttle Radar tems function. This could mean shifts
Topography Mission data, the Food and in dominant species, a destabilization of
Agriculture Organization’s digital soil map the ecosystem equilibrium and a shift to
and other information. another steady-state. Rising water tem-
peratures and related changes in ice cover,
Changes in precipitation or precipitation- salinity, oxygen levels and water circula-
causing phenomena (such as cyclones tion have already contributed to global
and typhoons) can lead to increased shifts in the range and abundance of algae,
3 Chapter 12E
if hazards become zooplankton and fish in high-latitude water quality – is enhanced under high
oceans and high-altitude lakes, as well as flow conditions that encourage surface
more severe
to earlier migrations of fish in rivers. aeration. Simulations of stream conditions
(in intensity or under several climate change scenarios
magnitude), The effects of increased temperatures and found that decreased streamflows resulted
the acceleration of biological processes in decreased oxygen levels and water
countries will face will differ depending on hydrologic type quality.31 Salinity levels will increase
new challenges, and the characteristics and complexity of with decreasing streamflow in semi-arid
aquatic ecosystems. In colder regions, for and arid areas. Salt concentrations are
requiring example, rising water temperatures can predicted to increase 13%-19% by 2050 in
additional improve water quality during winter and the upper Murray-Darling River basin in
spring, with earlier ice breakup increasing Australia.32 Salinization of water resources
cooperation with oxygen levels and reducing winter fish- is also predicted to be a major hazard for
other concerned kills.27 island nations, where coastal seawater
intrusion is expected with rising sea levels.
countries in The response of river ecosystems to cli-
mitigating hazards mate change will depend on their location The higher temperature, change in precipi-
within the river basin. Longitudinal link- tation patterns and shift in regional wind
ages are important to the functioning of regimes associated with climate change are
river ecosystems. Upper sections of rivers likely to alter the thermal stratification of
are usually driven by abiotic factors (flow lakes and reservoirs. Higher temperatures
and water quality), and the biotic struc- are likely to increase thermal stability and
tures are better adapted to high abiotic alter mixing patterns in lakes, resulting
(hydrologic) variability, resistant to rapid in reduced oxygen concentrations and
and unexpected changes and better able to increased release of phosphorous from
recover from stress. Down the river course, sediments.33 Simulations suggest that lakes
with more stable abiotic characteristics, in subtropical zones (latitude 30° to 45°)
biotic processes determine ecosystem dy- and subpolar zones (latitude 65° to 80°)
namics, and ecosystems are more vulner- are subject to greater relative changes in
able to global warming. thermal stratification patterns than are
mid-latitude or equatorial lakes and that
Modification of precipitation patterns due in subtropical zones deep lakes are more
to climate change will directly influence sensitive than are shallow lakes.34
runoff and the timing and intensity of
nutrient and pollutant supplies to rivers Simulations also show that winter stratifi-
and lakes. Greater changes are expected in cation in cold regions would be weakened
catchments with degraded vegetation cover, and the anoxic zone would disappear.35
landscape drainage and wetland loss. Open The greatest increases in water tem-
nutrient cycles in the terrestrial ecosystems peratures are foreseen in lakes where the
due to reduced nutrient retention in bio- duration of ice cover will be substantially
mass and mineralization of organic matter reduced. In addition, simulations show a
in soils will intensify nutrient loss to fresh- 10° or more northward shift in the bound-
water. More intense rainfall events will also ary of ice-free conditions in the North-
lead to greater fluvial erosion and increases ern Hemisphere.36 Observations during
in suspended solids loads (turbidity) in lakes droughts in the boreal region of north-
and reservoirs.28 Extension of the growing western Ontario, Canada, show that lower
season due to global warming may increase inflows and higher temperatures produce a
the duration of agricultural activities, which deepening of the thermocline.37 Changes
may cause more nutrient leaching from in wind speed and direction contributing
agricultural areas.29 All these processes will to patterns of lake and reservoir mixing
contribute to intensification of eutrophica- and thermal stratification may alter the
tion, a common problem in lakes and rivers biomass cycling in lakes. Countries that
all over the world and a serious hazard for share water resources may face additional
human activities (drinking water, aquacul- challenges under conditions of changing
ture, recreation) and ecosystem functioning. hazards. In areas with experience of haz-
ards countries are used to managing such
The expected overall lowering of water crises. But if hazards become more severe
levels in rivers and lakes will worsen water (in intensity or magnitude), countries will
quality. Water reserves will become more face new challenges, requiring additional
turbid through the resuspension of bottom cooperation with other concerned coun-
sediments,30 and the reduction in water tries in mitigating hazards.38
supply will increase the concentration of
pollutants in water resources. Oxygenation In new hazard-exposed areas there will be
of river water – a key indictor of biological great variations in how countries mitigate
covers an estimated
area of 1.2 million BOLIVIA Goiânia
The four countries have cooperated International Atomic Energy Agency areas with emerging problems have
since early 2003 in a project for sus- and the German Federal Institute for been selected to gain experience in
tainable management and protection Geosciences and Natural Resources. The local management.
of the aquifer, with support from the project aims to explore and assess the
Global Environment Facility, the World aquifer system in more detail and to Source: www.sg-guarani.org/index;
Bank and the Organization of American develop a framework for coordinated UNESCO/OAS ISARM 2007.
States and with participation of the management. In addition, four pilot
3 Chapter 12E
Over many the last decade international and regional streamflows. Spain, a traditionally dry-
organizations have developed initiatives climate country, has historically succeeded
generations the
related to internationally shared aquifer in managing its water resources through
human race has resources management, in cooperation adaptation. An example of potential
shown an amazing with countries in the regions concerned.40 water gain is South Africa. Analysis of the
actual evapotranspiration and yield of five
ability to adapt and Mapping and descriptions of transbound- commonly grown crops (beans, ground-
adjust to climate ary aquifers are the first steps. The United nuts, maize, millet and sorghum) in two
Nations Economic Commission for Europe selected districts found that yield increases
variability and conducted an inventory of transboundary with evapotranspiration, although the
increasing pressure aquifers in Europe in 1999,41 and inven- gap remains wide between actual and
tories in other regions followed. Recent potential yield and actual and maximum
on resources outcomes are an atlas of the 68 identified evapotranspiration, especially for rainfed
transboundary aquifers of the Americas42 crops.44 The analysis also showed that a
and an assessment report on transbound- 2°C rise in temperature and a doubling
ary rivers, lakes and aquifers that includes of carbon dioxide concentration in the
51 transboundary aquifers in South- atmosphere will shorten the growing
eastern Europe and 18 in the Caucasus period of maize, lowering crop water
and Central Asia region.43 International requirements.
projects are facilitating the exchange of
information and experiences and devel- The increased exposure to potential cli-
oping improved methodologies and the mate change hazards has raised awareness
scientific basis of transboundary aquifer of critical issues related to water resources
management. A 2007 agreement created management that require solutions re-
the UNESCO Regional Centre for Shared gardless of the impacts of climate change.
Aquifer Resources Management for Africa The revision of management strategies
in Tripoli. The United Nations Internation- in response to potential climate change
al Law Commission, in cooperation with threats therefore represents an opportu-
the UNESCO-International Hydrological nity to implement policies and practice
Programme, drafted articles on the Law that will lead to more sustainable use of
on Transboundary Aquifers, which was resources. These could include improved
subsequently approved by the UN General observation networks (see chapter 13),
Assembly on 11 December 2008. increased integration of groundwater and
surface water supplies (including artificial
Challenges: hazards and recharge), improved early warning and
opportunities forecasting systems for hazardous events,
improved risk-based approaches to man-
Based on identified trends, the future will agement and the raising of community
see increased pressure on water resources awareness of sustainable water resources
and changes in the patterns and magni- use and individual responses to water-
tudes of resource availability related to related hazards.
changing climate patterns. While climate
change represents a huge challenge, it The threat of climate change has led to
also represents an opportunity – for new many developments in the simulation
growth, innovation in the management of atmospheric processes, improving the
of water resources and development of a accuracy of climate and weather forecasts.
modern economy. Because humans have Combined with improved technology
modified and adapted their lifestyles for monitoring, collecting and analysing
to the existing climate and its inherent information, these developments should
variability, climate change is expected to lead to improvements in warning systems
affect most aspects of human life, no- for floods and droughts and other major
tably through the hazardous aspects of water-related events. If these can be com-
water-related events. Some areas may gain bined with hazard mitigation strategies
greater access to water through increased involving all levels of affected communi-
precipitation, while others may have less ties, there are enormous opportunities to
or more variable water resources. avoid loss of human life and economic
losses.
Over many generations the human race
has shown an amazing ability to adapt There are also many specific examples of
and adjust to climate variability and turning potential hazards into opportuni-
increasing pressure on resources. There ties. These include using increased runoff
are many examples of countries that have from glacial melting to develop more
managed their scarce resources efficiently reliable water supplies for larger areas and
and effectively, despite low rainfall and using flood water storage to increase the
3 Chapter 12E
45. van der Gun forthcoming. M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, Report 135, International Crisis Group,
46. Foster and Loucks 2006. P. J. van der Linden, and C. E. Hanson. Brussels.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Cli-
47. UNESCO 2005; Fox 2007.
Press. mate Change). 2001. Climate Change
48. Gale 2005.
Fang, X., and H. G. Stefan. 1997. Simulat- 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerabil-
ed Climate Change Effects on Dissolved ity Contribution of the Working Group II to
References Oxygen Characteristics in Ice-covered the Third Assessment Report of the Inter-
Lakes. Ecological Modelling 103 (2-3): governmental Panel on Climate Change,
Almássy, E., and Z. Buzás. 1999. Inventory 209-29. eds. J. J. McCarthy, O. F. Canziani, N.
of Transboundary Groundwaters. Lelystad,
Foster, S., and D. P. Loucks, eds. 2006. A. Leary, D. J. Dokken, and K. S. White.
Netherlands: United Nations Economic
Non-Renewable Groundwater Resources: Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Commission for Europe.
A Guidebook on Socially-Sustainable Man- Press.
Atkinson, J. F., J. V. DePinto, and D. Lam. agement for Water-Policy Makers. Paris: ———. 2007. Climate Change 2007: The
1999. Water Quality. In Potential Climate United Nations Educational, Scientific, Physical Science Basis. Summary for
Change Effects on the Great Lakes Hydro- and Cultural Organization. Policymakers. Contribution of the Working
dynamics and Water Quality, eds. D. Lam
Fox, P., ed. 2007. Management of Aquifer Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report
and W. Schertzer. Reston, VA: American
Recharge for Sustainability. Phoenix, AZ: of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Society of Civil Engineers.
Acacia Publications. Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
Bates, B., Z. W. Kundzewicz, S. Wu, and J. University Press.
Palutik, eds. 2008. Climate Change and Gale, I., ed. 2005. Strategies for Managed
Aquifer Recharge (MAR) in Semi-Arid Areas. IPL (International Programme on Land-
Water. Technical Paper of the Intergovern-
Paris: United Nations Educational, Scien- slides). n.d. IPL Leaflet. International
mental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva:
tific, and Cultural Organization. Consortorium on Landslides, Kyoto
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
University, Disaster Prevention Research
Change. Giordano, M., and K. Villholth, eds. 2007.
Institute, Uji, Kyoto, Japan. http://iclhq.
Bell, J. W., F. Amelung, A. Ferretti, M. The Agricultural Groundwater Revolution:
org/IPL-Leaflet-2004.pdf.
Bianchi, and F. Novali. 2008. Permanent Opportunities and Threats to Develop-
ment. Comprehensive Assessments of Kundzewicz, Z. W., D. Graczyk, T. Mau-
Scatterer in SAR Reveals Seasonal and
Water Management in Agriculture No 3. rer, I. Pińskwar, M. Radziejewski, C.
Long-Term Aquifer-System Response
Colombo: International Water Manage- Svensson, and M. Szwed. 2005. Trend
to Groundwater Pumping and Artificial
ment Institute and CABI. Detection in River Flow Series: 1. Annual
Recharge. Water Resources Research 44
Maximum Flow. Hydrological Sciences
(2): W02407. Guaraní Aquifer System Project. 2003.
Journal 50 (5): 797-810.
Carbognin L., P. Teatini, and L. Tosi. 2005. Preliminary Map of the Guaraní Aquifer
System. General Secretariat, Guaraní Lal, R., M. Griffin, J. Apt, L. Lave, and M.
Land Subsidence in the Venetian Area:
Aquifer System Project, Montevideo. N. Granger. 2004. Managing Soil Car-
Known and Recent Aspects. Giornale di
www.sg-guarani.org/index/site/ bon. Science 304 (5669): 393.
Geologia Applicata 1 (1): 5-11.
sistema_acuifero/sa001.php. Meyer, J. L., M. J. Sale, P. J. Mulholland,
Carmon, N., and U. Shamir. 1997. Water-
Hillbricht-Ilkowska, A. 1993. Lake Ecosys- and N. L. Poff. 1999. Impacts of Climate
Sensitive Urban Planning: Concept and
tems and Climate Changes. Kosmos 42 Change on Aquatic Ecosystem Function-
Preliminary Analysis. In Groundwater in
(1): 107-21. ing and Health. Journal of the American
the Urban Environment: Problems, Proc-
Water Resources Association 35 (6):
esses and Management, eds. J. Chilton, K. Hisdal, H., K. Stahl, L. M. Tallaksen, and
1373-86.
Hiscock, P. Younger, B. Morris, S. Puri, S. S. Demuth. 2001. Have Streamflow
W. Kirkpatrick, H. Nash, W. Armstrong, P. Droughts in Europe Become More Severe Milly, P. C. D., R. T. Wetherald, K. A.
Aldous, T. Water, J. Tellman, R. Kimblin, or Frequent? International Journal of Dunne, and T. L. Delworth. 2002. In-
and S. Hennings. London: Balkema, Rot- Climatology 21 (1): 317-33. creasing Risk of Great Floods in a Chang-
terdam, Brookfield. ing Climate. Nature 415 (6871): 514-17.
Hostetler, S. W., and E. E. Small. 1999.
Chai J. C., Shen S. L., Zhu H. H, and Response of North American Freshwater Mimikou, M. A., E. Malta, E. Varanou, and
Zhang X. L. 2004. Land Subsidence Due Lakes to Simulated Future Climates. K. Pantazis. 2000. Regional Impacts
to Groundwater Drawdown in Shanghai. Journal of the American Water Resource of Climate Change on Water Resources
Géotechnique 54 (2): 43-147. Association 35 (6): 1625-38. Quantity and Quality Indicators. Journal
of Hydrology 234 (1-2): 95-109.
Cruden, D. M. 1991. A Simple Definition of Hu C., Liu C., Zhou Z., and R. Jayakumar.
a Landslide. Bulletin of Engineering Geol- 2008. Changes in Water and Sediment Montgomery, D. R. 2007. Soil Erosion and
ogy and the Environment 43 (1): 27-9. Loads of Rivers in China. Working Paper Agricultural Sustainability. Proceedings
prepared as a contribution to UNESCO’s of the National Academy of Sciences 104
Dai, A., K. E. Trenberth, and T. Qian. 2004.
World Water Development Report 3, Inter- (33): 13268-72.
A Global Data Set of Palmer Drought Se-
verity Index for 1870-2002: Relationship national Research and Training Center on Neilson, R. P., and D. Marks. 1994. A
with Soil Moisture and Effects of Surface Erosion and Sedimentation, Beijing. Global Perspective of Regional Vegeta-
Warming. Journal of Hydrometeorology 5 Hu R. L., Yue Z. Q., Wang L. C., and Wang tion and Hydrologic Sensitivities from
(6): 1117-30. S. J. 2004. Review on Current Status and Climatic Change. Journal of Vegetation
Challenging Issues of Land Subsidence Science 5 (5): 715-30.
Easterling, W. E., P. K. Aggarwal, P.
Batima, K. M. Brander, L. Erda, S. M. in China. Engineering Geology 76 (1-2): Neilson, R. P., I. C. Prentice, B. Smith,
Howden, A. Kirilenko, J. Morton, J. F. 65-77. T. G. F. Kittel, and D. Viner. 1998. Simu-
Soussana, J. Schmidhuber, and F. N. Huntington, T. G. 2006. Evidence for lated Changes in Vegetation Distribution
Tubiello. 2007. Food, Fibre and For- Intensification of the Global Water Cycle: under Global Warming. In The Regional
est Products. In Climate Change 2007: Review and Synthesis. Journal of Hydrol- Impacts of Climate Change: An Assessment
Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. ogy 319 (1-4): 83-95. of Vulnerability, eds., R. T. Watson, M. C.
Contribution of Working Group II to the Zinyowera, R. H. Moss, and D. J. Dokken.
International Crisis Group. 2007. Nigeria:
Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergov- Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Ending Unrest in the Niger Delta. Africa
ernmental Panel on Climate Change, eds. Press.
3
Chapter 13
Bridging the
observational gap
Author: Wolfgang Grabs
Coordinator: Andras Szöllösi-Nagy (UNESCO)
Associate coordinator: Wolfgang Grabs (WMO)
Facilitator: Denis Hughes
Key messages
3 Chapter 13
The adequacy measurement systems, the density and hydrometeorological variables and hydro-
representativeness of the network, and logic data and information from shared
of observational
monitoring, data retrieval, storage and dis- river basins used for forecasting.
networks varies semination practices.
widely by region, For network development and the design
Observational errors are generally mini- of multiplatform hydrologic observation
but observations mal when instruments are used in envi- systems, the heterogeneity of research
for many water ronments and under conditions for which fields makes it difficult to decide what vari-
they were designed. But instruments must ables should be collected and over what
cycle variables be well maintained and calibrated, and time and space. Network requirements
have inadequate rigid quality management procedures must also vary depending on the requirements
be observed from the field to the release of of the research and application communi-
spatial and the primary data. Further reducing instru- ties. A flexible network architecture with
temporal coverage ment errors is less critical than expanding networks as subsets of larger composite
operational networks to decrease obser- networks or observation systems is thus
vation uncertainties. Error bandwidths desirable. Minimum operational baseline
have not been significantly reduced, due networks of routine observations (ground-
mainly to inadequate network densities, and satellite-based) need to be augmented
poor quality and control over hydrologic by research networks on a long-term basis.
observations and insufficient hydrologic
data and information.3 Growing demand for precise assessments,
forecasting and warnings requires quality
The adequacy of observational networks management frameworks for all observa-
varies widely by region, but observations for tion systems. The value of data depends
many water cycle variables have inadequate on the accuracy and comparability of
spatial and temporal coverage.4 Continuous- observations from different entities and
ly and consistently quantifying hydrologic instruments (including analytical labora-
variables at the global, regional and basin tory procedures). Although regulatory data
levels will require integrated observation quality frameworks exist at the national
systems that use both terrestrial and satellite and international levels, their implementa-
observations. These systems will need data tion and adherence vary widely and are in-
assimilation products, including models sufficiently documented from the country
calibrated from the integrated networks and level to higher levels. Lack of adherence is
multiplatform observations. frequently related to insufficient technical
training of staff involved in measuring and
Most of today’s data for terrestrial observa- managing data observations. The results
tions and for many satellite observations are inadequately and irregularly calibrated
are funded through national agencies, instruments, few intercomparisons of dif-
although satellite observations are in- ferent observation methods and analyti-
creasingly carried out in the framework cal procedures, poor data quality control
of multinational agreements. It would be measures for consistency and homogeneity
worthwhile to investigate whether selected (the identification of systematic trends due
terrestrial observations could also be car- to environmental or instrumental changes)
ried out under multinational agreements. and a lack of interaction and experience
Given the resource inputs from national sharing among institutions.
agencies, product development and other
derived services need to be responsive to Objective assessment of data quality is rare
national requirements to encourage con- but nonetheless indispensable for reliably
tinued national participation and funding. using data in decision-making. For various
reasons, including poor quality and security
A close feedback loop needs to be estab- considerations, several data providers are
lished between national data provid- hesitant to share data. In developing coun-
ers and the users of global observation tries the attitude exists that collecting some
systems. For developing countries this data (of questionable reliability) is better
requires more participation in global than collecting no data at all. But confi-
projects. Most information generated from dence in good-quality data can be an incen-
global observation networks is used by tive to share the data with other countries,
developed countries, and much less is used development programmes and partners.
by developing countries. Sharing infor-
mation across regions, however, becomes Changing status of operational
increasingly valuable – especially for data over the recent past
smaller countries, which can complement
their spatially or technologically restricted This section examines the status of op-
national observation networks, and for erational data from terrestrial hydrologic
3 Chapter 13
Major investments Surface observations reveal only indirect calculating pollutant loads and biogeo-
indicators of groundwater system status, chemical fluxes, for example.
are needed to
such as changes in vegetation patterns,
reverse the decline changes in river base flows, appearing or Observational gaps result from failure to
of hydrologic disappearing springs and wetlands, land observe and collect data or from lack of
subsidence and visible changes in the access to data. Increasingly, the gaps are
observation water levels of shallow, large-diameter due to lost data and information as a result
networks, including wells. Subsurface observations are required of disasters, social unrest and technologi-
to quantify groundwater storage through cal evolution. Data rescue programmes are
surface water variations in groundwater levels, chang- thus crucial to retaining historical infor-
and groundwater ing aquifer conditions and alterations in mation and to expanding knowledge bases
the chemical composition of groundwater. as far back as possible. This is especially
observations and Groundwater levels and water sample important when considering that long
water quality collection are carried out using observa- records of observations are a prerequisite
tion wells. Advanced data loggers such as for detecting climate variability and chang-
monitoring pressure transducers and salinity sensors es in observations as well as for establish-
allow groundwater and salinity levels to ing the baseline hydrologic conditions that
be automatically measured at variable existed prior to development activities.
intervals. Geophysical methods (well logs
and surface studies) help reveal changes Major investments are needed to reverse
in moisture content and salinity and the decline of hydrologic observation
trace some pollutants. There is promising networks, including surface water and
evidence that gravimetric remote sens- groundwater observations and water qual-
ing methods allow aquifer monitoring on ity monitoring. National investment can
global to subregional levels, especially in be mobilized with assistance from develop-
sparsely gauged areas.12 ment partners, but doing so is very difficult
when investments are sought for trans-
The availability of usable freshwater is boundary hydrologic observation systems
determined not only by the quantity or global data collection and monitoring
of the resource but increasingly by its systems. This is partly due to the fact that
quality, which may further reduce the most development partners, including
net availability of water resources for institutional donors, focus their technical
different uses and have critical envi- assistance on bilateral needs rather than on
ronmental consequences. More than regional or global observing systems.
100 countries contribute to the Glo-
bal Environment Monitoring System The general trends of in-situ observation
– Water, a programme with more than methods include:
3,000 stations operated by Environment
Canada under the auspices of the United • Increasing use of automatic logging
Nations Environment Programme. The systems and replacement of instru-
global database that it has built is key ments with mechanical recording
for global freshwater quality assessment. devices.
But a general lack of institutionalized,
continuous dataflow into the database • Widespread use of motionless observ-
severely hampers further regional and ing methods, including measurement
global assessments as well as programmes of hydrostatic pressure for gauge
to improve water quality, especially in heights and observation methods
transboundary basins.13 without water contact, such as in-
struments using small radar devices
National data holdings are frequently suspended over the water surface to
fragmented, with no metadata catalogue obtain gauge heights.
in place that allows a complete picture of a
country’s water quality situation. Notwith- • Coupling of in-situ stations with
standing some positive examples, monitor- automatic data transmission and tel-
ing networks in developing countries are ecommunications systems, including
rudimentary, irregularly updated, rarely mobile phone communication using
objective driven and without sufficient Global System for Mobile/General
quality control to make observations truly Packet Radio Service standards.
useful. It would be a formidable task not
only to establish sustainable baseline and • Increasing integration of in-situ
specialized water quality observation observation systems with basinwide
networks, but also to make them inter- hydrologic information systems,
operable with surface water and ground- including forecasting and decision-
water quantity observations that enable support systems.
3 Chapter 13
the paucity of developed under the Water Convention in hydrologic observations are available.
2007, describes the hydrologic regime of Typical inadequacies relate to incompat-
contributions to
140 transboundary rivers, 30 transbound- ible information systems, which effectively
the Global Runoff ary lakes and 70 transboundary aquifers block the seamless exchange of data and
Data Centre is together with pressure factors in their information between systems and differ-
basins, their status and transboundary ent operators and programmes from the
often related impact, as well as trends and envisaged national to the global level. These inad-
not to lack of management measures.15 equacies lead to an effective blackout of
potentially valuable data and information
infrastructure Observational gaps also arise when hydro- because they are not part of the informa-
but to general logic observations are not shared. Regional tion management cycle. The situation is
differences in data provided to the Global especially critical for forecasting purposes
unwillingness to Runoff Data Centre are apparent in both when data need to be shared in real or
share data in an quantity and timeliness. Hydrologic data near real time.
from North and Central America, the
institutionalized, Caribbean, Europe and Mediterranean Observations and data related to
regular manner Asia are far greater than data from other water use
regions (map 13.1). In other regions few Many models used to extrapolate from
hydrologic stations provide data to the observations to areas with no observations
centre, and update intervals are too great available are designed to simulate natural
(figure 13.1). The paucity of contribu- conditions based on hydrometeorological
tions is often related not to lack of infra- inputs. For model outputs to reflect quan-
structure but to general unwillingness to titative changes of water resources avail-
share data in an institutionalized, regular ability and use over space and time, model
manner. This regional picture also sug- components that simulate anthropogenic
gests that most data are shared by a rather development impacts (such as population
constant number of national hydrologic trends, economic activities and land use
services, with few new services added over changes) need to be integrated. Model
time. This hampers regional and global calibration and validation likewise rely on
projects that have to build on such data- information on water storage in lakes and
sets for scientific and applications-oriented reservoirs, water abstractions and return
purposes. Examples include the calibration flows.
of models to provide seasonal regional
hydrologic outlooks, forecasting, disaster Global data on water use exist primarily
warning and prevention, and water man- for the agricultural sector (for example,
agement in transboundary basins. the AQUASTAT database by the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United
Inadequate use of current information Nations). Data on consumptive and non-
technologies severely threatens data and consumptive use of water resources are not
information sharing even when basic a regular part of many national statistics,
Global Runoff
Data Centre stations
time series end
1919-79
1980-84
1985-89
1990-94
1995-99
2000-04
2004-present
Region 1, Africa (888 stations) Region 2, Asia (1,880 stations) Region 3, South America (585 stations)
150 1,200 40
125 1,000
30
100 800
75 600 20
50 400
10
25 200
0 0 0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Region 4, North and Central America and Region 5, The Pacific and Australia Region 6, Europe & Mediterranean Asia
the Caribbean (2,320 stations) (434 stations) (1,225 stations)
2,500 400 500
2,000 400
300
1,500 300
200
1,000 200
100
500 100
0 0 0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
although where abstractions are licensed, time forecasting services. For forecasting of
information on the maximum use of runoff and water flows, data must be avail-
water may be available. This situation is able within a fraction of an hour up to
unsatisfactory because it prevents effective several hours, depending on the size of the
management of water demand relative to basin and forecasting requirements. For
availability and supply of freshwater. assessment a temporal resolution of several
weeks up to one month may suffice.
Despite the importance for the integrated
management of water quantity and quality High priority for additional observations
and for understanding water-related health should be focused on data-poor regions,
hazards, no comprehensive information poorly observed hydrologic variables,
exists on the regional or global extent of regions sensitive to change and variables
wastewater generation and treatment and with inadequate spatial resolution. The
receiving water quality. Even at the nation- need for satellite-based observations that
al level such information is either incon- complement in-situ observations should
sistently gathered or unavailable – partly be recognized. In-situ and space-based ob-
because of ill-defined data collection servations for hydrologic applications need
responsibilities that rest with a multitude to be integrated in a comparable space
of national organizations and commercial and time domain and under tight qual-
entities that rarely share their information. ity control. Such quality control would
require increased efforts to assess obser-
Hydrologic observations from space vation quality through intercomparison
Satellite observations are important means and recalibration projects. This is espe-
for providing hydrologic data with ac- cially important for achieving continuity
ceptable spatial and temporal resolution, between historical terrestrial observations
especially in areas with no or limited and new satellite observations.
infrastructure. However, ‘acceptable reso-
lution’ depends on what the data are to be Terrestrial water level observations can
used for. In-situ data provide acceptable now be supplemented with sufficient accu-
coverage and temporal resolution mainly racy by radar altimetry instruments flown
in more accessible regions. In-situ data are on the Envisat, Jason and TOPEX satellites.
also used for calibrating and validating Because the sensor carriers on these satel-
space-based information, hydrologic or lites are not geostationary, the altimetry
water resources models and routine real- observations are taken at virtual gauging
3 Chapter 13
Merging data stations along the path of the satellite at Opportunities and challenges
various stretches of a river with an approx-
streams from
imately weekly repetition cycle. This al- The combination of observations from
both terrestrial lows for basinwide hydrologic assessments. GRACE, GOCE, satellite altimetry and
and space-based Efforts are under way to derive discharge other space systems such as active and
time series from altimetry observations passive microwaves, satellite radar inter-
observations will through actual rating curves that use the ferometry and visible and radar imagery
require new model river morphology and through virtual cali- offer the potential for developing new
bration curves that use idealized channel hydrologic products, such as present-day
structures that profiles in combination with hydraulic satellite-derived precipitation products and
need to be tested parameters. The use of altimetry observa- the planned Global Precipitation Mission.
tions is, however, restricted to large rivers,
for their utility lakes and reservoirs and is not appropriate Near-future developments are likely to
in operational for smaller tributaries. include the operational generation of
truly multiplatform information products
services Since 2002 gravimetric measurements from terrestrial observations merged with
using the Gravity Recovery and Climate gravimetric observations from GRACE and
Experiment (GRACE) satellite have pro- GOCE, radar altimetry and precipitation
vided the means to observe changes in estimates as inputs into hydrologic models
large aquifers at a spatial scale over 40,000 for forecasting, water resources assessment
square kilometres. However, separating and monitoring of the water balance of
water masses (soil moisture, vegetation basins. Likewise, merged multiplatform
and groundwater) is still difficult. Inverse information can be used to quantify
approaches are therefore needed to sepa- spatial and temporal variations of flooded
rate the hydrologic contributions of the areas and water volumes. The improved
main water reservoirs (oceans, atmosphere cooperation between the national me-
and total continental water storage includ- teorological and hydrologic services of
ing snow, soil wetness, groundwater and many countries with the aim to improve
ice caps) from monthly synthetic GRACE hydrologic forecasting is at the heart of
geoïds. Nevertheless, at large scales gravi- the World Meteorological Organization
metric observations of changes in large Flood Forecasting Initiative, launched in
aquifers from GRACE and next-generation 2003. The availability of multiplatform,
missions like the Gravity Field and Steady- multivariate data streams in near real time
State Ocean Circulation Explorer (GOCE) and with high accuracy will be crucial to
satellite are nearing a stage where they achieving this goal.
could be used operationally.
Using the global concept of the World
Apart from directly measuring hydro- Hydrological Cycle Observing System,
logic variables such as water levels, snow building on terrestrial hydrologic informa-
and ice cover extent, soil moisture and tion systems and obtaining global hydro-
groundwater, satellites are invaluable for logic coverage from satellites to integrate
providing information for hydrologic terrestrial and satellite-based observations
estimation (modelling) studies. Satellite could close many gaps in hydrologic obser-
estimates of precipitation are an obvious vations at all levels and support improved
example. Several precipitation estimation hydrologic and water resources assess-
methods based on microwave and infra- ments, forecasting and research. To make
red instruments on numerous satellites full use of satellite observations, a suite of
and associated different data retrieval and intercomparison and validation projects is
interpretation algorithms have reached needed to assess the accuracy of satellite-
a semi-operational and, in a few cases, based observations with terrestrial obser-
an operational level.16 Some global or vations in a wide range of environmental
near-global precipitation products have conditions. Merging data streams from
spatial resolutions down to 4 kilometres both terrestrial and space-based observa-
and temporal resolutions down to three- tions will require new model structures
hourly, making them useful for water that need to be tested for their utility in
management and flood forecasting. Several operational services.
hydrology-relevant products are associated
with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Despite current technological and meth-
Spectroradiometer instrument operating odological developments, an impor-
on both the Terra and Aqua spacecraft: tant challenge remains. To mainstream
inundation areas, surface changes of lakes satellite-based observations that comple-
and reservoirs, surface reflectance, temper- ment terrestrial observations in opera-
ature, land cover and indexes of vegetation tional water resources management and
change. forecasting services on a routine basis and
3 Chapter 13
PART
Bridging the observational gap
Chapter 14
Coordinator
Håkan Tropp
(UNDP)
Facilitator
George de Gooijer
The Report describes the costs of not measures more (or less) effective and
investing in water resources develop- less (or more) costly. The Report shows
ment and management – the economic that decisions taken by external actors
losses and the human suffering and may have more impact on the state,
underdevelopment. It also demonstrates use and management of water re-
the high rates of return generated by sources than decisions taken by man-
such investments. agers within the water sector itself.
The demand for and the provision of
Part 4 is about response options and food and energy, the uneven ability to
how to choose among them. What op- invest and a changing climate exert
tions are available to decision-makers strong pressures on water. However,
to respond to the challenges identified the most important decisions affecting
in the previous chapters? How can they water are often made without water
select among these options? And what as the primary concern, even though
are some of the trade-offs in choosing water may play an important role in
certain options? What can transform addressing the issue. Policy decisions
competition into synergy? on health, food security and energy
security, for example, can intensify or
We have many of the answers. Across alleviate much of the pressure on water
the planet we have already shown that resources, affecting both supply and
it can be done! But there is no one- demand.
size-fits-all solution. The best mix of
responses to a country’s development Key drivers of water use changes – as
objectives and policy priorities to meet seen in previous chapters – include de-
its water challenges depends on the mographics, economic development and
availability of water in space and in trade, consumption and climate. These
time and the country’s technical, finan- drivers have powerful implications for
cial, institutional and human capacities the options available inside and outside
– its culture, political and regulatory the water domain and for how to mobi-
frameworks, and markets. lize decision-makers and other impor-
tant actors.
Responses outside the water domain
strongly affect the macro changes that Water resources are strongly affected
influence how water is used and allo- by climate change and variability. The
cated. They also make water adaptation responses to the challenges posed by
PART
4
Chapter 14
Options inside
the water box
Authors: George de Gooijer, Walter Rast and Håkan Tropp
Contributors: Virginie Aimard, Guy Allaerts, Maggie Black, Rutgerd Boelens, Stefano Burchi,
Hein Engel, Joakim Harlin, Molly Hellmuth, Sarah Hendry, Andrew Hudson, Anders Jägerskog,
Henrik Larsen, Patrick Moriarty, Eelco van Beek, Peter van der Zaag and James Winpenny
Coordinator: Håkan Tropp (UNDP)
Facilitator: George de Gooijer
Key messages
There are many practical examples of solutions within the water domain.
Some options show particular promise:
Programs and activities are under way governance includes more efficiently man-
around the world that directly address aging available water resources and current
the assessment, allocation or conserva- and anticipated water uses, and informing
tion of water resources. Improving water water users, stakeholders and decision-
4 Chapter 14O
Identifying and makers about the consequences of actions management options include administered
taken (or not taken) to address such issues. solutions (such as allocating less water
implementing
to agriculture) and economic incentives
effective This chapter focuses on what can be done (providing price signals to decision-makers
governance within the domain of water managers to about the opportunity costs of water). Cap-
address water problems. Because other ital investments in infrastructure, sorely
responses to publications and reports already deal with needed in many countries, also require
water-related the technical and engineering aspects of investments in capacity and institutional
response options,1 the main emphasis is development to realize and sustain the
problems remain on strengthening policy and laws, water benefits of increased investments.
an elusive goal resources management, technical capacity,
finances and education and awareness. The stages of water development and man-
agement range from situations in which
Undergirding solutions inside the water virtually all water development possibili-
domain is good water governance, which ties have been exhausted (as the Fuyang
influences the choices people make about basin in China, and in the Middle East
the use (or misuse) of water resources. and North Africa region) to situations in
This focus includes such approaches as which water development potential still
water supply and demand management, as exists (such as the East Rapti River basin in
well as processes to ensure the collection, Nepal and many sub-Saharan countries).3
analysis and use of the data necessary for
making water allocation decisions within Improved planning policies and laws are
a policy framework that is flexible, com- critical response options. Effective enforce-
prehensive and realistic. ment by government agencies and accept-
ability and compliance by providers, users
Water governance reform: and stakeholders are also important to the
strengthening policy, planning effectiveness of many water management
and institutions reforms, as evaluation of the effectiveness
of lake basin management interventions in
In this Report water governance refers to many developing countries has shown.4
the political, social, economic, legal and
administrative systems that develop and Integrated approaches to water
manage water resources and water services planning and reform
delivery at different levels of society while Both developed and developing countries
recognizing the role played by environ- are reforming their water resources plan-
mental services.2 It encompasses a range ning policies and laws. European Union
of water-related public policies and institu- members, for example, are implementing
tional frameworks and mobilization of the the Water Framework Directive. Many
resources needed to support them. Govern- middle- and low-income countries in
ance issues overlap the technical, environ- Africa, Asia and Latin America are engag-
mental and economic aspects of water re- ing in reform, focusing on principles of
sources and the political and administrative integrated water resources management.
elements of solving water-related problems A recent United Nations report concluded
(see chapter 4). Identifying and implement- that implementation of the practices, espe-
ing effective governance responses to water- cially water use efficiency improvements,
related problems – taking into account the is lagging (box 14.1).5
differing contexts in which they may be
applied, their integration with other sectors Implementing integrated water resources
and their impacts on water use equity, ef- management is proving more difficult
ficiency and environmental sustainability than envisioned. The approach was meant
– thus remain an elusive goal. to facilitate integrating water priorities and
related environmental issues into national
Although many governments have met economic development activities, a goal
increasing water demands primarily by often considered only after many develop-
augmenting water supplies, many also ment activities have already been under-
apply management and technological solu- taken (box 14.2). The Sixteenth Session of
tions to address water demands, including the Commission on Sustainable Develop-
more efficient use and conservation. As ment endorsed integrated water resources
pressures on water resources continue to management as a framework and essential
rise, countries will also need to consider tool for effectively managing water re-
reallocating water resources from one sources. It recommended that its review on
sector to another, further politicizing progress in the water and sanitation sector
water issues within countries and between go beyond mere stocktaking of integrated
them. Water reallocation and demand water resources management efforts.6
The growing stress on water resources laws and integrated water resources structures, partnerships and gender
presents managers with increasingly management plans). mainstreaming.
difficult decisions for managing water
sustainability. Integrated water resources • Water resources development, repre- • Financing, represented by such items
management assists such decision-making sented by such items as assessments, as investment plans, cost recovery
by drawing attention to efficient, equita- regulatory guidelines and basin mechanisms and subsidies.
ble and environmentally sound approach- studies.
es. At the World Summit on Sustainable Of the 27 developed countries that
Development in 2002 countries agreed • Water resources management, as responded, only 6 have fully implemented
on a global target to develop integrated reflected in programs for watershed national integrated water resources man-
water resources management and water management, flood control and ef- agement plans. Another 10 countries have
efficiency plans by 2005, with support ficient allocation. plans in place and partially implemented.
to developing countries throughout all Particular areas of improvement are
levels. • Water use, represented by water use public awareness campaigns and gender
surveys and programs for managing mainstreaming.
In 2007/08 UN-Water conducted a survey agricultural, industrial and domestic
of government agencies in 104 countries water uses. Of the 77 developing countries that re-
(77 of them developing countries or sponded 38% had completed plans, with
economies in transition) to assess progress • Monitoring, information manage- the Americas at 43%, Africa at 38% and
towards the target. A questionnaire was ment and dissemination, as reflected Asia at 33%. Africa lags behind Asia and
prepared by a UN-Water task force and in monitoring and data collection the Americas on most issues, although it
sent to all Commission on Sustainable networks. is more advanced in stakeholder participa-
Development focal points by the United tion, subsidies and microcredit programs.
Nations Department of Economic and • Institutional capacity building, repre- Asia leads in institutional reform. The
Social Affairs. It included questions in the sented by such items as institutional survey concluded that to adequately assess
following categories: reforms, river basin management the needs for advancing implementation
institutions and technical capacity- of integrated water resources manage-
• Main national instruments and strate- building programs. ment, countries needed better indicators
gies that promote integrated water and monitoring.
resources management (policies, • Stakeholder participation, illustrated,
for example, by decentralized Source: UN-Water 2008.
The transboundary Rio Grande River between to the jurisdictional concerns of federal and state
the United States and Mexico (called Rio Bravo in agencies in three states in the United States and
Mexico) illustrates the negative impacts of non- five states in Mexico. With responsibility for the
integrated water resources management. In both river’s quantity, quality and allocations residing in
countries the region is one of the fastest grow- several international, national and state organiza-
ing, benefiting from the enhanced economic ac- tions with differing mandates in two countries,
tivities associated with the North American Free much of the river is overallocated and degraded.
Trade Agreement (NAFTA). One result of NAFTA
has been a proliferation of product assembly An analysis of 67 EU projects related to inte-
plants (maquiladoras) on the Mexican side of grated water resources management during
the border, making it a magnet for job seekers 1994-2006 provides insight into the practical
in Mexico. This growth was accompanied by a challenges facing implementation. The analysis
proliferation of informal settlements (colonias) on finds that integrated water resources manage-
both sides of the border. Further, there is exten- ment can provide a useful reform and planning
sive agriculture in the lower Rio Grande Valley, framework, even though it has not yet provided
making agriculture an important economic sec- unequivocal guidance on implementing national
tor for Mexico and Texas. Finally, there are seven water planning and reforms. To be most effec-
major paired urban areas along the international tive, the analysis suggests, integrated water
portion of the Rio Grande. resources management must consider policy
formulation and implementation as primarily a
Because of the associated water demands, ap- political process involving government officials,
proximately 96% of the average flow of the river the private sector and civil society.
is allocated for municipal, agricultural and indus-
trial uses. Although water allocations are gov- Source: Moore, Rast, and Pulich 2002; Gyawali et al.
erned by several treaties, the river also is subject 2006.
4 Chapter 14O
Too often, only For example, progress towards meeting considered as a multistep process and
the Millennium Development Goal for not as a single point, waste products are
part of the
sanitation is lagging behind expectations accounted for from generation to ulti-
sanitation system partly because of the traditional approach mate destination. This concept describes
is implemented to this issue. ‘Sanitation’ usually refers to a the lifecycle of wastes generated at the
single technology or instrument designed household level, which are then processed
under the guise of to handle excreta and wastewater. Septic (stored, transformed and transported)
being a sanitation tanks, pit latrines and composting toilets, until reaching a final destination. Ideally,
among others, are often referred to as waste would be used beneficially, with the
solution, and it is ‘sanitation systems’, when in fact they are nutrients, biogas, soil-conditioner and ir-
later discovered technological components. When de- rigation water components recovered from
signed appropriately and linked to a range wastes and with wastewater used to benefit
that other of other components, they form a robust, society in a cycle (‘closing the loop’). For
components sustainable sanitation system. example, biogas could be used for cooking
gas or electricity, soil fertility could be in-
are missing Too often, only part of the sanitation creased with added soil-conditioner from
system is implemented under the guise of sludge drying beds and crop production in
being a sanitation solution, and it is later peri-urban agriculture could be improved
discovered that other components are through nutrient‑rich irrigation water
missing. Examples of such components in- from a constructed wetland.
clude provisions for treated effluent (which
is often diverted into open drains), fæcal A more sustainable, holistic sanitation sys-
sludge (which is often dumped in open tem can be designed by using components
fields) and other side streams that may be that would, in conjunction with existing
generated (such as water from sinks and or innovative new technologies, improve
showers). While the technological compo- coverage and service while reducing the
nents themselves may work, the system as environmental burden. Several frame-
a whole will probably be short-lived. works for a more systematic way of looking
at sanitation systems already exist.7
A sustainable sanitation system includes
all the components (physical parts and Allocating and reallocating water and
actions) required to adequately man- financial resources is unavoidable in
age human waste. When ‘sanitation’ is water policy and management. Different
Water resources management in Tunisia began Irrigation water demands have been stable for
with development of the supply side, addressing the past six years, despite increasing agricultural
the water demands of various sectors. The coun- development, seasonal peaks in water demands
try has since established a system of interlinked and unfavourable climate conditions (includ-
water sources, making it possible to provide water ing droughts). The country is now addressing
for multiple purposes, including mixed low- and the current water demands of tourism (a source
higher-salinity waters, which makes less usable of foreign currency) and of urban areas, to
water more productive. The country developed maintain social stability. Wastewater from urban
a national water-savings strategy for both urban centres is treated and made available for agricul-
and agricultural needs at an early stage of water tural use. A targeted pricing policy enables full
planning, confirming a cultural ‘oasis’ tradition of recovery of operating costs of water services,
frugal management of scarce water resources. with tourists paying the highest water prices
and household users the lowest. Water system
Several principles underlie the Tunisian water monitoring is extensive, including real-time
strategy. First is shifting from isolated technical information on all irrigation flows. One result is
measures to a more integrated water management improved groundwater storage and vegetation
approach – for example, a participatory approach recovery in sensitive natural areas. The current
giving more responsibility to water users. Some plan ends in 2010.
960 water user associations were created, encom-
passing 60% of the irrigated public areas. Second Despite successes, however, Tunisia’s water
is the gradual introduction of water reforms and resources are still under considerable stress. The
their adaptation to local situations. Third is the use combination of increasing population growth
of financial incentives to promote water-efficient and rising water use in all sectors signals major
equipment and technologies. Fourth is supporting future threats, providing the impetus for con-
farmer incomes to allow them to plan for and se- sidering scenarios to address future allocation
cure agricultural investment and labour. And fifth choices.
is a transparent and flexible water pricing system,
aligned with national goals of food security, that Source: Blue Plan, MAP, and UNEP 2002; Treyer 2004;
will gradually lead to the recovery of costs. UNEP 2008.
The Netherlands is preparing its fifth inte- compare their consequences and help cre- The evolution of these five water plans,
grated water management plan, with the ate domestic capability to conduct similar each building on its predecessor and
possible consequences of climate change analyses by the related Dutch entities. responding to changing circumstances,
high on the agenda. facilitated significant shifts in thinking
Using more than 50 models, the project and engendered new approaches to
Its first plan, prepared in 1968, was resulted in a much better operational un- water management. From its origins in a
supply-driven and addressed only quantity derstanding of the water system. Multiple technical, supply-oriented, model-based
issues. Deteriorating water quality, and the cost-benefit analyses of options to improve decision process, the planning process
very dry summer of 1976, led to funda- water management led to the identifica- is now multifaceted, with a main pillar
mental changes in the country’s approach tion of implementable local projects and being stakeholder involvement (other
to water management. The second plan helped avoid large, expensive infrastructure ministries, local authorities, public and
had to be completely different, so the works that proved not to be cost-effective. the like) with a focus on sustainability and
Policy Analysis of Water Management for An important conclusion was that water climate proofing related to anticipated
the Netherlands was carried out before quality problems cannot be solved at the changes.
drafting the second plan. national level – for example, reallocating
water could inflict large losses on some The lessons learned from developing
For the second plan, despite a thousand sectors. Tight restrictions on groundwater the five water management plans in an
years of experience in water management, abstractions were needed to meet desired integrated manner are that implement-
the government enlisted the assistance of environmental standards, which would ing complete integrated water resources
the RAND Corporation, a U.S.-based think impose large losses on some users. The sec- management takes time (more than 30
tank with extensive experience in complex ond plan, published in 1984, reflected this years in the Netherlands), that external
policy processes. The company had been in- complete change in thinking about how to input can facilitate implementation of new
volved in an earlier integrated water project develop and manage the water system. concepts and that full involvement of all
in the Netherlands – the storm surge bar- stakeholders is needed. While cooperation
rier, a multibillion dollar project to protect Subsequent water management plans may not always be possible, involvement
the southern part of the country – helping continued to develop integrated water is essential. By helping stakeholders under-
them secure close cooperation of other min- resources management. The third plan stand the difficult trade-offs, the partici-
istries and governmental levels involved. (1989) added in-depth analysis of the role patory practices made it easier to accept
of ecology in water management, and the importance of change for the greater
The plan was expected to achieve three the fourth plan (1998) focused on specific good of society.
primary ends: develop and apply a water systems and themes, facilitating
methodology for producing alternative implementation of needed actions and Source: E. van Beek, H. Engel and G. C. de
water management policies, assess and clarifying institutional roles. Gooijer.
4 Chapter 14O
Many components the basin level. And still missing are the civil society), use of economic instru-
information, planning tools, management ments and increased commercialization
of ongoing
strategies, and human, institutional and and privatization.
water reform are system capacities needed to meet local
part of broader demand for sustainable water development Decentralization and participation. Many
under conditions of climate variability and components of ongoing water reform are
governance change. part of broader governance reform agen-
reform agendas das. Uganda, for example, has transferred
Many institutional systems are unable water responsibilities to district and lower
to adapt to current and future chal- levels, receiving broad and strong politi-
lenges because of such factors as political cal support within the country and il-
power monopolies, unilateral steering lustrating that water reform is an integral
by government and bureaucracy, hierar- part of reform efforts. Most countries
chical control, top-down management have devolved provision of drinking
and institutional fragmentation. These water to the municipal government level.
institutional characteristics also prevent Nevertheless, decentralization and devo-
political decision-makers from being lution remain problematic. Ethiopia, for
fully informed by water sector manag- example, has transferred important de-
ers. Still, many developing countries and cision-making responsibilities to district
economies in transition are transforming and village levels, but has not followed up
their water management systems through with capacity development and transfers
integrated water resources management of funds. Ghana’s experience illustrates
approaches. They are incorporating such the importance of user participation and
elements as decentralization (subsidiari- shows how financing can be resolved,
ty), transparency and stakeholder partici- demonstrating that decentralization and
pation, administrative systems based on participation can yield positive outcomes;
river basins and catchments, coordination Bolivia’s experience illustrates the ben-
and integration, partnerships (public- eficial use of cooperatives in such efforts
private, public-public, public-community/ (box 14.5).
Box 14.5 Participatory approaches in decentralized provision of water supply and sanitation
services
Enhanced decentralization and participa- investments. Members of the village water population. By 2002 SAGUAPAC was
tion for rural water supply and sanitation in and sanitation committees have received providing water to approximately 95%
Ghana. Ghana changed its rural water sup- training and opened bank accounts, and of the population in its service area and
ply structure, expanding coverage through women have played an active role in many sewerage services to about 50%.
greater participation and more efficient communities.
delivery systems over a period of about 10 Based on a classical cooperative model,
years. Water supply coverage rose from Cooperative for Urban Water and Sanitation SAGUAPAC has a 27-member Delegate
55% in 1990 to 75% in 2004, with most of Services Delivery in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Utility Assembly (three members from each of
the increase in rural areas. Decentralization cooperatives were initially formed to pro- the nine districts) that elects members of
has been a part of broader political reform vide utility services – mainly in rural areas the Administration and Oversight Boards.
and improved governance structures. where investor-owned utilities would not (Some Bolivian utility cooperative boards
expand because of profitability concerns – have a general assembly instead, open to
Responsibility for rural water supply was usually providing services at at-cost prices. universal participation.)
transferred to local municipal govern-
ments and communities, coordinated by The Cooperative for Urban Water and SAGUAPAC applies the principles of au-
the decentralized Community Water and Sanitation Services in Santa Cruz (SAGUA- tonomy, accountability, customer orienta-
Sanitation Agency. Elected district assem- PAC) provides water and sewerage services tion and market orientation. It has become
blies are responsible for processing and to Santa Cruz, Bolivia, a city of 1.2 million one of the largest urban water coopera-
prioritizing community applications for inhabitants. The national government tives in the world – serving approximately
water and sanitation, awarding contracts approved the autonomous water board’s three-quarters of a million people and
for wells and latrine facilities and running request in 1979 to transform itself into a billing close to $19 million a year. As-
latrine subsidy programmes. Village-level cooperative, recognizing that a different sessed against international standards, its
participation is part of the new structure. model was needed to provide services performance over the years is considered
Village water committees plan for local efficiently to a rapidly growing population. very good, providing continuous service
water supply and sanitation facilities and Civil opposition to state ownership and with good quality water through house
raise funds for investment and operation recognition that community participation connections and maintaining satisfactory
and management costs. An assessment in was needed to achieve service improve- financial performance. Most connections
2000 found greater satisfaction with water ments contributed to the adoption of a are metered (97%), and tariff collection
quality and quantity at the village level. cooperative structure. efficiency is 90%.
Most community residents contributed
financially to these efforts, indicating that SAGUAPAC’s service area covers about Source: WSP-AF 2002; UNDP 2006; Ruiz-Mier
they received adequate value for their 63% of the city area and 66% of its and Van Ginneken 2006.
The United Nations Environment Programme development of the basin. Components included
(UNEP), in cooperation with the National Water river basin and coastal zone environmental
Agency (ANA) of Brazil and the Organization of analyses, public and stakeholder participation,
American States (OAS), and with funding from development of an organization structure and
the Global Environment Facility, undertook a formulation of a watershed management pro-
project during 1999-2002 to develop a water- gramme. Concluded in 2002, the environmental
shed management programme for the São Fran- analysis provided a sound scientific and technical
cisco River basin. The basin traverses five states in basis for remedial actions to protect the coastal
Northeastern Brazil before discharging into the zone from land-based activities.
Atlantic Ocean.
Communities were involved in identifying and
The basin is strategically important to the eco- field testing remedial measures, and a process
nomic development of a vast region of Brazil, was established for dialogue among stakehold-
which has subjected its natural resources to ers and agencies with economic interests in the
increasing demands. Mining, agricultural, urban basin. Basin institutions are being equipped and
and industrial activities contribute large con- trained to implement new laws, regulations and
taminant loads to the system, including organic procedures for addressing environmental prob-
chemicals, heavy metals and sediment. Envi- lems. Finally, agencies and individuals both inside
ronmentally sensitive estuarine wetlands at the and outside government synthesized data and
river mouth were threatened by unsustainable experiences and prepared feasibility assessments
hydrologic management and land use practices and cost analyses for a long-term basin manage-
in the basin. The basin’s economic development ment programme. Some 217 public events were
has been haphazard, occurring within a weak held, including seminars, workshops and plenary
institutional framework and resulting in less sessions. More than 12,000 stakeholders, includ-
than optimal use and degradation of its water ing more than 400 organizations, universities,
resources. Regulated flows over large stretches non-governmental organizations, unions, asso-
also have altered natural flows, causing changes ciations and federal, state and municipal govern-
in the freshwater, estuarine and marine flora and ment organizations, participated in the events. A
fauna. comprehensive Diagnostic Analysis and Strategic
Action Program for the Integrated Management
The initial project objective was to conduct plan- of the São Francisco basin was completed in
ning and feasibility studies for formulating an 2003 and is currently being implemented.
integrated watershed management plan as the
basis for environmentally sustainable economic Source: ANA 2004.
4 Chapter 14O
Integrated water with water’s many subsectors. Weak water see no need for change. Some countries
governance encourages economic sec- (Bolivia, for example) reject any private
management
tors to compete for larger shares of water sector participation in water supply and
approaches must resources, to boost economic develop- sanitation.
have institutional ment or satisfy national production needs.
Similarly, where interjurisdictional water Other types of partnerships involve civil
and legislative governance is weak, riparian countries society, municipalities and the private
governing and jurisdictions sharing a water resource sector. To be successful, these partner-
compete to develop their own water in- ships require adequate capacity in civil
frameworks to frastructure and use. As this Report shows society and private sector organizations
ensure oversight throughout, it is the leaders in govern- and commitment from municipal govern-
ment, business and civil society who make ments and agencies. Proper incentives
and monitoring the decisions that determine effective and mutual trust are also important.14
of water resources water use policy (see also chapter 15). Argentina, Colombia, Honduras, Paraguay
and Peru have experience with partner-
and participation Some countries have identified a need for ships going beyond the private sector.
of target groups coordination not only among ministries The Cartagena Partnership in Colombia,
but also with subnational levels in im- for example, was initially a partnership
plementing water policy and legislation. of municipal authorities, the community
Integrated water management approaches and a private water company. It explicitly
must have institutional and legislative involved community organizations in
governing frameworks to ensure oversight mobile payment collection units to collect
and monitoring of water resources and fees from residents, establishing a clear ac-
participation of target groups. Thus, in- countability mechanism for fee collection.
tersectoral coordination of water uses and In Porto Alegro, Brazil, the municipality,
involvement of water users are necessary at community organizations and the public
different levels of decision-making.12 water company developed a partnership
establishing participatory budgetary proc-
One approach is to establish water coun- esses and charging water fees based on
cils, including high-level national water consumption rather than property taxes.
councils, river and basin councils, subna- The partnership improved the financial
tional (regional, governorate, state) coun- base for the public water company.
cils and water users associations (see box
14.5). Experience with national and sub- Brazil developed its water resources with
national water councils is extensive, and eight major coordination mechanisms over
their functioning and political influence a long period and implemented far-reach-
can vary considerably. Their main purpose ing institutional and legal changes. The
is to develop links and structures for man- 1988 Constitution specified federal and
aging water resources across sectors and state government responsibilities and legal
involving water users and stakeholders in authority. The Ministry of Environment
planning and strategy development.13 and Water Resources was created in 1995,
and the National Water Resource Policy
Partnerships. Partnerships have been pro- Law was passed in 1997. States also passed
moted within the water supply sector to water laws. The reforms include establish-
improve services. Most have been public- ing national, basin and state councils to
private partnerships, and results have improve managerial coordination and
been mixed. Some countries are revising resolve water conflicts within the federal
procedures for public-private partnerships framework. The public utility (Municipal
(for example, Argentina), while others Department of Water and Sewage) operates
Many water utilities lose large quantities of water for reducing non-revenue water (district-metered
through distribution system leakage or billing areas). During an initial 18-month phase I, the
weaknesses (so-called ‘non-revenue water’), validity of the concept was tested on a limited
which can undermine their financial viability. The portion of the water delivery network.
state of Selangor, in Malaysia, experienced a seri-
ous water crisis in 1997 attributed to the El Niño Phase I exceeded its target, saving 20,898 m3
weather phenomenon. The distribution leakage a day. Twenty-nine district-metered areas were
rate for the State Waterworks Department was established, with an average savings of 400 m3 a
estimated at 25%, or 500,000 cubic metres (m3) day in each area, and some 15,000 water meters
a day, sufficient to serve an estimated 3 million were replaced. The cost to the State Waterworks
people daily. Department was about $215 per cubic metre
a day. Phase II (2000-09) has an overall reduc-
To address the problem, the State Waterworks tion target of 198,900 m3 a day, for a payment
Department employed a locally led consortium, equivalent to $528 per m3 a day. Based on in-
in a joint venture with an international operator. terim results at the beginning of the sixth project
The contract called for reducing non-revenue year, 222 district-metered areas were estab-
water losses by 18,540 m3 a day for a payment lished, more than 11,000 leaks were repaired and
equivalent to $243 per cubic metre per day of 119,000 water meters (of a contractual minimum
non-revenue water saved. The contractor was of 150,000) were replaced. Non-revenue water
given the flexibility to design and implement losses were reduced by 117,000 m3 a day (20%
activities to reduce losses, with a payment ar- above the 2009 contract target of 97,500 m3 a
rangement in place to cover necessary work and day), and commercial losses were reduced by
materials for detecting and repairing water leaks, 50,000 m3 a day.
identifying illegal connections, replacing cus-
tomer meters as needed and establishing zones Source: Kingdom, Liemberger, and Marin 2006.
4 Chapter 14O
A growing number Box 14.9 Examples of legal frameworks for managing water
of countries
Effectively managing competing water uses re- Amendments in 2004 added a package of regu-
and cities are
quires clear, widely accepted rules on allocating latory, economic and participatory approaches
incorporating water resources, especially under conditions of to water resources allocation and pollution
scarcity. Water allocation systems should balance control. These include river basin planning,
water-related equity and economic efficiency. licensing of water abstractions and uses, permit-
adaptations to ting for wastewater dischargers, charging for
One means of avoiding conflicts of interests in water abstractions and wastewater disposal and
climate change water legislature is to separate policy, regulation articulation of federal government administration
and implementation functions, as Kenya does. at the river basin and aquifer levels. The amend-
into planning and
The Ministry of Water and Irrigation focuses on ments also include provisions for recording legal
policy efforts policy formulation and guidance, while the Water instruments in a public water rights registry and
Services Regulatory Board and Water Resources providing opportunities for community partici-
Management Authority address national and re- pation through water user organizations and
gional regulatory functions. Water service provid- membership in basin councils.
ers (such as community groups, non-governmen-
tal organizations, autonomous entities established Implementation and enforcement of the new
by local authorities and the private sector under regulatory structure began in 1993 with a survey
contract to regional water services boards) imple- and registration of abstractions and disposals.
ment water supply and sanitation services. It took 10 years, and a series of intermediate
regulatory adjustments and massive information
Mexico passed the Law on National Waters campaigns, to complete the process.
in November 1992, and implementation
regulations were adopted in January 1994. Source: Velasco 2003.
The framers of the Namibia Water Resources Man- Another example of customary rights is the
agement Act of 2004 were aware of the potential traditional subak system of irrigation water
for deeply rooted customary practices – particu- distribution and use among the rice-growing
larly livestock herding by traditional communities communities in Bali, Indonesia. The Water Act
– to clash with the development of large-scale of 2004 recognizes communal rights of local
irrigated agriculture or tourism supported by traditional communities as long as they do not
administrative rights for the same waters used by contravene legislation and national interests. This
herders. The new act prescribes the processing of is the standard formulation of customary rights
abstraction licences and the criteria to inform de- protection in water legislation in countries where
cisions on licence applications. The law recognizes customary law is extensively practiced. Although
the existence of a ‘traditional community’ and the lacking in detail and clarity, such statements can
extent of its reliance on a water source affected by suffice in areas with strong social cohesion and
a proposed water abstraction (section 35(1)(h)). where competition for water from ‘outsiders’ is
Accommodation of the ‘reasonable requirements’ limited.
of any traditional community is included among
the standard terms and conditions of abstraction Source: Stefano Burchi, Food and Agriculture Organiza-
licences (section 37(e)). tion of the United Nations.
technological measures to mitigate such and poor urban households, may respond
predicted impacts as sea-level rise, more by organizing their own activities (box
frequent droughts and increased precipita- 14.13). Irrigation management transfer in
tion (box 14.11). India, Mexico and Turkey, for example, led
to investments in new techniques, better
Consulting with stakeholders collection of water user fees and improved
and avoiding corruption: water resources management (box 14.14;
accountability in planning, see also box 4.4 in chapter 4). In 1998 in
implementation and the Arwari River catchment in Rajasthan,
management India, the Arwari River Parliament, with
2,055 members in 70 villages in 46 micro-
Stakeholder engagement is important to watersheds, was formed to improve water
improving water resources management management through controlled use of
through several channels, from direct water. The river parliament also explored
participation in planning to expanding improving soil, land and forest manage-
public awareness. One benefit is reducing ment; increasing agricultural productivity;
corruption, a source of devastating social, seeking participation by women and gen-
economic and environmental impacts, par- erating self-employment and alternative
ticularly for poor people, and which can livelihood options. Its social, economic
increase the investment costs of achieving and environmental impacts have generally
the Millennium Development Goals. been positive, and increased agricultural
production has expanded livelihood op-
Engaging stakeholders: benefits and portunities. The Arwari River Parliament
challenges has provided a platform to resolve land,
Stakeholder involvement through pub- water and forest management disputes.20
lic hearings, advisory committees, focus
groups, stakeholder forums and the like has To provide useful communication tools and
often improved water projects, programmes systems for exchanging information, data
and related human livelihood opportuni- and experiences, the Emilia-Romagna re-
ties. It can also increase public awareness gion in Italy developed a national forum on
of water issues while informing both the water conservation as a common platform
facilitators of change and those involved for discussion and comparison of water con-
in it. An example is the study on diffuse servation policies. The forum highlights the
water pollution of the North American most modern, innovative policies for water
Great Lakes conducted by the US-Canada saving and conservation at the national
International Joint Commission during the level. It is organized into thematic working
1970s. The commission conducted public groups (water saving in civil, agricultural
hearings throughout the basin, both to and industrial sectors; drinking water losses
educate basin inhabitants about the study in distribution systems; and communica-
goals and to secure their inputs on poten- tion). To expedite its work, the forum has a
tial problems and solutions (box 14.12). Website,21 organizes an annual conference
(held on World Water Day) and thematic
Some stakeholders who are left out of de- workshops, produces newsletters and en-
cision-making, such as small-scale farmers gages national and European experts.
4 Chapter 14O
Box 14.12 Public participation panels in the North American Great Lakes basin review of water
quality
The United States and Canada estab- • What remedial measures can address eight in Canada, comprising industrialists,
lished the International Joint Commis- these sources, and what would they small business owners, farmers, labour
sion under the Boundary Waters Treaty cost? representatives, educators, environmental-
of 1909. The two countries signed the ists, women’s groups, sport and fishing as-
Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement The PLUARG study, which involved scien- sociations, wildlife federations and elected
in 1972, with the goal of restoring and tists, managers and policy-makers from and appointed government officials. Each
maintaining the chemical, physical and both countries, concluded that non-point panel met four times to discuss and make
biological integrity of the Great Lakes sources (particularly agricultural and urban recommendations on the environmental,
basin ecosystem. The agreement called runoff) were responsible for water quality social and economic aspects of the study,
on the commission to conduct a study of problems from phosphorus, sediments, with many expressing their goals for the
pollution in the Great Lakes system from polychlorinated biphenyls, persistent Great Lakes. The panels reviewed and
diffuse (non-point) sources in its drainage pesticides, industrial organic chemicals commented on a draft of the PLUARG
basin. The International Reference Group and lead on either a lake-wide or localized report before its finalization and submis-
on Great Lakes Pollution from Land Use basis. Non-point sources also contributed sion to the International Joint Commission.
Activities (PLUARG) was established to significant amounts of nitrogen, chloride, Each panel also submitted a report to
undertake the study, focusing on three non-persistent pesticides and heavy met- PLUARG on its own views and recom-
major questions: als, although these pollutants did not yet mendations on panel-identified problems,
constitute a water quality problem. as well as suggested solutions. PLUARG
• Are the Great Lakes being polluted also held numerous public meetings
from land drainage from non-point Considering the many jurisdictions throughout the Great Lakes basin to gain
sources in the basin? involved (see map), and the diversity additional perspectives. The input from
of opinions to be considered, PLUARG the panels and the public meetings were a
• If so, what is the extent of this pollu- recognized the need for public input to major contribution to the final report and
tion, what are its causes and where is identify concerns and workable manage- the PLUARG technical report series.
the pollution occurring? ment strategies. PLUARG established nine
public panels in the United States and Source: IJC 1978; PLUARG 1978.
Great Lakes provincial, state and county jurisdictional boundaries during 1978 PLUARG study
RIOR
SUPE
KE CA
LA
NA
MINNESOTA US DA
A
ONTARIO
G
EO
RG
IA
N
BA
LAKE
Y
HURON
N
GA
WISCONSIN
CANA
LAKE
LAKE MICHI
USA
O
ONTARI
DA
D
NA
A
CA A
US
MICHIGAN
NEW YORK
DA
NA
CA USA
E
AK E
L
RI
E PENNSYLVANIA
ILLINOIS
In the highlands of Ecuador, as in other also gathered to establish a provincial the Federation of Cotopaxi Irrigation Users
Andean countries, greater competition for water user federation (interjuntas), to build now comprises 370 water user organiza-
declining water resources led to increasing capacity among water user organizations tions composed of tens of thousands of
conflicts and applications to register water and foster discussion forums on water minifundio (small land holding) water
rights. The provincial water agencies re- policy-making and law. This intersystem user families. Community water quantity
sponsible for water allocations were under- organization now facilitates participation and quality rights are represented at the
staffed, and water resources privatization, by some 280 irrigation and drinking water national level through collaboration with
viewed as ineffective by many, was making users organizations, all with mostly indig- the national water civil society platform,
national management and water conflict enous and small-farmer household con- National Water Forum, and direct negotia-
resolution more difficult. The decentraliza- stituencies. The interjuntas also facilitates tions with the state. Federations such as
tion of power to provincial authorities – conflict management among water users interjuntas and the Federation of Cotopaxi
rather than to user collectives – exacerbat- and among associated systems, especially Irrigation Users illustrate that equitable
ed perceptions of inequality and injustice between poor groups and landlords and water distribution requires democratic
in the water sector. In July 2005 thousands between indigenous rural peoples and the decision-making and transparency of pub-
of water users demonstrated in Riobamba, state, through its centre for the defence of lic investments and monitoring of govern-
demanding removal of the state water rights and mediation of conflicts. ment activities in the water sector.
agency staff for inequitable treatment
of indigenous peasant and female water Other new water user organizations are Source: Dávila and Olazával 2006; Boelens
users. Many community organizations starting to emerge. In Cotopaxi Province 2008.
Box 14.14 Participatory irrigation management and the role of water user associations
Participatory irrigation management en- Some constraints to the new manage- more than doubled in five years, peaking
gages irrigation users at all levels and in all ment system include limited power in 1997 at 72%. Water fees were raised,
aspects of managing irrigation schemes. supply in rural areas, below design sometimes more than 100%. The expecta-
Based on the belief that water users are water discharge levels and continuing tion was that the water user associations
best suited to manage their water resourc- dependence on government funds in would become financially self-sufficient,
es, participatory irrigation management many cases. Nevertheless, there have generating enough resources to cover the
allows considerable flexibility in water been many positive results. Collection costs of CNA. That has not yet happened,
management methods. of water tariffs increased from 54% to however, so those costs are still being
65% during the first year of implementa- covered by a ministerial fund. Neverthe-
India. Despite large investments, the tion. Management of irrigation canals less, the irrigation systems have become
irrigation schemes in the Indian state of by water user associations has resulted financially more self-sufficient. In the lower
Andhra Pradesh have been in serious trou- in more effective water use, with an ad- Bajo Rio Bravo Irrigation District, for exam-
ble because of deteriorating infrastructure ditional 52,361 hectares being irrigated ple, self-sufficiency rose from 36% in 1989
and low agricultural productivity. Policy in 1998 in the Tungabadra High Level to 100% in 1994.
reforms were introduced in 1996/97 to Canal. Irrigation canal water-carrying
deal with irrigation concerns, including a capacity rose about 20%-30%, and ag- Turkey. Both the State Hydraulic Works and
threefold increase in water user charges, ricultural productivity increased. There the General Directorate of Rural Services
creation of water user associations and ca- was also a dramatic reduction in farmer are responsible for managing soil and
pacity building in water user associations complaints. water resources in Turkey. The State Hy-
across the state. Institutional reforms in- draulic Works is responsible for large-scale
cluded the creation of farmer-government Mexico. Most farming in Mexico is ir- irrigation and water infrastructure; the
partnerships in irrigation operations and rigated, with water services provided by General Directorate of Rural Services, for
maintenance, consolidation of irrigation the central government since the end of on-farm development and small irrigation
management transfer, new cost recovery World War II. By the end of the 1980s the schemes. Water scarcity has been a prob-
methods, expenditure prioritization and government was subsidizing more than lem since the 1960s, and operation and
capacity building for state agencies and 75% of the operation, maintenance and maintenance of the country’s irrigation
water user associations. administration of irrigation districts – a systems was a financial and institutional
non-sustainable outcome. As a result, burden for the government. Revenue
Water user association board members are farmers received relatively low-quality collection was difficult, and water use was
elected by local water users. Transferring services for which they were reluctant to very high.
management authority to user groups has pay.
created a strong sense of ownership and With support of the World Bank the
empowerment. Still, some studies criticize Under an extensive programme of agri- central government began transferring
the reforms for being more a top-down cultural reform, management of irrigation irrigation schemes, even large ones, to
government programme than a farmer- districts was transferred to water user water user associations in 1993, to reduce
initiated effort, and some suggest that associations, with responsibility for irriga- costs for the central agencies. Following
establishment of the water user associa- tion systems to be shared between the Mexico’s example, Turkey transferred
tions resulted in needless proliferation of associations and the then newly formed 1,350,000 hectares of irrigated land to
community organizations, when the vil- National Water Commission (CNA). After the water user associations by 1997, with
lage government could have handled the the transfer of irrigation management 87% of irrigation projects transferred
task (a view not shared by water users). responsibilities, the rate of tariff collection by 2007. This rapid transfer of irrigation
(continued)
4 Chapter 14O
Box 14.14 Participatory irrigation management and the role of water user associations (continued)
management was motivated by the rising collection rates (from 42% in 1993 to 80% 2004 the government abolished General
costs of irrigation schemes to the central in 1997), lower energy costs (approximate- Directorate of Rural Services as part of
government, the availability of on-the-job ly 25%) and more equitable allocation of broader administrative reforms, delegat-
training programmes in Mexico and the water resources. ing its responsibilities to the provincial
United States, the commitment of State governments.
Hydraulic Works staff and clearly defined The legal status of water user associations
goals and pilot projects. The transfer has remains to be defined, and central agency Source: Jairath 2000; Raju 2001; Johnson 1997;
resulted in more efficient use of water obligations to provide technical and Palacios 1999; Garces-Restrepo, Vermillion, and
resources, increased investments in new administrative assistance at the beginning Muñoz 2007; Blue Plan, MAP, and UNEP 1999;
technologies, higher water user tariff of a transfer still need to be clarified. In Döker et al. 2003.
The RhineNet project highlights the value of agreement called for use of a much less used
public participation. The project covered flood- alternative path for the estimated 8,000 trucks
plain restoration, construction of fish ladders, that would be involved in the project’s earth
flood protection and recreational enhancement. removal activities. Meetings and discussions
Public involvement in projects increased public were held regularly during the project, providing
acceptance, even among those who might be opportunities for citizens to voice their concerns,
considered ‘losers’ in the process. and events were reported in local bulletins,
newspapers and electronic media. An important
The project plans for reactivating the Saar River finding was that such efforts require consider-
floodplains in Hostenback, Germany, provide able time for interviews and discussions with the
an example. The plans were presented to the individuals affected by the project – discussions
mayor of Wadgassen and the general public. that could not be replaced by media reports or
The project received widespread support, with press conferences.
citizens showing considerable flexibility over de-
tails of the required construction. One important Source: Lange 2008.
Development of anticorruption agreement comply. A similar agreement was signed in society is a prerequisite for the use of this
with Colombian water pipe manufacturing Argentina in December 2005, and agree- monitoring and accountability tool.
companies. The Colombian Association of ments also are being considered by Brazil
Environmental and Sanitary Engineers, and Mexico. Lesotho highlands project trials. The Lesotho
whose affiliated water pipe manufacturing Highlands Water project, the world’s larg-
companies had a 95% share of the na- Citizen report cards for improved water est international water transfer project,
tional market and a monopoly on bids in services in Bangalore, India. To improve the transfers water from the Orange River
public tenders for water supply and sewer quality of underperforming public water to the Vaal River, providing extra water
systems, undertook an anticorruption and sewer utilities in Bangalore, India, the to Johannesburg, South Africa. Lesotho
initiative as part of a sectoral antibribery national Public Affairs Centre established a receives royalties for the water ($31 million
agreement. The association, together with system of benchmarks and citizen ‘report in 2004, about 5% of its GDP). Under
Transparency International-Colombia, cards’. These report cards triggered a series phase 1 of the project four dams and 110
worked to develop an agreement among of reforms enhancing public sector ac- kilometres of tunnels were completed at a
pipe manufacturers based on Transpar- countability and responsiveness. Although cost of about $2 billion.
ency International’s Business Principles the first report card in 1994 gave low rat-
to Counteract Bribery. The agreement, ings to all major city service providers, only The first chief executive of the Lesotho
signed in April 2005, resulted in substan- a few service providers acknowledged the Highlands Development Authority,
tial reductions in bid award prices, thereby problems and took corrective actions. The charged with overseeing the project, was
reducing the scope for bribery. second report card in 1999 indicated par- tried on bribery and fraud charges in
tial improvement in some services, while 2001. His subsequent conviction was an
The agreement was developed in reaction the third report card in 2003 revealed sub- important victory in the fight against cor-
to the lack of transparency in the pipe stantial improvements by almost all service ruption and illustrated what a determined
business sector, particularly in public sec- providers, as well as a visible decline in government can do in fighting corruption.
tor procurement, which resulted in over- corruption. Satisfaction levels rose dramati- Recognizing that bribery has both a de-
priced products and substandard quality cally, from 4% in 1994 to 73% in 2003. mand and supply component, the Lesotho
in public projects and utilities, creating government also brought charges against
an environment of mistrust. The situa- Both supply and demand drivers of the multinational companies paying the
tion eventually became untenable for the change contributed to this surprising bribes. Three major firms were convicted
companies and the trade association, as turnaround. The trigger for public action by the High Court of Lesotho, and all three
transaction costs became unsupportable. seems to have been the public scrutiny were assessed fines. The World Bank also
Under the agreement each company pre- and publicity attending the report cards, barred one company from bidding on
pared a general anticorruption policy and leading to important interventions on future projects. The trials for future bribery
specific guidelines for each area specified the supply side. A strategic decision of prosecutions established several important
in the Business Principles to Counteract the state government was to establish a precedents related to what the prosecu-
Bribery (pricing and purchasing, distribu- new public-private partnership forum to tion has to prove in regard to bribery,
tion and sales schemes, implementation catalyse action and assist service pro- where the crime took place (determined
mechanisms, internal controls and audits, viders in upgrading their services and by the location of the impacts of the
human resources management, protection responsiveness. The political support and crime) and what degree of financial trans-
of ‘whistle blowers’ and communications, commitment of the state’s chief minister, parency is required to prove the crime (a
internal reporting and consulting). The the innovative practices resulting from major breakthrough was the prosecution’s
agreement also laid out the roles of an the partnership forum, the active role of access to Swiss banking records of the ac-
Ethics Committee and a Working Group external catalysts (civil society groups and cused companies).
tasked to supervise implementation, as donors) and the learning experiences from
well as extensive legal and economic pow- initial responses contributed to the better Source: Balcazar 2005; Stålgren 2006; Thampi
ers for dealing with companies that fail to performance. An open and democratic 2005; Stålgren 2006; Earle and Turton 2005.
uncertainties. Such assessments can cover challenges to their water sector and each
part of a sector (for example, management country’s capacities to devise new strate-
of river basins or sanitation) or focus on gies with prioritized interventions.25
institutional architecture and capacity (for
example, the education system, communi- In China the Ministry of Water Resources
ty management and the legal framework). and the Guizhou Provincial Administra-
tion worked on an institutional perform-
Improving a weak institutional environ- ance assessment, focusing on strengths
ment is not a linear process.24 It often and weaknesses in the economic and
requires efforts on several fronts, focus- institutional aspects of water manage-
ing on alleviating acute problems while ment, such as pricing, river basin man-
creating the conditions for more favour- agement and stakeholder involvement in
able change over time. The United Nations integrated water resources management.
Development Programme, for example, In Mexico the water initiative added to the
supported rapid water sector assessments National Water Commission’s broader ef-
in Bolivia, China, Ghana, Mali, Mexico forts to improve the water sector’s overall
and Peru, providing modest international performance. The Peruvian assessment
support to local agencies to assess the guided a parliamentary debate on sectoral
4 Chapter 14O
governments will priorities, helping reform agencies and building materials on ecological sanita-
generating new skill mixes.26 In Indonesia tion emerging from the 4th World Water
need to rely more
the 1998-2004 financial crisis triggered Forum in Mexico in 2006;27 material
on an informed a deep institutional and administrative on gender, water and capacity building
and capable civil reform of the water sector, which is crucial provided by the Gender and Water Alli-
to its economy, emphasizing decentralized ance;28 an overview paper and guidelines
society whose decision-making, participatory irrigation for improving knowledge management at
role in water management, cost recovery and cuts in the personal and organizational level in
staffing. the water and sanitation sector;29 and a
management conceptual introduction to water sector al-
complements Strengthening institutional liances, case studies and lessons in scaling
arrangements and capacity to up innovations in water, sanitation and
the work of support an agenda of change hygiene, both prepared by the Internation-
government Changes in society and in the environ- al Water and Sanitation Centre.30
ment call for regular adjustments of the in-
agencies stitutional architecture of the water sector. Stimulating professional knowledge
Regular performance and capacity reviews Water sector professionals require a sophis-
can identify needed reforms and promote ticated understanding of the hydrologic
agreement on capacity development for im- cycle and its variability. They also need
plementing the reform. Uganda’s National a better understanding of the relation-
Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) ship between water use and sustainable
transformed itself from an organization economic development and water-related
plagued by unaccounted-for water, weak interactions in society, and of the needs of
billing practices and high operating costs decision-makers. Non-professionals often
to one with steadily improving perform- require a better understanding of their
ance since 1998. NWSC separated opera- interactions with and influences on water
tions and maintenance from performance systems. This knowledge can come from
monitoring and regulation. The capacity of research, the traditional domains of local
utilities to work with this system was de- communities and education, training and
veloped incrementally by multidisciplinary focused workshops. But the knowledge
teams, beginning with simple performance is often fragmented, held by a growing
contracts and upgrading to more complex number of water stakeholders, each with
arrangements. NWSC became a ‘learning part of the solution. Thus, communication
organization’, creating an environment is critical for building the knowledge base
where managers must account for perform- and institutional and human capacities
ance against goals and staff are expected to needed to forge political consensus.
embrace innovation and tackle problems
(see box 14.23 later in the chapter). Networks are becoming increasingly im-
portant knowledge pools and mechanisms
Engaging with civil society in for knowledge dissemination (box 14.17),
developing its capacity exchange and management. They must be
With the large numbers of water man- structured, managed and funded accord-
agement stakeholders, governments are ing to their purpose (research, sharing of
increasingly constrained in what they can professional experience, training and so
achieve alone. They will need to rely more on). Networks are well suited to identify-
on an informed and capable civil society ing and articulating large-scale, complex
whose role in water management comple- problems and to offering solutions and
ments the work of government agencies. best practices tested in other places.
As civil society becomes more water liter- Learning alliances are groups of represent-
ate, it will come to a clearer understanding ative stakeholders with a focus on develop-
of the importance of water issues and lend ing jointly owned approaches to problems
solid support to water sector initiatives. that create a broader sense of ownership
That requires broad access to information and lead to more rapid implementation.
and the capability to engage with govern- The Euro-Med Participatory Water Re-
ments on water service delivery issues – sources Scenarios (EMPOWERS), a regional
often requiring capacity-building efforts to pilot project led by Care International–UK
be effective. from 2003 to 2007, sought to increase
sustainable access to water for vulnerable
Many resources are available for commu- populations in Egypt (where water de-
nity and civil society capacity develop- mands exceed supplies), in Jordan (which
ment in water and sanitation. Examples has one of the world’s lowest per capita
of Internet-accessible resources include water levels) and the West Bank and Gaza
a comprehensive collection of capacity (where access to water is strictly controlled
4 Chapter 14O
Water resources similar issues. Simple tools, such as e-mail benefits of advancing scientific, educa-
lists, are the preferred low-technology tional and community development goals
management plans
avenue for this activity. for water systems.
can be difficult
to fund and Local stakeholders are usually the first to Public education and awareness raising
experience and address local problems can also be as simple as informing water
implement without and to find local solutions. Decision- stakeholders about changes in work rou-
the involvement makers can learn from this local knowl- tines or personal habits that can alleviate
edge and apply its lessons to building the problems associated with unsustainable
of water users capacity of local institutions and civil use of water resources (see chapter 2).
society (box 14.18). Informed decision- Greater public awareness is facilitated by
making requires a balanced combina- making details of water system problems
tion of top-down (often larger-scale) and and corrective programmes readily avail-
bottom-up (often smaller scale) approach- able to the public through the public edu-
es and procedures. cation system, the information media and
non-governmental organizations.34
Stimulating public awareness
Increasing public awareness about water The Emilia-Romagna Region in Italy
resources also facilitates sustainable use. launched a regional communication
Water resources management plans can be campaign on water conservation in
difficult to fund and implement without 2004 called “Acqua, risparmio vitale”
the involvement of water users. (Water, vital saving). The campaign was
relaunched in 2008 with a new slogan,
One way to promote public knowledge is “Mezzo pieno o mezzo vuoto? Comunque la
through science and education centres pensi, l’acqua va risparmiata!” (Half full
that compile, analyse and disseminate or half empty? Whatever you think, save
information on water resources. Such water!). This education strategy uses a
centres often focus on identifying and combination of brochures for the general
disseminating information on water sys- public, television and radio spots and
tem problems and sustainable use. They advertisements on city buses.35 Water
often consider the economic, ecosystem managers can also use such communica-
and cultural importance of specific water tion activities to inform the key decision-
systems and their resources; direct and makers working outside the water manag-
indirect uses and values and promising ers’ domain (see chapter 15).
tools and strategies for management and
lessons from case studies. They also pro- Developing appropriate
vide valuable region-specific information, solutions through innovation
such as the public and media awareness and research
campaign by the Yemen National Water
Resources Authority, including the Yemen Technological innovation covers a broad
Water Awareness video.32 Information field, from technical issues to financial
centres such as the Lake Biwa Museum considerations, water service models and
(Japan), Balaton Limnological Research water governance issues (policy, sustain-
Institute (Hungary) and Leahy Center able financing, cultural values, political
of Lake Champlain (United States) focus realities, law and so on). It can enable
their attention on lake basins.33 The rapid and significant changes within the
centres, sponsored by private foundations, water sector. And it can improve existing
corporations, government agencies, non- systems (better hand pumps, for example)
governmental organizations and academic and develop new ways to address water
institutions, demonstrate and promote the issues.
The Integrated Watershed Management Network example, are assisted in drafting and executing
(IWMNET), is a three-year (2007-10) capacity- subcatchment management plans and in sharing
building initiative for integrated watershed their experience in drafting participatory catch-
management in Eastern Africa involving German ment management plans. An online e-learning
and Eastern African universities. Activities include component makes all information accessible to
specialized training on integrated water resources students and professionals, even in rural areas.
management and related issues and support for
ongoing water sector reforms in Ethiopia, Kenya, Source: iwmnet-eu.uni-siegen.de and www.iwmnet.eu/
Tanzania and Uganda. Water user associations, for index.html.
Box 14.19 Using water management to preserve biodiversity and economic livelihoods – Kafue
Flats, Zambia
Large dams can disrupt the natural water (ZESCO), in cooperation with WWF, local Kafue Flats and improved livelihoods for
cycle and the ecosystems that rely on it. people and commercial farmers, initiated local people (particularly increased fish
Kafue Flats in Zambia illustrates the use of a project to restore a more natural flow to and pasture productivity), development
technological innovation and cooperation water releases from the Itezhi-tezhi Dam. of a wildlife-based tourism industry and
to alleviate such disruptions. An integrated water resources manage- sustained irrigation capacity. The hydro-
ment study was undertaken in 2002, electric production potential of the Kafue
Kafue Flats is a rich wildlife habitat oc- including development of a Kafue River Gorge Dam is expected to be maintained
cupying 6,500 square kilometres along basin hydrology model. The model was or to increase. Discussions are under way
the Kafue River, a major tributary of the linked to real-time data from rainfall and on scaling up the environmental flows
Zambezi River. It sustains the livelihoods of river gauging stations in the catchment to model to the other dams in the watershed
local people engaged in hunting, fishing predict water flows and reservoir levels. (Kafue Gorge, Cahorra Bassa and Kariba)
and cropping when floods recede on the Based on this modelling exercise, agree- to extend benefits to the entire course of
flats at the end of the wet season. In 1978 ment was reached among all the partners the rivers in Zambia and Mozambique.
the Itezhi-tezhi Dam was built upstream in 2004 to implement new dam operating Preparations also are under way on a joint
of the Kafue Gorge hydroelectric dam, rules. A major water flow mimicking the operations and management strategy for
Zambia’s primary source of power, to store natural wet season flooding pattern was the three dams, involving the Zambezi
wet season peak flows to maximize hy- released for the first time in early 2007, River Authority, the Joint Operational
dropower production at the hydroelectric and modules have been launched for wet- Technical Committee for Cahorra Bassa
dam. The Itezhi-tezhi Dam ended the ben- lands rehabilitation, focusing on infrastruc- and Kariba Dams, and the Southern Africa
eficial wet season flooding of Kafue Flats, ture development, tourism enhancement Development Community agreement for
adversely affecting the 300,000 people and community-based natural resources an integrated water resources manage-
who rely on it for their livelihoods. management. ment strategy for the Zambezi River under
the auspices of its shared water protocol.
In 1999 the Zambian government and The long-term results are expected to
Zambia Electric Supply Corporation include improved ecological health for Source: WWF 2008.
4 Chapter 14O
Reliable and Box 14.20 Using irrigation technology to increase water use efficiency
accurate water
Irrigation water can be delivered to crops irrigation systems (each with an irrigated area
resources
through surface, sprinkler and drip irrigation sys- of more than 20,000 hectares), which account
information and tems. Although introducing new irrigation tech- for about a quarter of the total irrigated area of
nology typically increases costs, it also increases 56 million hectares. Modernization included the
data, by reducing water use efficiency, resulting in water savings. application of new materials and technologies
uncertainty about A California study, for example, found that water to upgrade irrigation system structures and the
use efficiency ranged from 60%-85% for surface application of modern irrigation concepts and
water resources, irrigation to 70%-90% for sprinkler irrigation and institutions to improve irrigation management.
88%-90% for drip irrigation. Potential savings Water conveyance and irrigation intervals have
help decision-
would be even higher if the technology switch been shortened, and water losses have been
makers make were combined with more precise irrigation reduced. Agricultural output in the programme
scheduling and a partial shift from lower-value, area increased 46%, even though irrigation
more reliable water-intensive crops to higher-value, more withdrawals have fallen from about 80% of
and politically water-efficient crops. total water withdrawals in 1980 to 60% today, a
dramatic reduction.
persuasive China introduced water-saving measures and
irrigation system modernization in agricul- Source: Cooley, Christian-Smith, and Gleick 2008; ICID
assessments of
ture in the 1990s. China has some 400 large 2008.
water risks
Reliable and accurate water resources The World Bank conducted an assessment
information and data, by reducing uncer- of the water supply and sanitation sectors
tainty about water resources, help decision- in Ethiopia, including progress towards
makers make more reliable and politically the Millennium Development Goals.40 The
persuasive assessments of water risks. More amount and quality of data available for
detailed and accurate information also the assessment from different regions var-
guides better choices on needed infrastruc- ied considerably, and some data were con-
ture and makes public institutions more ac- tradictory. The data thus could not be used
countable for the impacts of their actions. for a sound public review of expenditures
The Water Law and Indigenous Rights pro- Concertación (2006-11) is an interdiscipli-
gramme (2001-07) began as an international nary research and capacity-building network
action-research alliance to inform the debate on concentrating on peasant empowerment and
peasant, indigenous and customary rights in the indigenous water management, with a focus on
Andean region and to facilitate action on local, the Andean region. The Water Research Fund for
national and international platforms. A major Southern Africa, established in 1999, is available
objective was to better understand local water to researchers and institutions in any Southern
rights and water management. The strategy Africa Development Community country. A peer
was to focus on research and action, together review system ensures that high quality research
with local, regional and international networks proposals are selected for funding. A board
(both indigenous and non-indigenous), while consisting of researchers with different profes-
training policy-makers, water professionals and sional backgrounds and from different countries
grass-roots leaders. The programme deepened formulates the fund’s research policy and defines
water policy debates on recognition of water priority areas. Although external donors are the
rights, enabling better legislation and more main source of funding, rather than the research
democratic water governance and management end users, the fund is exploring ways to better
policies. Network participants have extended link societal demands to the research commu-
their activities into new policy research and nity and of reviewing its role in promoting this
action networks on the plurality of water rights, connection so that the supported research is
multiscale water user organizations and ways responsive to the region’s needs.
to strengthen and recognize such processes
through training and user-oriented intervention Source: Rap 2008; www.eclac.cl/drni/proyectos/walir/
strategies. homee.asp; www.iwsd.co.zw/index.cfm.
Information from monitoring activities can be Field monitoring in the Lake Chad basin in Africa
used to expose the limits of water resources, re- demonstrated that wet season conditions could
veal hidden connections and develop innovative be simulated by water releases from the Tiga
solutions to water resources problems. Data on and Challawa Dams and that artificial flooding of
fishing intensity and gear were used in declar- wetlands could be undertaken with the existing
ing temporary fishing moratoriums for Lakes infrastructure.
Baringo and Naivasha in Africa and in setting
restrictions on allowable fishing technologies for Several years of monitoring data from Lake Ohrid
Lake Victoria. These measures contributed to the in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
recovery or significant improvements of these suggested that the phytoplankton and zooplank-
fisheries. ton communities in the lake were changing,
consistent with its increasing eutrophication and
Biophysical processes in water systems are making an unequivocal case for nutrient control.
complex and often expressed in small incre-
mental changes that are not readily observable. Monitoring data collected from Lake Dianchi
Detailed measures and investigations at Lake in China demonstrated the success of policies
Biwa, Japan, showed that declining snowfall over to reduce the external nutrient load from local
several decades, combined with a weakening enterprises. Such post-project monitoring can
water profile in the lake, had led to a decline in help marshal support for the often considerable
the dissolved oxygen levels in the lake’s bottom outlays required for water resources manage-
waters, increasing lake eutrophication and point- ment programmes and activities.
ing to the potential effects of global warming on
the lake. Source: ILEC 2005; World Bank 2005.
4 Chapter 14O
Lack of legal recognition of small-scale With the market for these services often
providers is another obstacle to expansion. poorly developed or non-existent, ecosys-
To strengthen legitimacy, local water au- tem managers have little economic incen-
thorities in Mauritania and Uganda enter tive to improve their management efforts.
into management contracts with private The payment for environmental services
operators, which then provide water sup- concept attempts to address this problem
plies to small towns. by creating markets for environmental
services, collecting money from water users
Payment for environmental goods and paying those providing the resource,
and services thereby encouraging efficient and sustain-
Payment for environmental services is based able delivery of watershed services.
on the recognition that the environment,
such as wetlands and watersheds, provides a Experience with payment for environmen-
range of life-supporting goods and services, tal services is growing in several countries.
including potable water supply, irrigation In the United States New York City obtains
water, food and fibre, wastewater treatment, its drinking water from watersheds in the
flood control and aesthetic benefits (figure Catskill Mountains north of the city. Water
14.1). Environmental goods and services, quality was traditionally very good, requir-
traditionally thought of as provided for ing little or no treatment. By the end of
‘free’ by nature, lack a functioning market the 1980s, however, agricultural and other
for pricing them. Further, for many envi- development in the Catskills threatened the
ronmental goods and services there is no water quality. New York City planners chose
direct link between the service provider and to work with upstream land owners in the
the consumer – for example, between an Catskill watersheds to address potential
upstream provider (a land owner or resource water quality problems. The resultant plan
manager) and a downstream user (public included payments for both on-farm capital
water supply, agriculture and industry). costs and pollution-reducing agricultural
4 Chapter 14O
Note: Different combinations of services are provided to human populations from the various types of ecosystems represented here. Their ability to
deliver the services depends on complex biological, chemical and physical interactions, which are in turn affected by human activities.
Source: Based on MEA 2005.
measures, which helped reduce the costs of Another example of payment for envi-
conventional water treatment. This ap- ronmental services focuses on rewarding
proach also protected the watersheds and rural people for programmes that reduce
the other environmental goods and services the loss of topsoil from cropland in Kenya
they provided (such as recreation and (box 14.24).
biodiversity conservation). The payments
to water providers come directly from the Some examples48 suggest that, for
revenues collected from water users in payment for environmental services
New York City.47 A similar approach was systems to create an enabling environ-
used in Heredia, Costa Rica, which taxed ment, infrastructure development may
its approximately 50,000 connected water be necessary. This would be expected to
users to pay farmers in the watershed for increase the costs of implementing such
improved conservation measures. systems.49
Over the last 25 years much of the between green water and blue water. scaled up to help improve food and
cropland in Kenya has lost its topsoil. Green water, which is soil moisture gener- water supplies nationwide. Increased
Meanwhile, the population has roughly ated by rainfall that infiltrates the soil, power security has been another by-
doubled, increasing demand for food is a fully consumptive water use, while product.
and power. The International Fund for some blue water (such as rivers and lakes)
Agricultural Development (IFAD)-sup- is used non-consumptively and can be Concurrent with implementation of this
ported green water credits initiative is an reused. large scale, market-based scheme to im-
innovative mechanism for rewarding rural prove land and water management, Kenya
people for sustainable water management The green water credits scheme in- is reforming its entire water sector. To this
practices. The long-term goal is to em- cludes quantifying current water fluxes end, the Tana River basin programme was
power upstream rural communities in the in the watershed and estimating fluxes strategically aligned with recent Kenyan
Tana River basin to better manage their under the scheme, identifying potential water sector reforms, including the 2002
land and water resources to improve food participants (demand assessment) and Water Act and the Kenyan National Water
and water security and livelihoods both developing a payment and reward mech- Resources Management Plan, which assign
upstream and downstream in the water- anism for upstream land managers and an economic value to water resources.
shed. It is also expected to decrease flood downstream clients based on appropriate These efforts reflect past success and
potential, improve blue water resources incentives. The main activities include future intentions by addressing water allo-
delivery downstream and provide diversi- upstream soil and water conservation cation issues along with financial consid-
fied rural income sources. techniques applied by farmers, leading erations, to reward Kenya’s land stewards,
to more water being available down- generating benefits for the rural poor and
Begun in the Tana River basin in 2006, stream. Results to date include lessened the country as a whole.
this programme was also intended to land degradation and improved quantity
demonstrate the feasibility of green water and quality of blue water supply. With Source: Falkenmark 2003; ISRIC 2007;
credits as an environmental service tool. the support of the Kenyan government, www.isric.org/UK/About+ISRIC/Projects/
The project builds on the difference the green water credits concept is being Current+Projects/Green+Water+Credits.htm
4 Chapter 14O
Experiences. United Nations Develop- Latecomer Industrialization. United Na- Reference, Between the United States of
ment Programme–Iraq, Amman. tions Educational, Social, and Cultural America and Canada, Signed at Ottawa,
Beccar, L., R. Boelens, and P. Hoogen- Organization Encyclopedia, Paris. November 22, 1978. International Joint
dam. 2002. Water Rights and Collective Cooley, H., J. Christian-Smith, and P. H. Commission, Washington, DC.
Action in Community Irrigation. In Water Gleick. 2008. More with Less: Agricul- ILEC (International Lake Environment
Rights and Empowerment, eds. R. Boelens tural Water Conservation and Efficiency in Committee Foundation). 2003. World
and P. Hoogendam. The Netherlands: California. Oakland, CA: Pacific Institute. Lake Vision: A Call to Action. Kusatsu,
Gorcum Publishers. www.pacinst.org/reports/more_with_ Shiga, Japan: World Lake Vision Com-
Blue Plan, MAP (Mediterranean Action less _delta. mittee Foundation.
Plan), and UNEP (United Nations Envi- Dávila, G., and H. Olazával. 2006. De la ———. 2005. Managing Lakes and Their
ronment Programme). 1999. Participa- Mediación a la Movilización Social: Aná- Basins for Sustainable Use: A Report for
tory Irrigation Management Activities and lisis de Algunos Conflictor por el Aqua en Lake Basin Managers and Stakeholders.
Water User Organizations Involvement Chimborazo. Quito: Abya-Yala. Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan: International Lake
in Turkey. Sophia Antipolis, France: Blue Döker, E., D. Er, F. Cenap, H. Özlü, and E. Environment Committee Foundation.
Plan. Eminoglu. 2003. Decentralization and ISRIC (International Soil Research and
———. 2002. Plan Bleu, CMDD (2002) Participatory Irrigation Management in Information Centre). 2007. Political,
Études de cas. Forum avancées de Turkey. Water Demand Management Institutional and Financial Framework
la gestion de la demande en eau en Forum: Decentralization and Participa- for Green Water Credits in Kenya. Green
Méditerranée, Fiuggi, Italie, 3-5 Octobre tory Irrigation Management, 2-4 Febru- Water Credits (GWC) Proof-of-Concept
2002. ary 2003, Cairo, Egypt. Report No.6, International Soil Research
Boelens, R. 2008. The Rules of the Game Earle, A., and A. Turton. 2005. No Duck and Information Centre, Wageningen,
and the Game of the Rules: Normaliza- No Dinner: How Sole Sourcing Triggered The Netherlands.
tion and Resistance in Andean Water Lesotho’s Struggle against Corrup- IWA (International Water Association).
Control. Ph.D. diss., Wageningen Uni- tion. Presentation at seminar on Can 2008. Sanitation Challenges and Solu-
versity, The Netherlands. We Meet International Targets without tions. Sanitation 21 Task Force. Interna-
Burchi, S. 2005. The Interface between Fighting Corruption? World Water Week, tional Water Association, London.
Customary and Statutory Water Rights 20-26 August, 2005, Stockholm. Jairath, J. 2000. Participatory Irrigation
– A Statutory Perspective. Legal Papers Eawag (Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Management in Andhra Pradesh – Con-
Online No.45, Food and Agriculture Or- Science and Technology)-Sandec (De- tradictions of a Supply Side Approach.
ganization of the United Nations, Rome. partment of Water and Sanitation in Paper delivered at workshop on South
Developing Countries)-SuSanA (Sus- Asia Regional Poverty Monitoring and
Butterworth, J. A., A. Sutherland, N.
tainable Sanitation Alliance). 2007. Evaluation, 8-10 June 2000, New Delhi.
Manning, B. Darteh, M. Dziegielews-
Towards More Sustainable Sanitation So-
ka-Geitz, J. Eckart, C. Batchelor, T. Johnson, S. H. 1997. Irrigation Management
lutions. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic
Moriarty, C. Schouten, J. Da Silva, J. Science and Technology, Dübendorf, Transfer in Mexico: A Strategy to Achieve
Verhagen, and P. J. Bury. 2008. Build- Switzerland. http://esa.un.org/iys/docs/ Irrigation District Sustainability. Research
ing More Effective Partnerships for In- Susana_backgrounder.pdf. Report 16. Colombo: International Irriga-
novation in Urban Water Management. tion Management Institute.
Falkenmark, M. 2003. Water Management
SWITCH Learning Alliance, Lough Juma, C., and H. Agwara. 2006. Africa
and Ecosystems: Living with Change.
borough, UK. http://switchurbanwater. in the Global Knowledge Economy:
TEC Background Paper No. 9, Global
lboro.ac.uk/outputs/pdfs/WP6-2_ Strategic Options. International Journal
Water Partnership, Stockholm.
PAP_Effective_partnerships_in_UWM_ of Technology and Globalisation 2 (3/4)
abridged.pdf. Garces-Restrepo, C., D. Vermillion, and
218-31.
G. Muñoz. 2007. Irrigation Management
Caplan, D. 2003. Investment in Water Kingdom, B., R. Liemberger, and P.
Transfer. Worldwide Efforts and Results.
Infrastructure Benefits Orillia. Canada- Marin. 2006. The Challenge of Reduc-
Water Reports No. 32. Rome: Food and
Ontario Infrastructure Program, Infra- ing Non-revenue Water (NRW) in Devel-
Agriculture Organization of the United
structure Canada, Toronto, Ontario. oping Countries. How the Private Sector
Nations.
Cap-Net. 2008. Performance and Capacity Can Help: A Look at Performance-Based
Gyawali, D., J. A. Allan, P. Antunes, A. Du-
of River Basin Management Organiza- Service Contracting. Water Supply and
deen, P. Laureano, C. L. Fernández, P.
tions: Cross-Case Comparison of Four Sanitation Board Discussion Paper Series
Monteiro, H. Nguyen, P. Novácek, and
RBOs. Cap-Net, Pretoria. 8, World Bank, Washington, DC.
C. Pahl-Wostl. 2006. EU-INCO Water
COHRE (Centre on Housing Rights and Research from FP4 to FP6 (1994-2006) Lange, J. 2008. A Guide to Public Participa-
Evictions), AAAS (American Associa- – A Critical Review. Luxembourg: Office tion, According to Article 14 of the EC
tion for the Advancement of Science), for Official Publications of the European Water Framework Directive. RhineNet
SDC (Swiss Agency for Development Communities. Project Report, Freiburg, Germany.
and Cooperation), and UN-HABITAT McIntosh, A. 2003. Asian Water Supplies.
ICID (International Commission on Ir-
(United Nations Human Settlements Reaching the Poor. Manila: Asian Devel-
rigation and Drainage). 2008. China
Programme). 2007. Manual on the opment Bank and London: International
Reduces Irrigation Water Withdrawals by
Right to Water and Sanitation. Geneva: Water Association. www.adb.org/docu-
25 Percent. ICID Newsletter, Interna-
Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions. ments/books/asian_water_supplies/
tional Commission on Irrigation and
www.cohre.org/store/attachments/ asian_water_supplies.pdf.
Drainage, New Delhi.
RWP - Manual_final_full_final.pdf.
IJC (International Joint Commission). MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assess-
Conceição, P., and M. V. Heitor. 2003. ment). 2005. Living Beyond Our Means:
1978. Great Lakes Water Quality Agree-
Techno-Economic Paradigms and Natural Assets and Human Well-Being,
ment, with Annexes and Terms of
4 Chapter 14O
WSP-AF (Water and Sanitation Pro- Combating Waterborne Disease at the United Nations Educational, Scientific
gramme – Africa). 2002. Rural Water Household Level. Water and Sanitation and Cultural Organization, and New
Sector Reform in Ghana: A Major Programme, Cambodia Field Office, York: Berghahn Books.
Change in Policy and Structure. Blue Phnom Penh. www.wsp.org/UserFiles/ WWF. 2008. Kafue Flats, Zambia: Pre-
Gold Series, Field Note 2, Water and file/926200724252_eap_cambodia_ serving Biodiversity through Water
Sanitation Programme, Nairobi. filter.pdf. Management. Innovation for Sustain-
WSP (Water and Sanitation Programme)- WWAP (World Water Assessment Pro- able Development: Case Studies from
UNICEF (United Nations Children’s gramme). 2006. The United Nations Africa. World Wildlife Fund, Gland,
Fund). 2007. Use of Ceramic Water World Water Development Report 2. Switzerland.
Filters in Cambodia. Field Note, Water: A Shared Responsibility. Paris:
Key messages
Dealing with risk and uncertainty has long been a routine chal-
lenge for water resources managers and policy-makers across
sectors and the world. However, issues like climate change and
demographic dynamics have made the risks greater and the task
more complex. Risk management is now much more important
– indeed essential – to analysis and decision-making.
Drivers and policies outside the water sector have more impact
on water management than do many policies championed and
implemented by water-related ministries. Identifying trade-offs
and synergies between water and other policy sectors can en-
hance policy impacts in all sectors and avoid some adverse ef-
fects on water.
Chapter 14 shows that many actions de- Leaders in governments, civil society
fined within the water sector also require and the private sector all make decisions
decisions by leaders and policy-makers every day that affect water. It is important
outside the sector. Furthermore, external to identify how decisions motivated by
drivers and policies related to sectors that economic or social objectives can also lead
affect overall economic diversification – to improvements in water sector manage-
such as agriculture, trade, energy, health, ment and in water sector and environmen-
housing, finance and social protection – tal services. This chapter illustrates such
have more impact on water management win-win situations.
than do many policies championed and
implemented by water-related ministries.1 There are essentially two ways such win-
The preceding parts of this Report dem- win scenarios can unfold. First, policy
onstrate the complex links between those decisions or reforms made outside the water
external drivers and water. sector can create space for change within
4 Chapter 15O
curbing corruption the water sector (discussed in the first part Improving governance: promoting
of this chapter). In many cases the success transparency and accountability
in the water
of reforms in the water sector has depended Governance provides the context for
sector could save on broader enabling conditions – such as making water management decisions,
an estimated transparency and accountability in public establishing partnerships, mobilizing and
institutions, sound trade conditions and ac- distributing resources and giving accounts.
20%-70% of cess to information. Responses to some ex- Decisions about governance imply com-
invested resources ternal drivers may therefore indirectly lead plex political processes and are heavily
to improvements in water management. influenced by history, culture and values.
The second way is more direct and in- The capacity to formulate and implement
volves avoiding the negative impacts of appropriate policies is affected by the inclu-
non-water sectoral interventions by taking siveness of decision-making, the strength of
water into account in decision-making institutions and attitudes towards corrup-
(discussed in the second part of this chap- tion. Curbing corruption has particular
ter) or cultivating deliberate cooperation relevance as corruption diverts resources,
between water and non-water actors (dis- lowers effective investment and under-
cussed in the third part of this chapter). mines public confidence and government
decentralization efforts (see chapter 14).
The examples in this chapter provide
useful insights into how programme and Building integrity and accountability in
policy decisions can achieve multiple public decision-making systems also in-
benefits when implemented so as to take volves promoting the role of civil society,
impacts on water into account. non-governmental organizations and the
private sector. This could be particularly
Promoting win-win scenarios by relevant in the water services sector, where
creating space for change curbing corruption could save an esti-
mated 20%-70% of invested resources.2
There are many paths to improving water Box 15.1 shows how government and
resources management. Direct water inter- donor efforts to combat corruption have
ventions need to be supported by a broader also allowed for greater citizen participa-
enabling framework. Other chapters point tion in community water development, an
to the need to increase investment in the essential part of water governance.
water sector; to enhance water-related in-
formation, science and monitoring systems Citizen participation in decision-making
and to create durable financial mechanisms at all levels is also central to promoting
to enable better performance in the water good governance – creating a climate of
sector. This section provides examples of accountability and transparency. Organ-
decisions outside the ‘water box’ and their ized interest groups, community-based
contribution to improving water services. associations and other groups with the
capacity and legitimacy to express views
Box 15.1 Combating corruption are crucial. Promoting a culture of consul-
tation within the water sector and increas-
ing consultative and participatory capacity
Donors are increasingly request- attention to incentives to corruption in
in general, will deliver benefits for collabo-
ing anticorruption measures in their public administration.
development assistance program-
rative water management.
ming, to promote aid effectiveness. Anticorruption strategies can be
Transparency and accountability in incorporated at all levels of project de- Strengthening decision-making
government, along with clear rules velopment and implementation, from through decentralization
and procedures, will go far in ensuring procurement to monitoring and evalu- Decentralization involves complex process-
the stability needed to promote social ation. For example, the Kecamatan es to enable decision-making and promote
and economic development. Efforts to Development Program in Indonesia, a the sharing of resources and responsibili-
promote integrity, transparency and project implemented by the Indonesian ties among various levels of government.
accountability in one sector can pave Ministry of Home Affairs (Community Occasionally, it includes the devolution of
the way for similar reforms in other Development Office) and supported in
some power and responsibilities to civil so-
sectors as they benefit from the suc- part by the World Bank, encouraged
cesses and lessons learned. village communities to participate in a
ciety. In the water sector decentralization of
water infrastructure project. Competi- management places decision-making closer
Key elements of a successful anti tion among villages was used to single to the level at which services are provided.
corruption strategy include citizen out bad construction proposals and to
participation and access to infor- strengthen social control in measuring Decentralization is typically part of a
mation, independent checks and quality throughout the project cycle. broader package of governance reform. The
balances and oversight mechanisms, autonomy and resources accorded to local
public sector codes of conduct and Source: Martinez 2007; Olken 2005. governments will vary. In some countries
where decentralization is ongoing (for
Box 15.2 Decentralization in Uganda – making room for better environmental governance at the
local level
Devolving decision-making powers over responsible for disease control, envi- environmental practices. In many cases
natural resources to publicly accountable ronmental sanitation, entomological responsibility has been transferred but re-
local authorities is frequently advocated services and vermin control, and forests sources have not, impeding local council
to achieve social development goals and and wetlands. Despite this transfer of efforts to promote better environmental
enhance environmental management. authority, however, executive powers on management.
Uganda’s experience, however, suggests environmental matters have not been
that to pave the way for better water gov- effectively devolved. Instead, administra- Despite these constraints, there have
ernance and services, decentralization has tive deconcentration within line ministries been positive achievements. In many
to be accompanied by adequate legisla- in charge of particular resources has been areas supplemental resources have been
tive and regulatory powers, executive and attempted. mobilized from external aid sources to
enforcement authority for local authorities support local council efforts. Local gov-
and adequate resources. Local governments are required to help ernments have made significant progress
enforce environment-related rules and in fulfilling their legal responsibility to
Under the Uganda Local Government laws. Local councils below the subcounty protect wetlands and river banks by
Act of 1997 district and city councils can level have the power to decide on penal- negotiating land and water use with the
enact by-laws, provided the by-laws do ties when rules are broken, but the lack of local communities.
not conflict with the national constitu- clarity regarding the powers of sanction
tion or other laws. District councils are and arbitration has undermined good Source: Bazaara 2003.
4 Chapter 15O
A project in Kenya – under the umbrella of the crops such as soya. In addition to limit-
International Development Research Centre ing the mosquitoes’ habitat, planting soya
Program Initiative on Ecosystem Approaches to could boost income, improve nutrition and
Human Health and bringing together experts save water.
from the International Centre for Insect Physiolo-
gy and Ecology and the International Water Man- • Introduce naturally occurring bacteria into
agement Institute as well as the local community stagnant water to kill mosquito larvae dur-
– is examining links between agriculture and ing the peak breeding season.
malaria using an ecosystem approach. The goal
is to reduce the incidence of malaria through a The heart of the ecosystem approach is to
range of agricultural practices: actively include community members in the
research process, therefore helping research-
• Reduce mosquito-breeding habitats by lim- ers understand people’s perceptions about the
iting the water used for rice cultivation. health and development problems in the area.
This approach also seeks interventions and solu-
• Reduce the length of time that paddies tions that are transdisciplinary.
are wet, by changing flooding schedules
or alternating rice cultivation with dryland Source: Poverty-Environment Partnership 2008.
4 Chapter 15O
As the example of scarcity is severe, the 2004 Poverty Reduc- • Introducing reforms gradually and
tion Strategy Paper recognizes that ‘the adapting them to local conditions.
Ethiopia shows,
absence of a natural resources base, weak
all decisions about human capital, high costs of labour and • Applying financial incentive mecha-
water use and production factors (energy, telecommuni- nisms to promote use of water-efficient
cations and water), inadequate financial equipment and technologies (equip-
management take intermediation, and administrative con- ment purchases subsidized at 60%).
place in a context straints of all kinds are the key obstacles to
economic growth and to the development • Supporting farmers’ incomes, to allow
of macro- and of private initiative’.10 them to plan for agricultural invest-
microeconomic ment and labour.
Tunisia, a country with very limited water
policies and resources, has succeeded in stabilizing • Introducing a transparent and flex-
decisions its demands and has plans for more ac- ible pricing system, aligned with the
tive demand management (see box 14.3 national goals of food security and
in chapter 14). Tunisia implemented a equity, leading to gradual recovery
national water-saving strategy at an early of costs. The drinking water pricing
stage for both urban and agricultural system supplies a basic-need level of
needs, in line with its long tradition as services at low cost.11
an ‘oasis’ culture with experience manag-
ing common but scarce water resources. As the example of Ethiopia shows, all
Water demand for irrigation has been decisions about water use and manage-
stable for more than six years, despite ment take place in a context of macro-
agricultural development, seasonal peaks and microeconomic policies and decisions
in demand and unfavourable climate con- (box 15.6). To be attractive to public and
ditions (drought). The water demands of private actors, sustainable water manage-
tourism (a source of foreign currency) and ment must also make economic sense.
cities (a source of social stability) have Even in the growing number of compa-
been met. nies that promote social responsibility,
economic viability remains the key driver
Several principles underlie the Tunisian of business decisions. But as the examples
strategy: of the Coca-Cola Company (box 15.7)
and Mondi (box 15.8) show, reducing the
• Abandoning isolated technical adverse effects of production on water is
measures in favour of an integrated not only a matter of social responsibil-
approach. ity – it can also make good business sense.
Box 15.9 illustrates this point with several
• Empowering users through a partici- examples.
patory approach (960 water user as-
sociations were created covering 60% The Coca-Cola example shows that com-
of the irrigated public area). panies have much to lose in public image
and consumer trust when they compete
Box 15.6 Measuring the water limits to growth in with traditional uses of water. In this case
Ethiopia the damage to the company’s image was
potentially higher than the costs of taking
preventive action. In the Mondi example
Until recently, most policy and macro variability reduced projected rates
economic decisions in Ethiopia have of economic growth 38% a year and
another large company coupled its plans
been based on growth models that increased projected poverty rates 25% for expansion and profitability with meas-
assume that rainfall is consistently over a 12-year period. It also found ures designed to have a positive effect on
distributed at historical average levels. that investments in water infrastruc- the environment.
These models do not take into account ture, such as irrigation systems, were
shocks to the economy caused by needed to reduce vulnerability to Further demonstration of rising private
extreme water events, such as floods rainfall variability and that transport sector awareness of the centrality of
and droughts. infrastructure helped communities sustainable water management is the
adjust to localized crop failures by adoption of the CEO Water Mandate by
A World Bank study on Ethiopia esti- enabling farms to sell their surplus
the members of the UN Global Compact
mated the magnitude of the impacts in food-deficit areas. The analysis,
of high water variability on growth conducted with the Ethiopian govern-
as a voluntary platform for addressing
and poverty to assist the govern- ment, helped make water resources sustainability in business operations and
ment in better managing water and management a central focus of the supply chains.12 Launched 5-6 March
other parts of the economy (trade, government’s national poverty reduc- 2008 by the UN Secretary-General and
transport) and to reduce the impacts tion strategy. committed business leaders to help
of water shocks. The study found companies develop a comprehensive ap-
that considering the effects of water Source: Sadoff 2006. proach to water management, the man-
date covers six areas: direct operations,
In 2000 the Coca-Cola Company began plant was operating in an ‘overexploited’ harvesting system for groundwater re-
bottling operations in Kala Dera, a large groundwater area and that the plant’s charge and drafted guidelines for engag-
village outside Jaipur, Rajasthan, India, operations were contributing to a worsen- ing with the community. To help farmers
where irrigated agriculture is the primary ing water situation and were a source of use water more efficiently, Coca-Cola, in
source of livelihood. Within a year the stress to the community. The assessment partnership with local farmers and the
community noticed a rapid decline in made four recommendations: the plant government, has started drip irrigation
groundwater levels, for which the plant could transport water from the near- projects with 15 farmers. Some 15 more
was blamed. The community demanded est unstressed aquifer, store water from projects are planned in 2008-09.
closure of the plant, and the cause re- low-stress seasons, relocate the plant to
ceived some international support, mainly a water-surplus area or shut down this Assessments across various plant sites
from university students in Canada, the facility. indicated that the state governments
United Kingdom and the United States, in India have not been able to value
some of Coca-Cola’s largest markets. For Coca-Cola the report noted that their water resources appropriately. The
the company was a very small user of review report seems to move towards a
In late 2004 the company agreed to water, tapping less than 1% of the area’s view that holds corporations responsible
an independent enquiry into its water available water. Nonetheless, the report for their environmental impact beyond
management practices by the Energy and recommended more consideration of the strictures of existing regulations.
Resources Institute (TERI), a non-profit in- community water needs in plant location The report recommends that Coca Cola
ternational research organization based in and operations, arguing that ‘assess- ‘define a strategy wherein it is able to
New Delhi. Released in January 2008, the ment of water availability in the vicinity offset this anomaly through appropriate
report was welcomed by both sides, each of a bottling operation should be from a and commensurate interventions that . . .
finding some support for its positions. perspective . . . wider than business con- result in a stream of benefit flows to the
tinuity’. Coca-Cola India pledged to reach community.’
For the activists opposed to the bot- a net-zero balance in groundwater use
tling plant the report confirmed that the by the end of 2009, installed a rainwater Source: TERI 2008.
Mondi South Africa, a wholly owned sub- The project began in 2001 with an en- • A 50% reduction in carbon dioxide
sidiary of Anglo American plc, produces gineering study, followed by a detailed (297,121 tonnes).
pulp, paper, board, corrugated containers environmental impact assessment in
and mining support systems. Activities 2002. Through improvements in energy • A 60% reduction in total sulphur.
range from forestry operations to highly supply infrastructure and targeted
technical manufacturing and converting equipment and technology upgrades, • Total energy and water cost-savings
processes. To increase its competitive- the company achieved its expansion of 38,678,843 rand (approximately
ness in a demanding international pulp objectives, while realizing the following $4.9 million).
market, Mondi implemented a 2.3 billion benefits:
rand (approximately $24 million) expan- • A reduction in water use of some
sion project, raising the mill’s production • A 50% reduction in sulphur dioxide 13,000 cubic metres per day.
capacity 25% and accommodating a (2,177 tonnes).
40% increase in timber supply from more • A more than 25% reduction in
than 2,800 small growers who form part • A 35% reduction in nitrous oxide wastewater.
of Mondi’s Khulanathi timber growers (509 tonnes).
scheme. Source: WBCSD 2006.
4 Chapter 15O
• In Turkey a tyre-making factory in the by 286,000 cubic metres a year (or reduced water consumption by 85%,
Izmit region reduced its water con- 27%) and drinking water by 280,000 process steam by 51% and electrical
sumption by nearly three-quarters, cubic metres a year. These simple, usage by 43% since 1980. The com-
from 900,000 litres a day to 250,000 low-cost measures (investment of pany was among the first to replace
litres, thus also reducing its dis- €31,000) involved employees, saved zinc – a pollutant particularly harmful
charges into the community sewers. water and energy (equivalent to to marine and aquatic life – with alu-
A detailed analysis made it possible €328,000 a year) and reduced ef- minium in its production process.
to replace a cooling system with a fluents, with an investment amortiza-
closed-circuit system for an invest- tion of less than one month. • In Australia, the driest inhabited
ment cost of $5,000 and a return continent in the world, Sydney Water
time of two years. • In Tunisia a manufacturer of car bat- (2006 Stockholm Water Award
teries identified 19 ways of prevent- recipient) supplies water to 4.2 mil-
• In Egypt one of the largest tinned- ing contamination and pollution lion people. As part of its operating
food manufacturers (Montazah, near (acids, lead scoria and wastewater) licence, Sydney Water is required to
Alexandria) underwent an eco-audit and saving lead and energy. The costs reduce per capita consumption by
and introduced measures to reduce of the new measures were $522,500, 35% before 2011. Since the inception
energy consumption: insulating steam while savings amounted to $1.5 mil- of its water conservation programme
pipes, replacing leaky parts, fitting lion a year. in 2001, Sydney Water has saved
a pressure regulator to the steriliz- more than 20 million litres a day and
ers and improving the recuperation • In Mexico the General Motors de more than 310 organizations have
system and boiler efficiency. Water Mexico Ramos Arizpe Complex (2001 joined the initiative.
consumption was reduced by imple- Stockholm Water Award recipient)
menting water-consumption hydrom- employed physical, chemical and • In the United States, Orange County,
eter monitors, installing sprinklers (so biological wastewater treatment California, (2008 Stockholm Water
that water flows only when needed) processes to recover and reuse 70% Award recipient) focused on reuse in
and improving the water collection of its industrial wastewater. It also its groundwater replenishment system,
and recycling system. The savings in promoted use of brackish well water which diverts and purifies highly treat-
water, steam and energy (nearly 40% by separating salts and increasing the ed sewer water that was previously
savings in fuel consumption) made it useable amount withdrawn from 67% discharged into the ocean and returns
possible to reduce discharges and am- to 94%. It helped reduce pressure on the cleaned water to the groundwater
ortize investments over 1-44 months. the only source of water for a popula- basin. The system will provide enough
tion of 40,000, a small confined and additional water to meet the needs
• One of Croatia’s biggest dairy com- brackish aquifer. of 500,000 more people without
panies, LURA in Zagreb-Lurat, un- diminishing groundwater resources for
dertook measures such as employee • In India the Staple Fibre Division of current users (2.3 million).
training, reducing the diameter of Grasim Industries Ltd (2004 Stock-
cleaning pipes and changing the hot- holm Water Award recipient), a Source: Adapted from Benoit and Comeau 2005
water circuit that reduced effluents producer of viscose staple fibre, has and www.siwi.org/sa/node.asp?node=77.
In 1998 the minister of the environment water management and aquatic The policy adopts most of the BAPE
called on the Bureau d’audiences pub- ecosystems. recommendations. It reaffirms that water
liques sur l’environnement (Office for Pub- is part of the collective heritage of the
lic Hearings on the Environment, BAPE) to • Reforming legislation and institutions province and incorporates measures
hold a public consultation on water man- needed to implement an integrated intended to:
agement in Québec. The consultations water and aquatic ecosystem policy.
– conducted through written comments, • Implement integrated river basin
public hearings and discussions – helped The report addresses 16 themes, among management.
develop recommendations on better water them agricultural pollution abatement,
management. hydroelectricity, integrated management • Implement this form of management
of water and aquatic ecosystems at the in the St. Lawrence River, by granting
From 15 March 1999 to 1 May 2000 the watershed level, water exports and the it a special status.
commission held 142 public meetings in special case of the St. Lawrence River.
the 17 administrative regions of Québec • Protect water quality and aquatic
and heard 379 briefs. The BAPE report, The commission made 13 main recom- ecosystems.
Water: A Resource to Be Protected, Shared mendations for the short, medium and
and Enhanced, was submitted to the min- long terms. It also presented findings and • Continue water clean-up efforts and
ister of the environment on 1 May 2000. observations for the government’s reflec- improve water services management.
The report emphasized three areas: tion. In 2002 the government of Québec
released its water policy, Water: Our Life, • Promote water-related recreation and
• Improving governance through water Our Future. The policy seeks to protect ecotourism activities.
management at the river basin level. water resources as a unique heritage, man-
age water in a sustainable development Source: Cosgrove 2009; BAPE 2000; Québec
• Preparing regional portraits cover- perspective and better protect public Ministry of the Environment 2002.
ing the public’s expectations for health and the health of ecosystems.
The Upper San Pedro Partnership in 100 projects for implementation, includ- water augmentation strategies. Unlike a
Arizona in the United States represents a ing repair of leaky infrastructure, car-wash simple annual ‘bottom line’ water-budget
diverse consortium of interests, including water recycling, voluntary retirement of approach, the model considers spatial and
municipal, state and federal government agricultural pumping through conser- temporal groundwater management con-
institutions. From its initial goal of devel- vation easements, recharge of treated cerns, essential to sustain the ecological
oping a definitive regional groundwater effluent and reintroduction of beavers. In values of the San Pedro Riparian National
management plan in 1998, it evolved into the 2004 Water Management and Con- Conservation Area.
a more complex, yet flexible, ongoing servation Plan the partnership prioritized
adaptive management planning process additional projects – developing model In San Pedro complex and controversial
that endures a decade later. codes and ordinances, establishing water- strategies such as water importation,
conservation surcharges for excessive use, the transfer of development rights and
An adaptive management approach allows exploring a transfer of development rights surcharges for excessive water use all had
actions with low risk or uncertainty to be programme and other measures. Projects the potential to divide the community. To
taken early on. Member agencies realized with greater uncertainty, higher political engage the community early on in plan-
that implementing certain water man- risks or significant costs were targeted for ning processes, the partnership conducted
agement strategies required substantial additional feasibility studies or evaluation a series of community meetings to provide
information through monitoring, research using a decision-support system model. citizens with an opportunity to thought-
and modelling efforts as well as political The partnership uses the model to evalu- fully consider issues and provide meaning-
assessments, while other projects repre- ate combinations of management options ful input.
sented relatively low-risk strategies and (scenarios) such as the possible reloca-
could be implemented sooner. By 2003 tion of municipal wells, construction of Source: Holly Richter, Udall Center for Studies in
the partnership had identified more than additional recharge facilities and various Public Policy.
and factoring them into decision-making. communities reduce risks, develop alterna-
Doing so may depend on the availability of tives and bring trade-offs to the forefront in
information, collaborative decision-making decision-making (box 15.12).
and perceptions of available alternatives.
In poor communities where survival is the Investment in water infrastructure and
main concern, people may have few choices sanitation can reduce poverty by stimu-
about how they use land and water, or the lating productive activity (see chapter 6).
perceived risks of alternatives could out- In rural areas there is no definitive line
weigh the potential benefits. This is why between ‘household’ water use and water
most successful integrated rural develop- use for productive purposes – watering
ment initiatives are designed to help such plots for food and cash crop production,
4 Chapter 15O
Box 15.12 The Integrated Watershed Development having adequate water for non-household,
Programme in Jhabua District, Madhya income-earning activities (box 15.13). But
Pradesh, India such initiatives are often not in line with
water efficiency efforts. Surface irriga-
By the 1960s severe deforestation had • Pasture improvement through
tion is the most water-demanding form of
seriously harmed the ecosystems and planting pasture grasses. irrigation, but the excess water can have
livelihoods of the people of Madhya other benefits: it enables aquaculture (as in
Pradesh, India, resulting in widespread • Water harvesting. rice fields in China) and washes off the salt
soil erosion, overgrazing and inappro- accumulating in topsoil (avoiding salini-
priate land use, barren landscapes and • Distribution of subsidized fuel and zation of cultivated lands). Efforts to save
seasonal migration of men in search energy-saving devices. water by reducing water input would thus
of employment. Under a project mean the loss of an income source (fish
implemented by the National Centre • Integration of land use innovations production) and potentially of cultivated
for Human Settlements and Environ- with measures to improve com-
lands, if salt accumulation becomes severe.
ment and local communities with munity livelihoods.
funds from the government of India,
multiple interventions attempted to • Promotion of alternative income- Integrated multiple-use systems are found
restore natural resources and improve generating activities to reduce pov- worldwide – usually documented at the
the socioeconomic conditions of erty and reduce seasonal migration. farm and field levels – but conflicting
district residents. The project took an management objectives are just as com-
integrated management approach, In addition to immediate land pro- mon and create hurdles for the promo-
based on community needs. Activities ductivity benefits, there were many tion of these systems. Multiple uses of
included: positive ecosystem-wide benefits, in- water imply multiple interest groups
cluding a marked increase in ground- whose water management objectives may
• Protected afforestation on com- water recharge and water supply from
not always be compatible. Despite much
munity land. harvesting. Livelihoods improved as
well. The model was subsequently
evidence of integrated water use at the
• Distribution of seedlings to encour- adopted by neighbouring states. farm level (such as rice-fish systems and
age planting on private land. irrigation-aquaculture systems), sectoral
Source: National Rural Development Insti- management at higher levels impedes true
• Soil and water conservation. tute n.d.; www.mprlp.in; www.nchse.org/ integration of water and irrigation with
projects.htm. other sectors, including fisheries, forestry
and sanitation. Furthermore, multiple
uses and demands for water can generate
livestock, trade and other income-gener- opportunity costs and externalities, even
ating activities. The amount of water pro- when some uses are non-consumptive (fish
vided to poor households with access to farming in irrigation canals, for exam-
land needs to be sufficient for these other ple). These problems are intensified by
income-generating purposes. the seasonality of supply and the limited
availability of irrigation water in semi-arid
Multiple-use initiatives for water recog- tropical countries as well as the common
nize the benefits to poor households of pool, open access nature of the resource.15
Since 2003 Winrock International Develop- and prices) and identifying ways to add schemes, and many provide revolving
ment Enterprises and local partners have value through products and services. microcredit for income-generating activi-
worked with more than 70 communities in ties. Some 85% of households surveyed
14 districts in Nepal to develop multiple- An evaluation of the Nepal pilot pro- were highly satisfied with multiple-use
use water systems serving some 1,600 gramme found that, in addition to water services, reporting greater quantities
households (more than 9,300 people). The receiving water for drinking and domestic of water available within close proximity
approach combines multiple-use water uses, households with multiple-use water (less than 60 metres away, on average) for
services with supporting business services services had increased their average gross household use, irrigation and livestock.
that allow the rural poor to realize health incomes by $250 a year through the
benefits as well as sustainable increases production and sale of horticultural prod- Other important benefits included time
in income. Proven low-cost technologies ucts, made possible by reliable access to saved from no longer hauling water,
(nearby low-flow sources that are often by- productive water. For 70% of the systems, reduced incidence of diarrhoeal diseases,
passed by conventional programmes) are gross margins covered costs within one higher consumption of nutrient-rich veg-
used to provide cost-effective water serv- year. All schemes are managed by water etables and increased school attendance
ices to small communities (15-50 house- user associations, which are responsible by girls (more than 65% of households).
holds). Related business services focus on for securing water rights, operating and More than 60% of households had in-
income-generating opportunities from maintaining the systems and managing stalled sanitary latrines, a combined effect
productive water use activities, primarily finances. Households contribute to opera- of more water for sanitation, increased
high-value horticulture. Typically, such tion, maintenance and capital replace- income and sanitation marketing.
business services involve assessing rural en- ment of the system. About 75% of water
terprises (inputs, costs, demand, markets user associations have savings and credit Source: Development Vision – Nepal 2007.
In the Dominican Republic, where many Box 15.14 The drive for competitive advantage leads to
people in rural areas have no access to water benefits
electricity, the non-governmental organi-
zation Association for Solar Energy Devel-
Eco-efficiency, a microeconomic energy use flat no matter how much
opment helped more than 5,000 house- objective, focuses on reducing the production increased, which has
holds obtain home solar power systems, amount of water, energy, chemicals reportedly saved more than $2 billion
and numerous other public facilities have and raw materials used per unit of over the past decade. Advanced Micro
been powered by solar energy. The associa- output. Eco-efficiency is motivated Devices tracks kilowatt hours per
tion estimates that 3-6 tonnes of carbon not only by environmental concerns manufacturing index and reports a
dioxide emissions are avoided for each 50 but also by prospects of financial 60% reduction from 1999 to 2005.
gigawatt panel that replaces kerosene light- savings through reduced energy
ing.17 In addition to enabling communities and water bills, less money spent on Although motivated by the need to
to engage in alternative income-generating raw materials and fewer regulatory innovate and increase profitability,
hurdles. competitiveness and market shares,
activities, the programme helped develop
these measures have all had the added
solar-powered potable water systems. Swiss-based ST Microelectronics cut benefit of decreasing water use and
Using solar energy to draw groundwater electricity use 28% and water use 45% limiting pollution.
reduces the costs of access to water while in 2003 and reported saving $133
providing access to higher-quality water, million. DuPont committed to keeping Source: Worldwatch Institute 2008.
since surface waters are often polluted.
4 Chapter 15O
Water is emerging areas, impact assessments and certification among water users. Climate change, with
programmes. Ecotourism can help promote its associated pressures on water resources,
as a strategic
conservation, poverty reduction and sus- is expected to worsen human security
resource that tainable water management when adequate everywhere – by undermining develop-
underpins many enforcement and benefit-sharing mecha- ment efforts and by exposing more people
nisms are in place (box 15.15). to disasters resulting from extreme weather
dimensions events and disrupted ecosystems.
of security Promoting multiple objectives
through regional economic Governments are increasingly concerned
development about security, including energy security,
Regionally based development efforts at development and socioeconomic security
the subnational level usually involve a and physical security. Political stability, a
package of interventions in multiple and tenuous achievement in many countries,
mutually reinforcing sectors. Because also depends on perceptions of economic
water resources are a cornerstone of eco- vulnerability (as evidenced in early 2008
nomic development in many areas, region- riots over rising food costs in such coun-
al economic development programmes tries as Bangladesh, Haiti, Somalia and
are either organized around water inter- Yemen) and physical safety. The water-sta-
ventions (as in the Southeast Anatolia bility link is also stronger where water re-
example in box 15.16) or indirectly related sources are scarce and competition among
to the water sector. As the example of the users is likely to occur on a large scale.19
Tennessee Valley Authority in the United
States shows, achieving multiple eco- Promoting human security. Water is emerg-
nomic, social and environmental objec- ing as a strategic resource that underpins
tives simultaneously is not only possible, many dimensions of security. And many
but also potentially easier than pursuing a interventions at the local, regional and
single objective (box 15.17). global levels that are designed to address
security concerns are linked to water re-
Promoting win-win scenarios sources management (box 15.18).
through security and crisis
prevention An example is the development of renew-
There are multiple links between water able energy to promote energy security.
and human security and, to some extent, This can generate significant benefits for
national security – from individual food water – freeing it for other uses and for
security, health, hygiene and sanitation, the protection of ecosystem integrity.
and economic security to regional conflicts Disaster preparedness and climate early
Having experienced a surge in tourism, lack of enforcement of land development and restaurants that had been built too
Turkey is predicted to join Greece and regulations. close to the shore in violation of the law.
Croatia as a leading tourist destination in WWF and the ministry prepared further
the Mediterranean by 2020. The South- What precipitated a change was that Çıralı guidelines and recommendations for wise
western Anatolian coast of Turkey, identi- beach was a major nesting site for the use of land resources, including a land use
fied by WWF as one of the most ecologi- endangered loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta plan that defined the positioning of build-
cally important in the Mediterranean, is caretta). WWF Turkey (formerly known as ing infrastructure in the area and a land
also the most affected by mass tourism the Turkish Society for the Conservation management plan. Ecotourism activities
development. To avoid the destruction of Nature) entered the scene initially to were started to generate support for con-
of its fragile coastline, the government of help protect the turtle. In 1997 the project servation and create economic opportuni-
Turkey has adopted an integrated coastal was broadened from turtle protection to ties for the local community throughout
management approach aimed at preserv- stimulating community awareness of its the year, instead of just seasonally. As
ing not only the natural heritage but also responsibility for the natural environment part of the venture locals were trained as
social and cultural integrity. and to developing a model of sustainable nature guides, and trekking paths were
tourism in Çıralı. WWF examined land identified – activities that attracted young
Çıralı was chosen for a pilot project to resources management in the area and the people in the community. A move was also
implement this approach. Çıralı had potential to create diverse, sustainable and promoted from input-intensive agriculture,
shifted from an agricultural economy environment-friendly economic opportu- which polluted soil and water supplies, to
towards tourism in the late 1980s. The nities and to protect biodiversity. organic agriculture. A cooperative was set
resulting construction of tourism facilities up by the farmers to produce and market
led to multiple problems. Pesticides from With a new awareness of the need to organic products and to create a brand for
agricultural activities had already polluted become guardians of their natural herit- produce of Çıralı origin.
soil and water sources, which were further age, the local community pressured for
threatened by the growth of tourist res- enforcement of the existing Coastal Law. Source: peopleandplanet.net 2002; www.
taurants around the village’s main spring. The responsible ministry, with buy-in panda.org/news_facts/newsroom/news/index.
Illegal construction spread due to the from local residents, moved the kiosks cfm?uNewsID=13382&uLangID=1.
Turkey’s Southeastern Anatolia Project The project area is home to 6.5 million included ministers for planning, energy and
(GAP) is a multisectoral, socioeconomic people, or 10% of the country’s popula- natural resources, and public works. Minis-
development project designed to raise tion. The project will generate 27,470 ters for agriculture and environment were
incomes in this less-developed region to gigawatt hours of electricity, boosting na- added later. It has a coordinating body
narrow the regional income disparities tional hydroelectrical output by 70%, and of line ministries operating in the project
by improving the economic structure, add 1.7 million hectares to the 4.5 million area, local governments, local chambers
increasing productivity and employment hectares of irrigated land. of industry and trade, local chambers of
opportunities in rural areas, enhancing agriculture and regional universities.
the assimilative capacity of larger cities Governance of the project changed with
in the region and contributing to the the evolution of its philosophy. Manage- The overall cost of the GAP is projected at
national objectives of sustained economic ment of the project began under the $32 billion, of which $17 billion has been
growth, export promotion and social national water authority in the 1970s and invested. Per capita farm incomes have tri-
stability. shifted to the national planning organiza- pled since irrigation was expanded. Rural
tion in the 1980s. In 1989 the government electrification and accessibility reached
Begun as a water infrastructure develop- established a mandated entity, the GAP 90%, literacy rates rose, infant mortality
ment project, GAP evolved into a pro- Regional Development Administration, rates fell, and a more equitable land ten-
gramme that supports sustainable social to coordinate special programmes and ure system is in place. Urban settlements
and economic development through addi- projects in social services (education, served with water supply quadrupled. The
tional investments in urban and rural infra- health), gender equity and empowerment, region’s economy, once the least devel-
structure, agriculture, transport, industry, urban management, participatory irrigation oped in the country, is now at the national
education, health, housing, tourism, management, agricultural productivity, average.
environmental protection, gender equality resettlement, environmental conservation
and poverty reduction. The programme’s and protection, and institutional and com- Source: Aysegül Kibaroglu, Department of
total costs are split between investments munity capacity-building. The GAP Higher International Relations, Middle East Techni-
in water-related projects (48%) and those Council, the highest decision-making body, cal University, Ankara, Turkey; Government of
in other sectors (52%). is chaired by the prime minister and initially Turkey 1989.
Box 15.17 The Tennessee Valley Authority: economic and social transformation in
a river basin and beyond
During the Great Depression of the 1930s watershed basis, dealing concurrently water and sanitation provided to most
the Tennessee River Valley, which stretches with hydropower production, navigation homes.
through seven southern states in the on the Tennessee River, flood control,
United States and drains a basin of 105,930 health problems such as malaria pre- Today, the TVA provides electric power, rec-
square kilometres, was a land of despair. vention and resource challenges that reation, improved water quality and a reli-
More than 90% of valley residents had no included reforestation, erosion control able supply of water to cool power plants
electricity, and nearly 40% had no toilets and restoration of fisheries. It would have and meet municipal and industrial needs.
or outhouses. Most of the power required been labelled integrated water resources It generates more electricity than any other
for agriculture came from horses, and most management, had the concept been public utility, operates a system of 49 dams
of the residents were subsistence farmers identified in 1933. and reservoirs on the Tennessee River
working degraded soil or in areas experi- and its tributaries and manages 118,572
encing serious and repeated flooding. By 1945 TVA had completed more hectares of public land. It operates the river
than a dozen large dams and built a system as an integrated whole to provide
President Franklin Roosevelt launched many 1,050-kilometre navigation channel. It also year-round navigation. Barges on the Ten-
programmes designed to bring the econo- had become the largest supplier of electrici- nessee River carry some 50 million tonnes
my out of depression and to improve the lot ty in the United States and a major driver for of goods annually. Structural and non-
of people mired in poverty. With a strong rural electrification. Evaluations noted that structural approaches prevent an estimated
interest in basin planning and in developing the TVA was substituting order and design $230 million in flood damages annually. In
system-level solutions, he asked Congress for haphazard, unplanned and unintegrated one decade, through the development of
to create ‘a corporation clothed with the development in its programme for flood water resources, the Tennessee Valley lifted
power of government but possessed of and navigation control, land reclamation itself out of poverty; in seven decades it has
the flexibility and initiative of a private and cheap electricity for light and power. become a powerful economic and social
enterprise’. In 1933 Congress authorized the force in the United States.
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). By the 1960s residents of the Tennessee
Valley were sharing in unprecedented Source: Gerald Galloway, Department of Civil and
Given a broad charter, the TVA focused on economic growth and a higher stand- Environmental Engineering, University of Mary-
carrying out its mission on an integrated, ard of living, with electricity, clean land; www.tva.gov/heritage/hert_history.htm.
4 Chapter 15O
The Himalaya Mountain range is among the southern belt of Nepal, the Mawa The project was designed and implement-
the richest freshwater locations on Earth; River experiences unpredictable flooding ed drawing on indigenous knowledge of
the combined basins of nine major Asian caused mainly by monsoon rains, with locally available plant varieties and their
rivers rise there and are home to some sudden cloudbursts in the upper water- ability to withstand the forces of river
1.3 billion people. It is also among the most shed generating torrents laden with debris, water and the community’s understand-
fragile ecosystems, due primarily to the boulders and sediments. This causes rapid ing of the local physical environment
mountain system’s propensity to mass- changes in river morphology, with a cycle and river morphology. The project is also
wasting (movement downslope of soil and of aggradation and degradation of the preparing to sell forestry products from
rock under the force of gravity), seasonal river bed, undercutting, erosion, overflow- the plantation area, which are expected
monsoon precipitation fraught with ex- ing of river banks and shifting of the entire to generate hundreds of thousands of dol-
treme events and increasing population river course. The local population is under lars annually within a few years – turning
pressure. Nepal, located in the middle of constant threat of being washed away, and risks into rewards. The project mobilized
the Himalaya range, has been subject to homes and crops are frequently damaged. substantial resources internally in the form
the risks associated with mass-wasting and of cash, labour and material assistance
flooding, which account for more than half The Madhumalla community, led by and received grants from several national
the disaster-related deaths in the country. then-Chairman Kashi Nath Paudyal, and international donors totalling about
The situation has worsened in recent dec- embarked on a remarkable mission some $40,000.
ades, with more intense and frequent ex- 14 years ago to address the threats posed
treme climate events associated with global by unpredictable and devastating floods. The approach worked as intended and
climate change, such as torrential rains. To defend against undercutting and has been replicated in several other com-
erosion of the banks and degradation of munities in the region, including nearby
The community of Madhumalla in Morang floodplains, the community employed the refugee camps. The project area is cur-
District in southeastern Nepal is on the bioengineering technique of planting a rently a training centre on bioengineering
bank of the Mawa River, a small river with stratified greenbelt along the river bank technology.
an upper watershed of about 20 square using native trees, shrubs and grasses in
kilometres. This 25 kilometre long river has conjunction with reinforcing materials. Source: Dinesh L. Shrestha, senior water and
an average gradient of 4% in the upper Structural measures, such as embank- sanitation officer, United Nations Refugee
reaches and 2% in the lower reaches, and ments and spurs made of gabion boxes, Agency (UNHCR), Geneva, Switzerland, and
its width varies from 200 metres to 700 were used to protect the greenbelt from Tako Ganai, consulting engineer, UNHCR, Jhapa,
metres. As do most rivers originating in damage during the initial years. Nepal.
Box 15.20 Rehabilitating the Iraqi Mesopotamian Marshlands for integration and stability
The Iraqi Mesopotamian Marshlands consti- Iraq, primarily in Iran. Other communities provision and wetland restoration are
tute part of the largest wetland ecosystem also reside within the marshlands region. being introduced and implemented,
in the Middle East and Western Eurasia. drawing on Iraqi expertise.
They are a crucial part of intercontinental Following the collapse of the regime
flyways for migratory birds, support endan- in mid-2003, local residents opened • Some 22,000 people in six pilot
gered species and sustain freshwater fisher- floodgates and breached embankments communities now have access to
ies and the marine ecosystem of the Persian to bring water back into the marshlands. safe drinking water. Water treatment
Gulf. In addition to their ecological impor- Satellite images analysed by the United facilities (with a capacity of 750 cubic
tance, these marshlands have been home Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) metres a day), 23 kilometres of water
to indigenous communities for millennia. in 2003 revealed that some formerly dried- distribution pipes and 127 common
The destruction of the marshlands, and the out areas have been re-inundated, helped distribution taps have been installed.
displacement of its indigenous Marsh Arab by wetter than usual climate conditions. Some displaced residents are return-
population, is one of the major humanitar- By April 2004 approximately 20% of the ing to pilot site areas, partly because
ian and environmental challenges facing original marshland area was re-inundated, of the drinking water made available
Iraq. The competing roles of the marshlands up from 5%-7% in 2003. through the project. As stability
as a transboundary water resource and a returns, possibilities for rebuilding life
source of petroleum reserves have made the UNEP initiated the Iraqi Mesopotamia in the marshlands grow.
future of the marshlands region a priority Marshlands project in 2004 through its
on Iraq’s reconstruction agenda while also International Environmental Technology • A sanitation system pilot project
presenting trade-offs for decision-makers. Centre in Osaka and Shiga, Japan, with has been implemented in the
funds from the governments of Italy and Al-Chibayish community. Environ-
Assessments in 2003 and 2004 reported Japan and in cooperation with the Centre mentally sound technology, using
that 85,000-100,000 Marsh Arabs reside for the Restoration of Iraqi Marshlands of constructed wetlands, aims to serve
within and near the remaining marshlands, the Ministry of Water Resources. Phase approximately 170 inhabitants, who
with fewer than 10% of them leading III commenced in 2007. The project has face health hazards from discharges
a traditional subsistence existence. An produced multiple benefits: of untreated wastewater to a nearby
estimated 100,000-200,000 Marsh Arabs canal.
remain internally displaced, and 100,000 • Environmentally sound technologies
are thought to be living as refugees outside on drinking water and sanitation Source: http://marshlands.unep.or.jp.
4 Chapter 15O
The consequences Box 15.21 Sustainable water institutions promote regional cooperation
of global climate and stability – the case of the Senegal River
change are
Created in 1972 by an agreement among the hydropower and agricultural investments) and
manifested three riparian states (Mali, Mauritania and Sen- sectoral priorities. It is known as a water-focused
egal), the Organization for the Development of institution that promotes collaboration on multi-
primarily through the Senegal River (OMVS) established the river as ple uses of water and integrated water manage-
water – in glacial an international waterway and identified rational ment. The OMVS also has an environmental
exploitation and management as a goal. In 2002 observation arm that tracks the state of the
melt, floods, member states adopted a charter on using the resource and its associated ecosystems to ensure
river that sets out principles and modalities for sustainability. Because of the river’s central role in
droughts and
distributing water resources among sectors and many activities in all three countries, cooperation
sea level defines project approval criteria, environmental has gradually extended to tripartite discussions
rules and participation modalities for broader at the central and local levels in other sectors,
public engagement. such as agriculture and enterprises, contributing
to regional stability and integration.
The OMVS is a key institution through which
countries agree on future projects (such as dams, Source: www.omvs.org.
Box 15.22 Allocation of water from the Rio Grande/Rio Bravo River
between Mexico and the United States
In summer 2002 Texas farmers breathed a sigh country would run dry. But because of drought,
of relief as the scarce water of the Rio Grande Mexico had fallen in arrears on its water
(called Rio Bravo in Mexico) began to flow again contributions.
on their side of the border.
A key part of the 2002 deal to resolve this dispute
Under a 1944 treaty Mexico and the United was infrastructure modernization, with the goal
States had agreed to share the waters of the Rio of increasing efficiency in water use. For the first
Grande and Colorado Rivers. Mexico agreed time the two governments agreed to share costs
to assign 254,880 cubic metres of water from and benefits by jointly investing in measures for
international storage, with the actual amount water conservation, sustainability and efficiency.
of water to be released from the Amistad and The agreement endorsed a bilateral financial
Falcon reservoirs determined by a complex ac- package for water conservation initiatives.
counting of reservoir inflows and water use by
both countries that would ensure that neither Source: Moore, Rast, and Pulich 2002.
Climate change. The consequences of global As this Report emphasizes throughout, the
climate change are manifested primarily water sector must look beyond its tradi-
through water – in glacial melt, floods, tional boundaries for solutions. Similarly,
droughts and sea level rise. Planners can actors outside the water sector must be
no longer rely on past hydrologic condi- aware of links to risks in the water sector.
tions to forecast future risks. Climate For example, because natural disasters are
change increases the risk of failure or often related to water, closer collabora-
underperformance of structures and tion and coordination are needed between
institutions. Developing countries are the disaster risk-reduction agencies and those
most vulnerable to climate change because engaged in water resources management.
of their heavy dependence on climate- Water managers and those outside the
sensitive sectors, low capacity to adapt and water sector can all contribute to innova-
poverty. Current climate variability and tive, integrated solutions. One innovation
weather extremes already severely affect reducing risk is the provision of insurance
economic performance in many develop- linked to rainfall (box 15.23).
ing countries (see figure 5.2 in chapter 5).22
Several broader analytical tools offer
One way to cope with the uncertainty of promise in dealing with risk and uncer-
climate change is through management tainty. Environmental impact assess-
measures that are flexible and robust ments have long been used to promote
under conditions of uncertainty. Such a do-no-irreversible-harm approach to
adaptive management principles, which policy and business decisions. Strate-
involve a systematic process for improv- gic environmental assessments are also
ing management policies and practices emerging as powerful tools to identify
by learning from previous strategies, are both potential damages and opportuni-
particularly relevant for decision-making ties, which could help in identifying
under climate change.23 win-win scenarios. Their effective use
Reducing climate risk for small farmers cheaper to implement because the insur- layering strategy in which index insurance
requires tools that can adjust to climate ance company does not need to verify is applied at the most appropriate point,
variability and underpin other adaptation damage in the field. That also means that and other tools – such as traditional insur-
strategies. Insurance schemes linked to the when rainfall is low enough to cause crops ance, government social safety nets and
amount of rain (index insurance) provide to fail, insurers will pay out to farmers reinsurance – complete the package.
security as well as productivity incentives. within days or weeks. Thus farmers do not
need to sell assets to survive, which can In Malawi farmers can now purchase
Traditional insurance contracts that insure make them dependent on aid long after index insurance to guarantee loans for
against crop failure have several shortcom- the drought has ended. agricultural inputs that would have oth-
ings. They can create perverse incentives erwise been unavailable because of the
to allow crops to fail to collect the insur- With rainfall-indexed insurance farmers threat of drought. Thousands of ground-
ance. And they can result in a situation might take greater risks with potentially nut farmers in Malawi have purchased
where less productive farmers buy insur- higher returns, such as investing in fertilizers a packaged product that bundles index
ance, while more productive farmers do or sustainable land management practices. insurance with a loan giving them access
not. This results in more payouts, leading To address the impacts of climate variability to high-yielding groundnut seeds bred to
to higher premiums, ultimately making and change, farmers must be able to take be productive in the local climate. Index
this type of insurance too expensive for advantage of good years. By using index insurance packages and seed varieties
farmers in poor countries. insurance to protect against massive losses can be designed to adapt together as
during major droughts, farmers are able to risks change. In focus groups on climate
In one new type of insurance, contracts put resources into being productive in good change farmers in Malawi have volun-
are written against a rainfall index. The years instead of being limited by the low teered that the index insurance is their
index depends on an established relation- productivity of rare bad years. primary mechanism to adapt to the
ship between lack of rainfall and crop changing climate. As climate change
failure, ideally verified by long historical There are also some disadvantages. If exacerbates risks, farmers can use the
records of rainfall and yield. If rainfall is crops fail for reasons other than drought, improved varieties and index insurance to
below an agreed trigger point, farmers or if rainfall at a farmer’s field differs from take advantage of new opportunities.
receive payouts. However, farmers still that measured at the central rain gauge,
have the incentive to make the best pro- the farmer receives no compensation. Source: Dan Osgood, International Research
ductive choices, regardless of whether the Index insurance systems are typically Institute for Climate and Society (IRI); Molly
insurance pays out. Index insurance is also developed as a part of a larger risk- Hellmuth, IRI, Columbia University.
4 Chapter 15O
Because of water’s Box 15.24 Getting a complete picture of water resources through user
contributions to contributions – a new role for Australia’s Bureau of Meteorology
every aspect of
The Australian Bureau of Meteorology’s role has • Conducting regular national water resources
development, expanded to transform Australia’s water resources assessments.
information. To secure a long-term water supply
funding for water for all Australians, the government announced • Publishing an annual national water
need not compete Water for the Future, a $12.9 billion water invest- account.
ment programme. The programme includes
with funding for $450 million for the Improving Water Informa- • Providing regular water availability
tion Programme, administered by the Bureau of forecasts.
other priorities
Meteorology and backed by the Commonwealth
Water Act 2007 and key stakeholders. • Advising on matters relating to water
information.
The bureau will enhance the quality and utility
of Australia’s water information by producing a • Enhancing understanding of Australia’s
national water account, supported by a national water resources.
water monitoring and data collection network.
The programme includes development and A national system for water information storage,
maintenance of an integrated, national water analysis and reporting requires an unprecedented
information system accessible to the public. level of collaboration with stakeholders. Under the
new arrangements individuals, corporations and
Responsibilities of the bureau include: other organizations that possess, control or man-
age water are required by law to transmit informa-
• Issuing national water information tion to the bureau for compilation and analysis.
standards.
Source: www.bom.gov.au/water/regulations/
• Collecting and publishing water information. water-2008.shtml.
collective level are those that occur as the for environment, water and education,
cumulative result of individual choices, along with pedagogical institutes and
when new patterns of behaviour enter the school authorities.
collective culture (see chapter 2).
Ensuring sustainable financing
One approach to changing behaviour is
to use controls. Public institutions such Because of water’s contributions to every
as schools and hospitals can be mandated aspect of development – social, economic,
and enabled to provide sanitation and safe political and environmental – funding
water, construction can be forbidden in for water need not compete with funding
fragile areas, and penalties can be imposed for other priorities. However, to realize
for the release of certain pollutants into air maximum benefit, water’s contributions
and water. Governments can also encour- should be recognized in every aspect of
age or promote certain types of behaviour government and business planning. This
through subsidies, taxes and other incen- may entail adopting new forms of costing
tives, such as payment for environmental or valuation. But it certainly means ensur-
services. ing that water managers and stakehold-
ers take part in decisions likely to affect
Awareness raising and social marketing water. Thus, this section explores ways to
are other tools for promoting behaviour integrate water resources management in
change. Examples of social marketing development planning. It also considers
campaigns around water issues can be new ways of mobilizing resources for the
found in almost all countries. In the water sector.
Danube riparian countries educational
institutions and the private sector cre- Integrating water resources
ated a Danube Educational Toolkit, called management in development
the ‘Danube Box’. Problems and needs in planning
several riparian countries were discussed Traditional funding mechanisms, in-
and collected in national workshops, from cluding national budget allocations and
which a prototype of a transboundary development assistance, are likely to
educational kit emerged. At least five Dan- remain the main source of resources for
ube countries (Austria, Germany, Hungary, water, environment and poverty reduc-
Romania and Serbia) are now promoting tion (see chapter 4). Evolution in develop-
the Danube Box in various projects and ac- ment policies around the world points
tivities. These efforts are being organized to the need for broader, more integrated
in close cooperation with the ministries platforms. Poverty reduction strategies
Box 15.25 Zambia’s experiences linking integrated water resources management with national
development plans
Zambia still has adequate water resources, and infrastructure components. Reforms government on water sector reform, per-
but declining rainfall patterns and in- included a new water policy, legislation formance, and monitoring and evaluation.
creased water use are causing increased and a new institution to manage and The forum includes representatives from
water stress. Water is used by households develop water resources. key institutions and stakeholders inside
and for industrial production, as well as for and outside the water sector. This process
hydropower production, which earns Zam- In the Fifth National Development Plan secured political support for the integrated
bia on average some $10 million a year in 2006-10 the government of Zambia water resources management plan, which
exports. Agriculture is also a key sector for expressed concern with ensuring that the was selected as the instrument for imple-
development, depending on water for ir- benefits of a healthier economy reach the menting the water-related programmes of
rigation, livestock watering and other uses. rural and urban poor. Recognizing the the development plan.
importance of water for development, the
During the past 10 years Zambia has government integrated the water sector The 1994 water policy had dealt mainly with
grown rapidly in response to economic reforms, including the new integrated reforms within the sector. The new inte-
and administrative reforms. Increasing water resources management plan, and grated water resources management policy
pressure on water resources for economic the National Development Plan. Linking is intent on integrating water management
expansion led the government to under- these was seen as fundamental to poverty throughout all sectors in Zambia. As a result
take broad water sector reforms. As early reduction and achieving all the Millennium of this integration of water and national
as 1994 the government introduced the Development Goals. development planning, many donors have
National Water Policy, following up with incorporated water-related investment in
reforms of water supply and sanitation and In formulating the Fifth National Devel- their assistance packages to Zambia.
then water resources management. The opment Plan, the government used a
reforms were planned through the 2001 participatory approach, involving 17 sector Source: Mike Muller, visiting professor, Graduate
Water Resources Action Programme, which advisory groups including water and a School of Public and Development Manage-
included an institutional and legal frame- government-led high-level forum to im- ment, Witwatersrand University, based on
work and water resources demand, supply prove sector coordination and advise the Nyambe and Feilberg n.d.
4 Chapter 15O
are forged between water managers and sharing information, financing priority
decision-makers in other sectors. Because investments and building responsive insti-
water issues are central to every aspect of tutions. The political will to address water
development, actors within and outside issues worldwide remains crucial, along
the water sector need to strengthen their with a willingness to consider innovative
collaboration to create and promote ap- ways to approach local, regional and inter-
propriate mechanisms for collecting and national cooperation.
Box 15.26 Payments for ecosystem services help curb climate change and conserve biodiversity
while protecting water resources
The highland forests and paramos (treeless Conservation International, implemented management will slow deforestation and
plateaus) of the Andes mountain chain a pilot project for financing and protect- ecosystem degradation, by reducing
provide a variety of ecosystem services ing these critical watersheds. The project another source of greenhouse gases while
for human and natural communities in provides multiple benefits. Conceived to conserving biodiversity and improving
northern South America. In the centre of provide climate change mitigation benefits water supplies.
the Colombian Andes the Chingaza and as well as reliable freshwater supplies, it
Sumapaz National Parks cover more than provides clean, renewable energy while In the next phase of the project Con-
225,000 hectares of these fragile ecosys- protecting the watershed and supplying servation International and partners are
tems, which contain habitats for a variety funding both to EAAB and the Colombian supporting an initiative to consolidate a
of threatened flora and fauna and provide national parks. regional biological corridor to connect
crucial water for downstream human Chingaza with Sumapaz National Park,
populations. The area is the watershed for EAAB’s Santa Ana small-scale hydroelec- the eastern Andean mountain slopes
Bogota, which has more than 7 million tric power plant generates electricity and the San Rafael water basin. A variety
residents. In recent years the water supply without the greenhouse gas emissions of financing mechanisms will generate
has declined considerably due to human associated with traditional fossil fuel income based on the water and climate
activities such as agriculture and livestock plants. The dam is recognized as a Clean mitigation services the area provides.
raising, which have led to degradation of Development Mechanism project by the Through a large-scale reforestation effort
the high Andes ecosystems. The Bogota United Nations Framework Convention on degraded lands in the corridor, the
Water and Sewerage Company (EAAB) on Climate Change. It generates about project will expand its carbon sequestra-
estimates that water demand will rise sub- 23,000 certified emission reduction units tion and water provision, providing ben-
stantially by 2020. Immediate measures each year with an approximate value of efits to other communities that depend on
are necessary to protect the watershed in $450,000. EAAB has committed to giv- the water from threatened high Andean
order to meet that anticipated demand. ing half this revenue to the Colombian ecosystems.
Park Service, which uses the resources
Recently EAAB, together with the Co- to consolidate and expand Chingaza Source: www.conservation.org/explore/regions/
lombian government and the support of National Park. Increased funds for park south_america/andes/Pages/andes.aspx.
Box 15.27 A water services concession with public funding in Guayaquil, Ecuador
Guayaquil, Ecuador’s economic capital, connections in the first five years of opera- 10% tax on telephone bills is transferred
is home to 2.4 million people, or a third tion – a more than 10% annual increase to utilities to support expansion of the
of the national urban population. When and three times the contractual target of water network in uncovered urban areas.
a concessionaire took over management 55,000. Those gains brought water cover- New water connections are provided free
of water services in 2001, water coverage age in the city up to 82% in 2005 and of charge in urban areas not previously
lagged far behind the national average: benefited about 800,000 people, most of covered by the water network (areas
only 60% of residents had household them living in poor neighbourhoods not where most of the population is poor).
connections in 2000, compared with the previously served by the network. Over Part of the cost of expanding the network
national urban average of 81% in 1998. the same period progress in extending is also subsidized. Sewer connections
The gap was smaller for sewerage, with urban water access at the national level were ineligible for these tax transfers and
coverage of 56% compared with a nation- stagnated. The concessionaire’s perform- subsidies, explaining the more modest
al urban average of 61%. The concession ance in improving sewer access was more progress.
is the second largest in Latin America by modest, rising from 56% to 62%.
population served after Buenos Aires.1 Note
The good performance on water access 1. Santiago de Chile (5.3 million customers)
The concession rapidly expanded access was made possible by a special tax trans- is larger but operated under a divestiture
to piped water through household con- fer mechanism that the central govern- scheme (private ownership of infrastructure).
nections. Starting with 245,000 connec- ment introduced in the 1980s to subsidize
tions in 2000, it installed 160,000 new new water connections. Revenues from a Source: Yepes 2007.
4 Chapter 15O
Hlanze, Zakhe, Thanky Gama, and Pahl-Wostl, C., P. Kabat, J. Möltgen, eds. UNECE (United Nations Economic Com-
Sibusiso Mondlane. 2005. The Impact 2007 Adaptive and Integrated Water mission for Europe). 1999. Protocol on
of HIV/AIDS and Drought on Local Management: Coping with Complexity Water and Health to the 1992 Con-
Knowledge Systems for Agrobiodiversity and Uncertainty. New York: Springer vention on the Protection and Use of
and Food Security. LinKS Project on Gen- Publishing. Transboundary Watercourses and Inter-
der, Biodiversity and Local Knowledge Peopleandplanet.net. 2002. A Showcase national Lakes. United Nations Economic
Systems for Food Security Report 50. for Sustainable Tourism in Turkey. Planet Commission for Europe, London. www.
FAO-LinKSSwaziland, Mbabane. 21, London. www.peopleandplanet.net/ unece.org/env/documents/2000/ wat/
IMF (International Monetary Fund). doc.php?id=1723. mp.wat.2000.1.e.pdf.
2004. Djibouti: Poverty Reduction Strategy Poverty-Environment Partnership. United Nations Global Compact. 2008.
Paper. IMF Country Report No. 04/152. 2008. Poverty, Health and Environ- CEO Water Mandate: An Initiative by
Washington, DC: International Monetary ment: Placing Environmental Health on Business Leaders in Partnership with the
Fund. www.imf.org/external/. Countries’ Development Agenda. Joint International Community. New York: UN
ISRIC (International Soil Research and Agency Paper. www.unpei.org/PDF/ Secretary-General.
Information Centre). 2008. Green Water Pov-Health-Env-CRA.pdf. WBCSD (World Business Council for
Credits. World Soil Information, Wagenin- Québec Ministry of the Environment. Sustainable Development). 2006.
gen, The Netherlands. www.isric.org/UK/ 2002. Water. Our Life, Our Future: Québec Anglo American/Mondi: Improved
About+ISRIC/Projects/ Current+Projects/ Water Policy. Québec: Bibliothèque Natio- Energy and Efficiency. Case Study.
Green+Water+Credits.htm. nale du Québec. World Business Council for Sustainable
Japan International Cooperation Agency. Development, Geneva. www.wbcsd.
Ragab, Ragab, and Sasha Koo-Oshima.
2006. Project on Improvement of org/DocRoot/6NDZbCwuNlJpaFU9g0i6/
2006. Proceedings of the International
Water Supply and Sanitation in the mondi_energy_efficiency_full_case_web.
Workshop on Environmental Consequences
Southern Part of the Eastern Province pdf.
of Irrigation with Poor Quality Waters: Sus-
(Pura-Sani Project). 1-1 Details of the tainability, Management and Institutional, Werner, Wolfgang, and Bertus Kruger.
Project. Japan International Cooperation Water Resources, Health and Social Issues. 2007. Redistributive Land Reform and
Agency, Tokyo. http://project.jica.go.jp/ 12 September 2006, Kuala Lumpur, Ma- Poverty Reduction in Namibia: Liveli-
rwanda/0605427/english/01/01.html. laysia. New Delhi: International Commis- hoods after Land Reform. Country Paper.
Martinez, Grit. 2007. The Role of Donors in sion on Irrigation and Drainage. Desert Research Foundation of Namibia,
Tackling Sector Development Corrup- Windhoek.
Rwanda, Ministry of Infrastructure. 2008.
tion. Power Point presentation 26 Sep- Habitat and Urbanism Status in Rwanda. WHO (World Health Organization)/
tember 2007, Water Integrity Network, Kigali. www.mininfra.gov.rw/docs/ UNICEF (United Nations Children’s
Accra. www.waterintegritynetwork.net/ HABITAT%20AND%20URBANISM Fund) Joint Monitoring Programme
content/download/2038/34265/file/3_ %20IN%20RWANDA.pdf. for Water Supply and Sanitation. 2008.
The%20Role%20 of%20donors.pdf. Progress on Drinking Water and Sanita-
Sadoff, Claudia. 2006. Can Water Under-
Moore, J. G., W. Rast, and W. M. Pulich. tion: Special Focus on Sanitation. New
mine Growth? Evidence from Ethiopia. In
2002. Proposal for an Integrated Man- York: United Nations Children’s Fund,
Agriculture and Rural Development Notes.
agement Plan for the Rio Grande/Rio and Geneva: World Health Organization.
Issue 18. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Bravo. In 1st International Symposium on http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ World Bank. 2007. Making the Most of
Transboundary Waters Management, eds. INTARD/Resources/Note18_Ethiopia_ Scarcity: Accountability for Better Water
A. Aldama, F. J. Aparicio, and R. Equihua. web.pdf. Management Results in the Middle East
Avances en Hidraulica 10, XVII Mexican and North Africa. MENA Development
Shah, Tushaar, Christopher Scott, Avinash
Hydraulics Congress, Monterrey, Mexico, Report. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Kishore, and Abhishek Sharma. 2004.
Nov. 18-22, 2002. Worldwatch Institute. 2008. State of the
The Energy-Irrigation Nexus in South Asia:
National Rural Development Institute. Groundwater Conservation and Power World: Innovations for a Sustainable
n.d. Integrated Watershed Development Sector Viability. Colombo: International Economy. New York: Norton Institute.
Project in Madhya Pradesh. National Water Management Institute. WWAP (World Water Assessment Pro-
Rural Development Institute, Hyderabad, gramme). 2006. The United Nations
Smith, Julie, A. 2000. Solar-Based Rural
India. http://nird.ap.nic.in/clic/water_ World Water Development Report 2: Water:
Electrification and Microenterprise
madhya.html. A Shared Responsibility. Paris: United Na-
Development in Latin America: A Gender
Nyambe, Imasiku A., and Miriam Feilberg. Analysis. NREL/SR-550-28955. National tions Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
n.d. Zambia – National Water Resources Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Organization, and New York: Berghahn
Report for WWDR3. Ministry of Energy CO. www.nrel.gov/docs/fy01osti/28995. Books.
and Water Development, Lusaka. pdf. Yepes, G. 2007. Los subsidios cruzados en los
Olken, Benjamin. 2005. Monitoring Corrup- Stern, Nicholas. 2006. Stern Review: The servicios de agua potable y saneamiento.
tion: Evidence from a Field Experiment in Economics of Climate Change. Cam- IFM Publications. Washington, DC: Inter-
Indonesia. NBER Working Paper 11753. bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. American Development Bank, Infrastruc-
Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of ture and Financial Markets Division.
TERI (The Energy and Resources Insti-
Economic Research. Zhang Le-Yin. 2003. Economic Diversifica-
tute). 2008. Third Party Assessment of
Palanisami, K., and K.W. Easter. 2000. Coca-Cola Facilities in India. New Delhi: tion in the Context of Climate Change.
Tank Irrigation in the 21st Century – What The Energy and Resources Institute. Background Paper for UNFCCC Work-
Next? New Delhi: Discovery Publishing www.teriin.org/cocacola_report_toc.php. shop on Economic Diversification, 18-19
House. October 2003, Teheran. United Nations
Trondalen, Jon-Martin, Simon Mason,
Pahl-Wostl, C. 2007. Transition towards Framework Convention on Climate
and Adrian Muller. 2008. Water and
Adaptive Management of Water Facing Change, Tehran. http://unfccc.int/files/
Security: Entangled and Emerging Issues.
Climate and Global Change. Water Re- meetings/workshops/other_meetings/
Working paper. Compass Foundation,
sources Management 21(1): 49-62. application/pdf/bgpaper.pdf.
Geneva.
Key messages
Water and water systems must be managed to achieve social and eco-
nomic development objectives and to sustain development. Water re-
sources, properly managed, are critical to the survival and well-being
of individuals. They can ensure equity and security in water and sani-
tation for families, businesses and communities. And they can ensure
adequate water for food, energy and the environment as well as protec-
tion from floods and droughts.
The donor community can incorporate water into the broader frame-
works of development aid and focus assistance on areas where it is
needed most – in sub-Saharan Africa, in Asian and Latin American
slums and in states recovering from conflict. Recent G-8 efforts in this
direction are promising.
The World Water Assessment Programme and its partners are working
to help reduce uncertainty, facilitate decision-making and accelerate
investment by highlighting the links between socioeconomic develop-
ment and investment in water management capacity and infrastructure
in other sectors.
4 Chapter 16T
4 Chapter 16T
Because the Hydrology has moved out of catchments offs may have little detrimental impact on
and basins. While the volume of water in concerned parties or the natural environ-
demands on water
circulation on our planet remains con- ment. As water becomes increasingly scarce,
are many and stant, climate change models suggest some trade-offs will be harsher, requiring sound
diverse, water significant movements in water resources leadership to guide decision-making.
and changes in local ecosystems in response
management to human use and misuse. Data on water A key area of decision-making concerns
needs to be guided resources – where the water is, where and economic and environmental trade-offs,
how it flows – are essential for understand- a highly political process. It is important
by broader social ing these global changes. Yet the necessary to differentiate between short-term ‘fire-
and economic data are not being collected. As the need for fighting’ – responding to the urgent issues
information is increasing, attention to col- of the day – and strategic development.
development lecting environmental data is waning, even Multipurpose schemes and water reuse can
objectives that though technologies for collecting data, reduce the need for trade-offs by enabling
democratizing data access and gathering are the same volumes of scarce water to deliver
clarify expected becoming more affordable. We must invest multiple outcomes.
outcomes in these technologies and in often-neglected
local data-gathering systems to enhance our In negotiating trade-offs, interest groups
common understanding of water systems, strive to protect the interests of their mem-
water resources and water management. bers. Industry generally lobbies for self-reg-
ulation rather than control. Governments
Equally important is information about are concerned with enforcing laws and
how much water is being used, by whom regulations. Local pressures and interna-
and for what purposes, the ability and tional regulators sometimes encourage
willingness of water users to pay, cost price controls, which can have negative as
recovery rates and the investments needed well as positive impact, including prevent-
to achieve socioeconomic objectives. ing harmful price manipulations by specu-
lators. Some international groups advocate
Water synergies, balances and for global public goods and services. Non-
trade-offs governmental organizations advocate for
Because the demands on water are many water as a human right, charging govern-
and diverse, water management needs to ments with responsibility for service provi-
be guided by broader social and economic sion and users and beneficiaries for use
development objectives that clarify ex- that ensures long-term social, economic
pected outcomes. ‘Integrated’ development and environmental sustainability.
plans – such as national development
strategies, poverty reduction strategies, Choices about water uses
rural development strategies and regional, Options depend on social, economic and
district and city development plans – environmental conditions, the availabil-
should identify the full set of expected ity of water over space and time, and the
outcomes for water managers. threat of droughts and floods, all of which
vary around the world.
Because drivers, demands and what can
reasonably be achieved given limited Where water is scarce, the challenge is to
resources differ, there will necessarily be select the development path that attains
trade-offs. Where water is abundant, trade- the best social, economic and environ-
mental outcomes. Such decisions shift
Box 16.1 Timescales for long-term planning the trade-offs away from water resources
alone to broader concerns of environmen-
tal, economic and social benefits. Mak-
Planning and response timescales may • Behavioural change horizons (10
ing decisions about water in this context
be categorized as follows: years).
can sometimes introduce inefficiencies in
• Responses to crises (such as • Large infrastructure horizons (10-20 other development activities. For example,
droughts, floods, civil strife) (1-2 years). importing food rather than producing it
years). domestically may permit water to be used
• Development horizons (15- 20 for higher value outputs, but many farm-
• Human resources changes (2-3 years). years). ers will then need to find other ways to
earn a living.
• Political horizons (3-5 years). • Long-term capacity and intra
generational equity horizons (25+ Scales of space and time
• Small infrastructure horizons (3-5 years and beyond, depending on
Actions are constrained by the time hori-
years). the level of the plan).
zon for which they are planned (box 16.1).
• Outcomes horizons (5-8 years). Source: Authors’ compilation. Politicians and water managers can find
long-term planning difficult, because the
4 Chapter 16T
Informed for future options. No-regrets strategies Against a background of political and
– actions that would significantly reduce strategic alignments, the international
decisions – based
the adverse impacts of change but would community must look for ways to sup-
on expected not cause harm if projections of impacts port the construction of the infrastructure
results and the of change are wrong – are important in required to provide a range of direct and
responding to climate change. In contrast, indirect services provided by water sys-
consequences of failure to act carries risks because the situ- tems, including water supply and sanita-
failing to act – are ation may deteriorate if no action is taken. tion, production of food and energy and
adaptation and mitigation of climate
needed now The World Water Assessment Programme variability. National and local governments
and its partners are working to reduce can optimize their investments by identi-
uncertainty, facilitate decision-making fying actions that will produce the greatest
and accelerate investment by identifying socioeconomic and environmental ben-
the links between socioeconomic devel- efits. Supporting countries already on track
opment, environmental sustainability, to achieve the Millennium Development
water management capacity and invest- Goals at the expense of countries lagging
ments in water-related infrastructure and behind can only entrench global divisions.
other sectors. Work has begun, in concert sub-Saharan Africa in particular suffers
with UN-Water, to identify indicators and from lack of development of its water re-
supporting databases to guide decisions sources infrastructure for multiple uses.
on water policies and actions by leaders
inside and outside the water sector. It will Deciding – and acting!
expand the information base on options
tested in many contexts. The World Water Informed decisions – based on expected
Assessment Programme is also working on results and the consequences of failing to
scenarios linking external drivers to the act – are needed now. Lagging investment
water sector that could be applied globally, in water leaves hundreds of millions of
regionally and nationally. The next United people exposed to the risks of environ-
Nations World Water Development Report mental degradation and water-related dis-
will include the fruits of that work, along asters and susceptible to political unrest.
with additional examples of how challeng- Billions of the world’s people suffer from
es are being addressed on the ground. water-related diseases and hunger. Acting
to reduce such exposure can improve their
Targeting official development health and well-being and provide access
assistance and philanthropic aid to healthcare for millions more. Coun-
For members of the international commu- try examples indicate that proper water
nity there are choices between pursuing management could increase gross domes-
their traditional regional financial and tic product by 5% to 14% – an impact that
political interests and focusing on areas may be unachievable through any other
where aid of all types is needed most. The intervention.
greatest gaps in access to such water-relat-
ed services as drinking water supply and The challenges are great, but the unsus-
sanitation are in sub-Saharan Africa, Asian tainable management and inequitable
and Latin American slums and countries access to water resources cannot continue
recovering from conflict. Inefficient water – because the risks of inaction are even
use in agricultural production also is a greater. We might not have all the infor-
continuing problem in many countries mation we would like to have before act-
around the world, both developed and ing, but we know enough to begin to take
developing. significant actions. Some leaders are al-
ready acting, showing the way. Others are
The 2008 World Economic Forum in ready to act. Leaders inside and outside the
Davos led to calls for policies to encourage water domain have critical, complementa-
a minimum water impact alongside a min- ry roles. Leaders in the water domain can
imum carbon footprint; the 2009 forum inform the processes outside this domain
included appeals to fight water scarcity. and manage water resources to achieve
At the 2009 G-8 meeting in Italy the G-8 agreed socioeconomic and environmental
leaders are scheduled to review the 2003 objectives. But leaders in government, the
G-8 Evian Water Action Plan and discuss private sector and civil society determine
strategies with their African partners for the direction that actions will take. Recog-
enhancing its implementation. nizing this, they must act now!
2 Chapter 9
Figure 9.2 Three types of response to water scarcity and 15). A recent shift in emphasis from water
competition sharing to benefit sharing promises greater
transboundary cooperation.
es,
Managing competition
c t ic
en
t pra through supply and demand
ons
state
em
ag nstit
u ti Se
ct management and reallocation
an , i an
or
a
m ing
g
Al
d
ric
in
l r kets
wa ater
local
There are many shortcomings in how water
lo
ea
Chan
rp
rv
ent g
,w
ll o
eo
ar
c
em
te
fc
ca
is managed today in a context of increased
nt
ag
se
ro
at
, equ
dars
tio
n ps
me
a ity;
,b
len
ic
m co o
Con
n,
ing
ca scarcity: low efficiency, environmental deg-
e
asi
etr
e nfl
g
d ow
qu
brib
rv
an fl ic
ana
n-l
ov
l um
n ery
tur radation, and inequity. Despite some im-
ar
ota
pr
ev e
re ;g ts,
iet
mm
s
im
s, vo
ue
s, w
l
ies
i
l ins
provements competition is increasing and
niq
tig
on,
iv
c
; ar
du
eu
l lining, improved da
atio
awareness campaign
ater ri
ech
titutio
Adopt microirrigati
, re
rang
n; w
ge cropping t
rage
rele
ghts
ements for great
ns
Responses
a
ase water)
o
ter grabbing,
t
to basin
m
closure
r
al loc
loc Tap
al ability. Rather, a combination of supply and
r,
te
g roundwate sta demand management measures is needed.
sta te
gate
small drains,
intr
use
es
oduc
e conjunctive
i
Three common responses to
as
n
R
er
iv vo
n sb te competition
r
er ir
d
sio bu tr a a
w
n,
wa
ild
ing gate
d,
r tu
al The responses to increased competition for
, grou s v i
ste ndwate drain g, water are supply augmentation, conserva-
wa
te r r abstraction, di n
treat see
ment, desalination, cloud tion and reallocation (figure 9.2). The most
conventional response is to develop new
Developing resources. For the state this typically means
building new reservoirs or desalination
Source: Based on Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture 2007. plants or interbasin transfer. For users this
means more wells or farm ponds or gating
drains to store water. Conserving water
and can lead to conflict. The Mekong River includes increasing the efficiency of use
basin has been an exception, with concerns by reducing losses. Changes in allocation,
around water arising only recently. Partly to ease competition or to maximize water
because of conflicts unrelated to water the use, are based on economic, social, envi-
river has long-remained undisturbed, but ronmental or other criteria. Augmentation
dam development to meet the growing is a supply management strategy, while
need for energy in most of the riparian conservation and reallocation are demand
countries is putting other downstream uses management strategies, roughly defined as
at risk – particularly fisheries (box 9.4). ‘doing better with what we have’.9
Even as we pay more attention to the The second edition of The United Nations
current state, uses and impacts of water World Water Development Report discussed
resources and identify the challenges that the consequences of poor data availability:
the global community faces in managing
them, the flow of information to sup- Data on almost every subject
port this work is drying up rather than related to water issues is usually
growing. lacking, unreliable, incomplete
or inconsistent. We have learned
The first edition of The United Nations that merely collecting data is not
World Water Development Report, published enough. It must be brought to-
in 2003, included an extensive compila- gether, analysed and converted into
tion of information, drawn from multiple information and knowledge, then
sources, documenting the state of water, shared widely within and between
the resource and its uses. Many agen- countries and stakeholders to focus
cies and individuals opened their formal attention on water problems at all
and informal archives to share informa- scales. It is only when the data has
tion from their knowledge bases. These been collected and analysed that
enthusiastic contributions established an we can properly understand the
important baseline from which to move many systems that affect water
forward. (hydrological, socio-economic,
financial, institutional and political
In all, more than 160 indicators were re- alike), which have to be factored
ported on, ranging from the global quan- into water governance.
tum of water available and withdrawals
for human use to compliance with water The number of indicators presented in the
quality standards for key pollutants and second edition of the report declined to 62
governance mechanisms to support water because there was no systematic process
management. for updating the data used for most of the
indicators presented in the first report.
The first report also explicitly recognized Water supply and sanitation has been an
the need for further work, notably in col- exception: the World Health Organization
lecting biogeophysical and socioeconomic and United Nations Children’s Fund Joint
data as well as data on environmental Monitoring Programme has systematically
protection and investment in water. It addressed the challenge, investing to en-
highlighted the danger of data availability sure a regular flow of updated information
driving the selection of indicators, which on this subsector.
results in a ‘data-rich, but information-
poor’ syndrome, in which plenty of data Three years later the production team for
are produced but they are not tailored to the third United Nations World Water Devel-
information needs opment Report is in a similar situation to its
predecessors. During preparations for the
Mike Muller is co-chair, World Water Assessment Programme Expert Group on Indicators, Monitoring and
Data/Metadata Bases.
report, a survey of data providers suggested Several actions are planned to address this
that new data would be available for only gap: UN-Water has created the Task Force
some of the indicators used in the second on Indicators, Monitoring and Report-
report. At press time 30 indicators had ing to address the challenge of producing
been updated. Because some indicators key global indicators of the state of water
included in the second report were identi- resources to meet the needs of policy- and
fied as not useful by the source agency, 58 decision-makers at all levels. And the
indicators are now listed in table A1.1. The World Water Assessment Programme has
profile sheets describing these indicators established the Expert Group on Indi-
are available on the World Water Assess- cators, Monitoring and Data/Metadata
ment Programme Website (www.unesco. Bases to support this work, specifically by
org/water/wwap/). promoting a dialogue between indicator
users and data providers/interpreters about
While the indicators on the water resources the feasibility of providing data for the
situation in the first United Nations World key indicators on a sustainable, ongoing
Water Development Report provided policy- basis. The expert group will also propose
makers at the national, regional and global strategies to improve data collection and
levels with a critical overview of the situa- interpretation.
tion, insight into the trends of key indica-
tors is vital in a rapidly changing world. It is hoped that the next United Nations
World Water Development Report will be
In most cases it has not proved possible able to report some substantive progress
to provide this insight. No new global and answer key questions about whether
estimates of available water resources or of and how changing water resources en-
volume abstracted by major sectoral users dowments affect countries and regions,
are available. So while this third edition of whether the efficiency of water use for
the report again contains much important national socioeconomic development is
information, it remains impossible to pro- improving and whether degradation of the
vide information on the evolution of key water environment has been slowed. At
indicators. (One notable exception is a new the very least, it should be able to report
indicator, Status of progression on Agenda on steps taken to improve the flow of data
21, which has been updated and included and information needed to establish and
in this report.) monitor key trends.
Table A1.1 List of United Nations World Water Development Report indicators and location
of detailed data
Locationc
Category in In World Water In World Water
cause-effect Type of Development Development
Topic Indicator approacha indicatorb Report 2 Report 3
Index of non-sustainable water use Driving force, Key Section 1 na
Pressure, state
Rural and urban population Pressure, state Basic Section 1 Map 2.1
Figure 2.1
Relative Water Stress Index Pressure, state Key Section 2 na
Level of Sources of contemporary nitrogen loading Pressure, state Key Section 3 na
stress on the Domestic and industrial water use Pressure, state Basic Section 3 Table 7.1
resource Figure 7.1
Impact of sediment trapping by large dams Pressure Key Section 4 na
and reservoirs
Coefficient of variation for the Climate State Key Section 4 na
Moisture Index
Water Reuse Index Pressure, state Key Section 4 Figure 8.6
Access to information, participation and Response Developing Table 2.2 na
justice Table 2.3
Governance Assessing progress towards achieving the Response Key Table 2.1 na
integrated water resources management
target
(continued)
Appendix 1
Table A1.1 List of United Nations World Water Development Report indicators and location
of detailed data (continued)
Locationc
Category in In World Water In World Water
cause-effect Type of Development Development
Topic Indicator approacha indicatorb Report 2 Report 3
Index of performance of water utilities State Developing na na
Settlements Urban water and sanitation governance index State Developing na na
Slum profile in human settlements Pressure Developing na na
Total actual renewable water resources State Key Table 4.3 *
Precipitation Driving force Basic Table 4.3 Table 10.1
Map 11.1
**
Total actual renewable water resources State Developing Table 4.3 **
per capita
Surface water as share of total actual State Developing Table 4.3 na
renewable water resources
State of the Overlap as share of total actual renewable State Developing Table 4.3 na
resource water resources
Inflow from other countries as share of State Developing Table 4.3 **
total actual renewable water resourcesd
Outflow to other countries as share of State Developing Table 4.3 na
total actual renewable water resources
Total use as share of total actual renewable State Developing Table 4.3 **
water resourcese
Groundwater development as share of total State Key Table 4.3 na
actual renewable water resources
Fragmentation and flow regulation of rivers State, impact Key Map 5.3 Figure 8.2
Figure 5.4
Dissolved nitrogen (nitrates + nitrogen State Key Map 5.2 *
Ecosystems dioxide)
Trends in freshwater habitat protection State, response Key Fig. 5.7 na
Freshwater species population trends index State Key Fig. 5.2 Figure 8.1
Disability-adjusted life year Impact Key Table 6.3 Table 6.3
Prevalence of stunting among children under Impact Developing na Map 6.2
age 5
Health
Mortality rate of children under age 5 Impact Developing Table 6.2 *
Access to safe drinking water Impact Key Map 6.1 Figure 7.3
Access to basic sanitation Impact Key Map 6.2 Figure 7.4
Percentage of undernourished people State Key Map 7.2 *
Figure 7.10
Figure 7.11
Percentage of poor people living in rural State Key na *
areas
Food,
Agriculture GDP as share of total GDP State Key na *
agriculture
and rural Irrigated land as a percentage of cultivated Pressure, state Key Map 7.1 Map 7.5
livelihoods land
Agriculture water withdrawals as share of Pressure Key na Table 7.1
total water withdrawals
Extent of land salinized by irrigation State Key na na
Groundwater use as share of total irrigation Pressure, state Key na Figure 7.1
(continued)
Table A1.1 List of United Nations World Water Development Report indicators and location
of detailed data (continued)
Locationc
Category in In World Water In World Water
cause-effect Type of Development Development
Topic Indicator approacha indicatorb Report 2 Report 3
Trends in industrial water use Pressure Key Figure 8.1 na
Water use by major sector State Key Figure 8.3 Table 7.1
Figure 7.1
Organic pollution emissions (biochemical Impact Key Figure 8.4 *
oxygen demand) by industrial sector
Industrial water productivity Response Key Table 8.4 Figure 7.8
Trends in ISO 14001 certification Response Key Table 8.2 Figure 8.7
Industry
Electricity generation by energy source State Key Figure 9.1 Figure 7.11
and energy
Total primary energy supply by source State Key Figure 9.2 *
Carbon intensity of electricity generation Impact Key Table 9.4 na
Volume of desalinated water produced Response Key Table 9.1 Box 9.5
Access to electricity and water for domestic Pressure Key Table 9.5 *
use
Capability for hydropower generation State Key Table 9.6 Map 7.6
*
Disaster Risk Index State Key Box 10.4 na
Risk
Risk and policy assessment indicator Response Key Figure 10.7 na
assessment
Climate Vulnerability Index State Key Map 10.3 na
Water sector share in total public spending Response Developing na na
Ratio of actual to desired level of public Response Developing na na
investment in drinking water supply
Valuing and Ratio of actual to desired level of public Response Developing na na
charging for investment in basic sanitationf
the resource
Rate of cost recoveryg Driving force, Developing na na
response
Water charges as percentage of household Driving force, Developing Figure 12.5 na
incomeh response
Knowledge Knowledge Index State Developing Map 13.2 *
base and
capacity
na designates that the indicator is not used in the report, although for many of these indicators updated information is provided online (see table note).
Note: An Indicator profile sheet with a detailed definition and explanation of how the indicator is computed (as well as data tables for some indicators)
is available for most indicators at www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr3/indicators. Exceptions are subindicators for ‘Total actual renewable water
resources’.
a. The categories are based on the DPSIR (driving forces, pressures, state, impact, response) framework. For details, see www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/
wwdr1/pdf/chap3.pdf and www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr2/pdf/wwdr2_ch_1.pdf (pp. 33-38).
b. Basic indicators provide fundamental information and are well established and widely used; data are generally widely available for all countries. Key
indicators are well defined and validated, have global coverage and are linked directly to policy goals. Developing indicators are in a formative stage and may
evolve into key indicators following refinement of methodological issues or data development and testing.
c. Because of updates to data and sources, data may not match across reports.
d. Now called ‘Dependency ratio’.
e. Now called ‘Millennium Development Goal water indicator’.
f. Proposed for United Nations World Water Development Report 3.
g. Now called ‘Rate of operation and maintenance cost recovery for water supply and sanitation’.
h. Now called ‘Water and sanitation charges as percentage of various household income groups’.
Source: Compiled by Engin Koncagül and Akif Altundaş.
Table A2.1 Water-related goals and objectives of major conferences and forums, 1972-present
UN Conference on the • The main issues of the conference were preservation and enhancement of the human environment.
Human Environment,
• The declaration of the conference acknowledged that ‘a point has been reached in history when
Stockholm, Sweden, 1972
we must shape our actions throughout the world with a more prudent care for their environmental
consequences.’
UN Conference on • The main objective of this first global-scale conference on water was to promote greater awareness
Water, Mar del Plata, nationally and internationally of global problems related to water and to assess water resources and
Argentina, 1977 water use efficiency through an integrated approach to water resources management.
• Led to declaring the 1980s International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, with the
objective of providing drinking water and sanitation for all people by 1990.
International ‘The goal of the Decade was that, by the end of 1990, all people should possess an adequate water
Drinking Water supply and satisfactory means of excreta and sullage disposal. This was indeed an ambitious target as
Supply and Sanitation it has been estimated that it would have involved the provision of water and sanitation services to over
Decade, 1981-90 650,000 people per day for the entire ten year period. Although major efforts were made by government
and international organisations to meet this target, it was not achieved.’ (C. Choguill, R. Francys and A.
Cotton, 1993, Planning for Water and Sanitation)
Global Consultation • The main issues were safe drinking water and environmental sanitation.
on Safe Water and
• The New Delhi Statement declared: ‘Safe water and proper means of waste disposal . . . must be
Sanitation for the 1990s,
at the center of integrated water resources management.’ (Environment and health, New Delhi
New Delhi, India, 1990
Statement)
World Summit for • The main issues were health and food supply.
Children, New York,
• The World Declaration on the Survival, Protection and Development of Children stated: ‘We will
United States, 1990
promote the provision of clean water in all communities for all their children, as well as universal
access to sanitation.’
International Decade Recognized the increased vulnerability of people and property to natural disasters and sought ‘to reduce
for Natural Disaster through concerted international action, especially in developing countries, the loss of life, property
Reduction, 1990-2000 damage and social and economic disruption caused by natural disasters.’ (Resolution 44/236 of the UN
General Assembly)
International The most important achievement was the development of the Dublin Principles:
Conference on Water
• Freshwater is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the
and Environment,
environment.
Dublin, Ireland, 1992
• Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users,
planners and policy-makers at all levels.
• Women play a central part in providing, managing and safeguarding water.
Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good.
(continued)
Table A2.1 Water-related goals and objectives of major conferences and forums, 1972-present (continued)
UN Conference on Agenda 21, chapter 18, ‘Protection of the quality and supply of freshwater resources: application of
Environment and integrated approaches to the development, management and use of water resources’, dealt with the basis
Development , Rio de for action, objectives and activities concerning:
Janeiro, Brazil, 1992
• Integrated water resources development and management.
• Water resources assessment.
• Protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic ecosystems.
• Drinking water supply and sanitation.
• Water and sustainable urban development.
• Water for sustainable food production and rural development.
• Impacts of climate change on water resources.
Ministerial Conference on • The main issues were drinking water supply and sanitation.
Drinking Water Supply
• The Programme of Action identified ‘assign[ing] high priority to programmes designed to provide
and Environmental
basic sanitation and excreta disposal systems to urban and rural areas.’
Sanitation, Noordwijk,
The Netherlands, 1994
UN International • The Programme of Action highlighted ‘ensur[ing] that population, environmental and poverty
Conference on Population eradication factors are integrated in sustainable development policies, plans and programmes.’
and Development, (Chapter III – Interrelationships between population, sustained economic growth and sustainable
Cairo, Egypt, 1994 development)
World Summit for • The main issues were poverty reduction, water supply and sanitation.
Social Development,
• The outcome was the Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development.
Copenhagen,
Denmark, 1995
UN Fourth World • The main issues were gender, water supply and sanitation.
Conference on Women,
• The outcome was the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action.
Beijing, People’s Republic
of China, 1995
Second UN Conference • The main issues were sustainable human settlements development in an urbanizing world.
on Human Settlements
• The outcome was the Habitat Agenda.
(Habitat II), Istanbul,
Turkey, 1996
World Food Summit, • The main issues were food, health, water and sanitation.
Rome, Italy, 1996
• The outcome was the Rome Declaration on World Food Security.
1st World Water Forum, The main issues were water and sanitation, management of shared waters, preserving ecosystems,
Marrakech, Morocco, 1997 gender equity and efficient use of water ‘to recognize the basic human needs to have access to clean
water and sanitation, to establish an effective mechanism for management of shared waters, to support
and preserve ecosystems, to encourage the efficient use of water.’ (Marrakech Declaration)
International Conference The outcome was the Paris Declaration on Water and Sustainable Development, whose objective was ‘to
on Water and Sustainable improve co-ordination between UN Agencies and Programmes and other international organizations,
Development, Paris, to ensure periodic consideration within the UN system. [To] emphasize the need for continuous political
France, 1998 commitment and broad-based public support to ensure the achievement of sustainable development,
management and protection, and equitable use of freshwater resources, and the importance of civil
society to support this commitment.’ (Paris Declaration)
Millennium Declaration, The Millennium Development Goals include the following water-related targets:
New York, United
• ‘To halve, by the year 2015, the proportion of the world’s people whose income is less than one dollar
States, 2000
a day and the proportion of people who suffer from hunger and, by the same date, to halve the
proportion of people who are unable to reach or to afford safe drinking water.’
• ‘To stop the unsustainable exploitation of water resources by developing water management
strategies at the regional, national and local levels, which promote both equitable access and
adequate supplies.’
(continued)
Appendix 2
Table A2.1 Water-related goals and objectives of major conferences and forums, 1972-present (continued)
2nd World Water The Ministerial Declaration identified the following main challenges:
Forum, The Hague, The
• Meeting basic needs – access to safe and sufficient water and sanitation.
Netherlands, 2000
• Securing the food supply, particularly of the poor and vulnerable.
• Protecting ecosystems – ensure the integrity of ecosystems through sustainable water resources
management.ASharing water resources, by peaceful cooperation between water users at all levels.
• Managing risks from floods, droughts, pollution and other water hazards.
• Valuing water – managing water to reflect its economic, social, environmental and cultural values.
• Governing water wisely, including involving the public and the interests of all stakeholders.
International Conference • The main issues were governance, finance mobilization, capacity building and knowledge sharing.
on Freshwater, Bonn,
• Identified water as key to sustainable development.
Germany, 2001
• The outcome was the Ministerial Declaration Recommendations for Action: ‘Combating poverty is
the main challenge for achieving equitable and sustainable development, and water plays a vital
role in relation to human health, livelihood, economic growth as well as sustaining ecosystems. . . .
The conference recommends priority actions under the following three headings: governance,
mobilising financial resources, capacity building and sharing knowledge.’ (Ministerial Declaration
Recommendations for Action)
World Summit on The summit dealt with the following freshwater-related issues:
Sustainable Development,
• Decentralization of governance.
Johannesburg, South
Africa, 2002 • Community empowerment.
• Service provision: rural and urban challenges.
• Information management.
• Integrated water resources management.
• Education and awareness.
• Financial and economic mechanisms.
• Regional challenges were particularly recognized and identified.
G-8 Evian Summit, One outcome was a G-8 Action Plan on Water:
Evian, France, 2003
• Promoting good governance.
• Using all financial resources.
• Building infrastructure by empowering local authorities and communities.
• Strengthening monitoring, assessment and research.
• Reinforcing engagement of international organizations.
Water for Life Launched by the United Nations System, the aim is to promote efforts to fulfil international commitments
Decade, 2005-15 made on water and water-related issues by 2015, with special emphasis on the involvement and
participation of women.
The World Conference on Adopted the ‘Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and
Disaster Reduction, Kobe Communities to Disasters’, recognizing the importance of water-related disaster risk reduction.
(Hyogo), Japan, 2005
(continued)
Table A2.1 Water-related goals and objectives of major conferences and forums, 1972-present (continued)
4th World Water Forum, The ministers at the forum reaffirmed commitments made at the UN Conference on Environment
Mexico City, Mexico, 2006 and Development, World Summit on Sustainable Development, and the Commission on Sustainable
Development during 2005, emphasizing:
• Expediting implementation in water, sanitation and human settlements.
• Enhancing the sustainability of ecosystems.
• Applying innovative practices such as rainwater management and development of hydropower
projects in some regions.
• Involving relevant stakeholders, particularly women and youth, in planning and management.
• They also expressed support for relevant UN water-related activities, including the coordinating role
of UN-Water.
5th World Water Forum, The theme is Bridging Divides for Water.
Istanbul, Turkey, 2009
Abbreviations
Boxes
1 Objectives and targeted audience of The United Nations World Water Development Report vii
1.1 Commitment of African heads of state to water as a key to sustainable development 7
1.2 Economic impacts of lack of adequate sanitation facilities in South-East Asia 8
1.3 Estimated costs of restoring essential ecosystems in the United States 9
1.4 Progress in meeting the Millennium Development Goal target on water supply and sanitation 12
1.5 High-Level Event on the Millennium Development Goals, United Nations, New York, 25 September 2008:
Extract from compilation of partnership events and commitments 13
1.6 Malnutrition attributable to environmental risks 14
1.7 Water as capital 14
1.8 International Monetary Fund updated economic forecast for 2009 17
1.9 Extracts from Declaration of Leaders Meeting of Major Economies on Energy Security and Climate
Change at the G-8 Hokkaido, Toyako, summit, 9 July 2008 18
1.10 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Technical Report on Water and Climate Change 19
1.11 UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon warns that water shortages are increasingly driving conflicts 20
2.1 Virtual water 35
2.2 Water: a brake on economic growth and corporate prospects 36
2.3 The role of women within the water sector and the importance of gender mainstreaming 38
4.1 The EU Water Framework Directive – uneven implementation 50
4.2 Australian water law reform 52
4.3 Experience with irrigation management transfer 55
4.4 Dalian water supply project in China – successful expansion of services 61
4.5 Subsidizing water supply and sanitation in the Republic of Korea 64
5.1 The cost of adapting to climate change 71
5.2 Micro-hydro plants in Nepal are expected to provide electricity access to 142,000 households and to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions 72
5.3 Health and climate change 73
6.1 Water services are a crucial element of nation-building in fragile states 81
6.2 Storing water for development 81
6.3 Land tenure and access to water and sanitation 85
6.4 Four water dimensions of rural livelihoods 86
6.5 Defining water services: single or multiple uses? 87
6.6 Agro-ecosystems and sustainability: an example from Peru 93
7.1 How much do we know about water uses? 97
7.2 Water withdrawal, demand and consumption 98
7.3 Rapid assessment of drinking water quality 103
7.4 How much water is needed to produce food for a single day? 107
7.5 Coping with water scarcity and climate change in agriculture in the Near East 112
7.6 Impacts of water shortage on rice production in Indonesia 114
7.7 Tourism water demand in the Mediterranean coastal area 117
8.1 Asian ‘Tigers’ and the hidden tip of the pollution iceberg 136
8.2 Addressing eutrophication and its effects in the Baltic Sea 138
15.12 The Integrated Watershed Development Programme in Jhabua District, Madhya Pradesh, India 278
15.13 Experience with multiple-use water services in Nepal 278
15.14 The drive for competitive advantage leads to water benefits 279
15.15 Sustainable tourism, Çıralı, Turkey 280
15.16 Integrating multiple sectors in Southeast Anatolia, Turkey 281
15.17 The Tennessee Valley Authority: economic and social transformation in a river basin and beyond 281
15.18 Nepal: a community-led initiative to mitigate water-induced disasters 282
15.19 Resettlement in Rwanda 282
15.20 Rehabilitating the Iraqi Mesopotamian Marshlands for integration and stability 283
15.21 Sustainable water institutions promote regional cooperation and stability – the case of the Senegal
River 284
15.22 Allocation of water from the Rio Grande/Rio Bravo River between Mexico and the United States 284
15.23 Rainfall-related index insurance for farmers 285
15.24 Getting a complete picture of water resources through user contributions – a new role for Australia’s
Bureau of Meteorology 286
15.25 Zambia’s experiences linking integrated water resources management with national development
plans 287
15.26 Payments for ecosystem services help curb climate change and conserve biodiversity while protecting
water resources 288
15.27 A water services concession with public funding in Guayaquil, Ecuador 288
16.1 Timescales for long-term planning 294
Figures
1.1 Decision-making affecting water 5
1.2 The costs of disasters as a share of GDP are much higher in poor countries than rich countries 8
1.3 US government investments in water infrastructure during 1930-96 yielded $6 in damages averted for
each $1 invested 8
1.4 Water investment requires a holistic approach – links between pricing, financing and stakeholders 9
1.5 Access to water and sanitation rises with income 11
1.6 Poverty remains high in sub-Saharan Africa 11
1.7 Cause-effect chains and links between water and the Millennium Development Goals 13
1.8 Historical and projected energy demand and oil prices show steadily rising demand and rapidly rising
prices 15
1.9 Wheat and rice prices have risen sharply in recent years 16
2.1 By 2030 about 60% of the world’s population is expected to live in urban areas 31
2.2 The cost of energy to consumers has been rising since the 1970s 34
2.3 The fertility rate declines with rising female literacy, 1990 37
3.1 Many developed countries have increased their investment in environmental research and
development 42
3.2 The use of renewable energy sources rose worldwide between 1990 and 2004 43
3.3 The absorption of older and more recent technologies depends on more than income 46
4.1 Formal and informal legal framework of water rights 52
4.2 If the vicious cycle of low funding is reversed, the benefits to society will be enormous 57
4.3 New infrastructure seems to dominate donor investments in drinking water and sanitation 58
4.4 In the few countries surveyed financial system constraints weighed heavily on achieving the Millennium
Development Goals sanitation target 59
4.5 Household expenditure and private sector investments in drinking water supply are generally
unknown 60
4.6 Private water operators have a substantial role in developing and developed countries 63
4.7 External private investment in the water sector, though variable, has been significant since the early
1990s 63
4.8 Official development assistance to the water supply and sanitation sector is rising again after a decline
during the 1990s 63
5.1 Climate change: processes, characteristics and threats 69
5.2 GDP growth tracks rainfall variability in Ethiopia (1983-2000) and Tanzania (1989-99) 70
6.1 The shift of economies from agriculture-based to industrialized, 1965-2001 82
6.2 The relation between freshwater use and level of development is inconclusive 83
6.3 The ratio of water use to GDP has been declining in many countries 83
6.4 Different categories of rural inhabitants in Africa 86
6.5 Benefits of a multiple-use approach to water 87
6.6 Agricultural systems can be managed to produce one ecosystem function or a range of
ecosystem services 91
7.1 Sources of water use globally and for major sectors, 2000 100
7.2 Future water demands in Mediterranean region countries for 2025 in Blue Plan business as usual scenario
(trend scenario) 101
7.3 Regional and global water supply coverage, by urban and rural areas, 1990 and 2006 103
7.4 Regional and global sanitation coverage, by urban and rural areas, 1990 and 2006 103
7.5 Gaps are large between farmer’s actual yields and achievable yields for major rainfed cereal crops 108
7.6 As irrigation area expanded, food price fell for 30 years before starting to rise again 109
7.7 Feed demand drives future demand for grains 109
7.8 Industrial water productivity varies greatly across countries 116
7.9 Interlinkages between energy and water 117
7.10 Water consumption for various power generation technologies in the United States, 2006 118
7.11 Renewable energy sources are expected to meet only a small part of total energy demand to 2030 119
7.12 Global freshwater fish production has grown rapidly in recent decades 122
7.13 Inland capture fisheries vary greatly by region, 2006 122
8.1 Biodiversity in freshwater species has declined by half since 1970 129
8.2 Effects of river fragmentation and flow regulation vary by region and biome type, 2005 130
8.3 Groundwater use has grown rapidly in some countries 131
8.4 Increasing frequency of harmful algal blooms in East China Sea associated with increasing
fertilizer use 138
8.5 Levels and types of wastewater treatment in OECD countries and selected European countries, 2006 142
8.6 High level of wastewater reuse in water-stressed countries, various years 142
8.7 The number of companies with a certified system of environmental management varied considerably by
country in 2006 144
9.1 Examples of hydrologic interactions in river basins – upstream-downstream impacts 152
9.2 Three types of response to water scarcity and competition 154
9.3 Importance of non-conventional sources of water for selected Middle East and Mediterranean region
countries, 2000-06 155
10.1 Distribution of global runoff to the oceans (exorheic) or internal receiving waters (endorheic) and the
corresponding distribution of contemporary population served 170
10.2 Impact of the Davis Dam on the Colorado River hydrograph 172
10.3 Human activities are sources for dissolved inorganic nitrogen, organic nitrogen, inorganic phosphorus
and organic phosphorus in coastal zones 174
10.4 The spatial distribution of surface area and nitrogen inputs and removal by types of water bodies differ
by latitude, most recent year available 176
13.1 Data delivery rate from runoff gauging stations to the Global Runoff Data Centre (number of stations
from which data have been received, 2001-07) 233
14.1 Ecosystems and some of the services they provide 264
Maps
1.1 Fragile states as defined by the International Development Association 20
2.1 Expected areas of population growth and decline, 2000-2080 30
6.1 Diarrhoea deaths in 2004 89
6.2 Geographical pattern of stunting in children under age five on a country basis 90
6.3 Water stress level of major river basins, around 2002 92
7.1 Water withdrawals highlight discrepancies between regions and between the largest and smallest
consumers, around 2001 98
7.2 Annual water withdrawals per person by country, world view, 2000 99
7.3 Average national water footprint per capita, 1997-2001 102
7.4 Relative importance of rainfed and irrigated agriculture 108
7.5 Percentage of cultivated areas equipped for irrigation, around 2003 109
7.6 World potential and current hydropower production, 2004 119
7.7 Important waterways in the world, 2007 120
8.1 Increasing water scarcity 128
8.2 Restoration of the Mesopotamian Marshlands in Iraq, March 2003-December 2005 129
8.3 Annual withdrawals of renewable groundwater sources and non-renewable fossil aquifers, most recent
year available, 1995-2004 132
8.4 Groundwater use for irrigation on a country basis, most recent year available, 1995-2005 133
8.5 Groundwater use for drinking water on a country basis, most recent year available, 1995-2005 134
Tables
1.1 Summary of scaling-up opportunities related to achieving the Millennium Development Goals in Africa 12
1.2 Types of ecosystem services 14
3.1 Return on investments in agricultural research and extension 47
4.1 Laws addressing water rights and water management 53
4.2 Laws addressing provision of water services 54
4.3 Annual capital requirements for water supply and wastewater services and water financing gaps, by
region, 2006-25 59
4.4 Commitments of official development assistance from bilateral and multilateral agencies, 2004-06 64
5.1 Economic impacts of flood and drought in Kenya, 1997-2000 71
5.2 The three water scenarios of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, to 2025 75
6.1 Water and the characteristics of rural livelihoods 85
6.2 Benefit-cost ratio by water and sanitation intervention in developing regions and Eurasia 88
6.3 Major diseases attributable to environmental factors 89
7.1 Water resources and withdrawals, 2000 99
7.2 Different types of biofuel and quantity of water needed to produce them in rainfed or irrigated
conditions 112
7.3 Typology of climate change impacts on major agricultural systems 113
7.3 Typology of climate change impacts on major agricultural systems (continued) 114
7.4 Water use per tonne of product produced, selected industries 116
7.5 Contribution of inland and marine fisheries to exports, daily animal protein supply and employment in
major fish-harvesting economies, latest year available 121
8.1 Comparison of point and non-point sources of water pollution 137
10.1 Estimates of renewable water supplies, access to renewable supplies and population served by freshwater,
2000 167
10.2 Definitions of key components of the land-based hydrologic cycle and examples of their reconfiguration
by humans 168
10.2 Definitions of key components of the land-based hydrologic cycle and examples of their reconfiguration
by humans (continued) 169
10.3 Indicative range of uncertainty in recent assessments of renewable water supply, most recent year
available 171
10.4 Estimated mean residence times (storage to throughput) and stored water volumes of the main
components of the Earth’s hydrosphere 173
10.5 Principal symptoms of human-river system interactions and human pressures on water use 177
11.1 Trends in annual maximum streamflow, by continent, for 195 stream gauging stations worldwide,
various years 188
11.2 Summary of key findings relative to trends in land surface water cycle components 203
12.1 Examples of major floods and flooding worldwide, 1860-2008 215
A1.1 List of United Nations World Water Development Report indicators and location of detailed data 299
A2.1 Water-related goals and objectives of major conferences and forums, 1972-present 302
A
abiotic factors 219, 220
see also reallocation
alluvial aquifers 223
Altai glaciers 196‑197
Anatolia, Turkey 281
civil society 4, 248, 256, 270-271
climate change
agriculture 106, 112
bioenergy 111‑112
absorptive capacity 46‑47 Andes 196 diversification 272
access to water animal feed 109, 110 energy 117
climate change 222 aquaculture 121‑123, 143 future 68‑76
corruption 55 aquatic systems 91, 176, 177, 227 glaciers 196
economic 80, 270 aquifers 131‑132, 134, 135, 136, 188, 189‑190, governance reform 250‑251
education 38 221‑222, 223 groundwater 171, 189
electricity 72 see also groundwater hazards 211‑223
finance 262 arctic regions 212 human security 280
groundwater 134 arid tropics 113 hydrological cycle 201, 202‑203
health 88, 88‑89, 90, 271, 296 arsenic 139, 177 migration 32
income 84, 86, 87 Arwari River, India 251‑254 payments for ecosystem services 288
inequitable 296 Asia 82, 84, 136, 145, 157, 245 permafrost 193
monitoring 103‑104 Asian Water Development Outlook 2007 7 risk and uncertainty 284‑285, 295‑296
poverty reduction 10‑11, 83, 84‑85 atmospheric links 166, 173‑174 runoff 82, 113‑114, 213
renewable water 167, 170 augmentation, supply 154 sustainable development 14, 18‑19
rights to 248 Australia 51, 52, 157, 216, 285, 286 water use 96, 101
sanitation 84, 85, 88, 96, 102‑103, 104 awareness 35‑36, 105, 222, 251, 258‑259, 285, 286 cloud cover 184, 185
solar energy 279 coalitions 6
accountability 241, 251‑255, 270, 292
adaptation
climate change 18‑19, 68, 69, 71, 73‑74,
113‑114, 222, 251
B
Balkans 140
coastal areas 30, 117, 120, 175, 176
Coca‑Cola 274, 275
collaboration 276, 277, 285, 292
Colombia 255
collaborative learning processes 277 Baltic Sea 138 Colorado River, US 172
innovative 259 Ban Ki‑moon 19, 20, 275 commercialization 249
integrated 295 behavioural changes 286 communication 235, 254, 256‑257, 258
investments 72 benefits of water 80‑95 communities of practice 257
technology 46‑47 bilateral aid 17, 64 community level 55, 105‑106, 248, 279‑280,
uncertainty 282 biocapacity 136, 137 282, 293
aerosols 184 biodiversity 129, 219‑220, 259, 288 see also local level
Africa bioenergy 16, 34, 44‑45, 47, 72, 96, 106, competition 21, 51, 134‑135, 150‑159
climate change 19, 73 110‑112 conflicts 19‑20, 32, 51, 127, 151‑152, 190
hydrologic data 229 biogas 244 conservation 154, 218
investment 11 biogeochemical cycles 173‑178 consultation 275‑276, 277, 292
knowledge networks 258 biotechnology 43‑44 consumption
poverty 10, 11, 86 biotic factors 220 climate change 71‑72
sanitation 60, 104 Blue Plan, Mediterranean 101 ecological footprints 136, 137
sustainable development 7 blue water 107, 168 energy 118
age distribution 29, 30, 31, 32 Bolivia 246 fertilizer 144
agriculture Brazil 247, 248‑249 fish 121‑122
biogeochemical cycles 175 social drivers 39
charging for water 62
conflicts 152
economic development 80, 81‑82
ecosystems 91, 92‑93, 129
C
Cambodia 259
water footprints 101
water use 98
conversation arenas 75
cooling processes 16, 98, 118
education 272‑273 Canada 187, 193, 195, 276, 277 cooperation 220‑222, 234, 235, 269, 271,
food prices 34 capacity 275‑285, 295
green revolution 44, 217 bio‑ 136, 137 coordination 247‑248, 271
groundwater 132‑133, 135‑136 development 241, 255‑259, 291, 292 corporate water footprints 35‑36
pollution 144 environmental sustainability 127 corruption 55‑56, 251, 254‑255, 280
poverty reduction 85 observation systems 229 costs
research and development 47 technology adsorption 46‑47 access to water 88‑89
sediment 220 water management investment 57‑60 adaptation 71, 73
soil erosion 218 capital 14, 57, 65 charging for water 61‑62
subsidized energy 117 Cap‑Net 257 disasters 8
technological innovation 41 carbon cycle 181, 197‑201 energy 33‑35
trade 35 carbon dioxide 44, 45 environmental 9
wastewater 142 CEO Water Mandate 274‑275 extreme events 214, 215, 216
water use 16, 21, 96, 97, 98, 99, 106‑115, certification 144 infrastructure 57‑58, 58‑60
232‑233 charging strategies 61‑62, 127‑128, 145 lack of investment 82
win‑win scenarios 276‑278 see also pricing strategies nanotechnology 45
see also rural areas chemical waste 211 pollution 140
aid 17, 64, 260, 282, 296 chief executives 274‑275, 293 recovery 61, 65, 66
Alaska 193 children 88 service provision 3
algal blooms 138, 211, 219 China 7‑8, 10, 36, 39, 61, 218, 272‑273 supply augmentation 154‑155
allocation of water 52, 92, 115, 150, 154, 157, Çıralı, Turkey 280 water management 56‑57
244‑245, 284 circumpolar permafrost 192, 194 crises 3, 13, 14‑20
D
dairy products 39, 109, 110
disasters 8, 70‑71, 280‑282, 284
see also extreme events
disbursement delays 60‑61
diseases 13, 37, 70, 88, 89‑90, 104, 140, 143, 273
degradation costs 9
diseases 89
economic decisions 273‑274
ecosystem services 91‑93
Dalian water supply project, China 61 displaced people 32, 283 footprints 39
damage costs 8‑9 dissolved materials 173‑174, 200, 201 governance 271
dams 59, 129‑130, 151, 152‑153, 171, 172, 190, distributional aspects 21, 166, 170 green revolution impacts 44
219 diversification 271‑272 impact assessments 284‑285
see also reservoirs; storage domestic level 63, 96, 102‑106 migration 32
Danube 286 see also household level monitoring 43
data 226‑236, 260‑262, 294 Dominican Republic 279 payment for goods and services 65‑66,
Davis Dam, US 172 donor community 291 262‑263, 292
decentralization 51, 65, 104‑105, 246, 270‑271, downscaling 203 research and development 42
285, 293 downstream impacts 153 services 120
decision‑making drafting laws 54, 250 sustainability 12‑14, 37, 127, 134‑135, 145‑146
climate change 74, 75, 203 drinking water technological innovation 41, 47
decentralization 269, 270‑271 access to 84 urbanization 31
environmental impacts 273‑274 education 38 water use 127‑149
informed 258 groundwater 134 equity 157, 292
institutional 246 health 88 erosion 175, 218
integrated 292‑293 infrastructure costs 59 ethanol 111, 112
participation 275‑276, 277 investment 8 eThekwini Declaration 2008 60, 104
risk and uncertainty 295‑296 MDGs 11, 102 Ethiopia 70, 274
sustainable development 3‑23 pollution 139 Eurasia 88, 195
trade‑offs 291, 294 safe 104, 259 Europe 141, 142, 146, 187, 194, 216
decommissioning costs 59 drivers 21 European Union Water Framework Directive
deltas 113, 153 droughts 71, 183‑184, 188, 211, 214‑217 50, 132, 247
demand eutrophication 138, 144, 175‑176, 220
agriculture 108‑110, 111‑112
competition management 154‑158
energy 15, 43
finance 60
E
earthquakes 219
evaporation 97, 116‑117, 167, 175, 184‑185, 190,
202, 204
evapotranspiration 106, 107, 112, 152, 156, 167,
184‑185, 189, 197, 202, 204, 222
groundwater 131‑134 East China Sea 138 evolution of water use 96‑126
industrial 116 Eastern Europe 141 exorheic zones 170
population 29 ecohealth approach 273 exports 35, 46, 102, 121, 271
sanitation 105, 106 ecological footprints 136, 137 external aid 64
technological innovation 42 economic level external drivers 21, 269‑270, 296
water use 98 demand management 156 external water footprints 101‑102
demographic level 14‑15, 29‑32, 37, 69‑70 development 21, 74, 80‑84, 96, 136, 291, 295 extreme events 21, 70, 71, 184, 211, 213‑217
desalinization 16, 41‑42, 45, 155 drivers 32‑36 see also disasters
desertification 218 environmental goods and services 262‑263
deserts 211
developed countries
charging for water 61
extreme events 211, 214
extreme events 214, 215
fisheries 121
groundwater 131‑134, 134‑135, 217
growth 6‑7, 10, 14, 70‑71, 273‑274
F
female literacy 37
pollution 177‑178 investment 7‑9 fertility 32, 37
priorities 295 livelihoods 259 fertilizers 138, 144
private water operators 63 macro‑ policies 271‑272 filtration 45
research and development 42 pollution 141 finance
sewage treatment 141 regional development 280, 281 climate change 72‑73
technological innovation 45, 46, 72 technological innovation 41 crises 17
water use 101 water use 101 economic development 295
developing countries ecosystems hydrologic networks 235
access to water 88 pressures on 150‑159 investment 292
adaptation 18 protection 21 the missing link 56‑66
charging for water 61‑62 restoration costs 9 observation networks 228
climate change 70, 73, 284 services 14, 91‑93, 127‑129, 130, 177, 288 options 49
consumption patterns 39 temperature and productivity 219 pollution and mitigation 145
diseases 13 ecotourism 279‑280 poverty reduction 85
economy 70 Ecuador 253, 288 response options 262‑263
ecosystem services 92 education 32, 37‑38, 88, 258‑259, 272‑273, 286 sustainable 57, 66, 286‑287, 291, 292
energy use 119 efficiency see also investment
extreme events 211, 214 agriculture 106, 115 fires 200
finance 17, 73 charging for water 62 fisheries 121‑123, 143, 153
fisheries 122, 123 competition management 154, 157 floods 70, 71, 171, 172, 186, 187, 211, 213‑214
food prices 110 education 37 flows
hydrologic data 227 finance 61 environmental 145‑146
investment 9‑10 integrated water resources management 243 rivers 130, 170‑171, 214‑217
national frameworks 51 technological innovation 41, 260 fluvial system filters 174, 176
networks 203‑204, 228, 285 water saving 274 food
pollution 177 water use 116, 118, 212 bioenergy 44‑45, 72
population 30‑31 Ethiopia 261 diet 14, 36, 39, 121, 122
priorities 295 electricity 43, 72, 117, 118, 119, 279 global crisis 14, 33‑35
private water operators 62, 63 electrification 127, 279 population 108, 109
public utilities 105 emerging market economies prices 16, 21, 33, 34, 47, 106, 108, 109, 110
research and development 42, 260 economic growth 32, 36, 58 security 16‑17, 33, 110, 123
sewage treatment 141 finance 63, 64‑65 water use 107
streamflow 186 pollution 136, 143 forecasts 74, 227, 231, 233, 234
technological innovation 41, 45, 46, 47, 72 social change 71‑72 formal water rights 52
wastewater 143 water use 96, 101 forums 254
development Emilia‑Romagna Region, Italy 254, 258‑259 fossil fuels 43, 120
economic 21, 74, 80‑83, 80‑84, 96, 136, 291, employment 121, 272‑273 fragile states 19‑20, 81
295‑296 empowerment 38, 53‑54, 274 see also vulnerability
fragmentation 247‑248 trends 188‑190, 204 water use 41, 96, 97, 98, 99, 115‑120
France 97 variability 171‑172 inequality 33, 84, 98
freshwater water use 99‑100 inequity 61‑62, 296
agriculture 16, 111, 112, 114, 115 see also aquifers informal sector 31, 37, 52, 63, 84‑85, 103‑104,
biodiversity 129 groundwater‑dependent economies 127, 131 105, 249
development 83 growing seasons 200, 220, 222 information
drivers 29‑39 Guaraní aquifer 221 climate change 73, 203
ecosystems 92, 120 Guayaquil, Ecuador 288 decision‑making 296
fisheries 123 groundwater 132, 135, 229‑230
glaciers 196
lakes 190
quality 138, 139, 230
trends 100‑102
H
hand‑washing 90
needs 15, 17‑18, 260‑262
networks 231, 256‑258
observational gap 226‑236
pollution 127, 136
water cycle 166‑177 hazards 211‑225 sharing 256‑258, 292, 293‑294
withdrawals 96, 97, 98, 100, 106 health wastewater 233
see also aquifers; groundwater climate change 73 information and communications technology
front‑end tools 235 microbial pollution 138 (ICT) 43
fuel costs 33‑35 policy 272‑273 informed decisions 296
future aspects 68‑76, 135‑136, 202‑203 pollution 139, 140, 177 infrastructure
poverty reduction 87, 296 corruption 254
G
G‑8 Evian Water Action Plan 2009 296
wastewater 143
water relationships 88‑90
heat waves 184, 216
heavy metals 45, 139, 143
costs 57‑58, 58‑60
development 81
government finance 63
international support 296
Ganges River 39 High‑Level Conference on World Food Security investment 7, 8, 9, 17, 82‑83, 242, 259, 291,
GDP see gross domestic product 2008 16, 34 292
gender 38, 292 High‑Level Event on the Millennium post‑conflict 20
general circulation models 203 Development Goals 2008 13, 14 technological innovation 46
genetically modified organisms 44 Himalayan region 213 inland water resources 91, 121, 122, 176
GEO4 see Global Environment Outlook 2007 Hinduism 39 innovation 41‑48, 241, 259‑260, 292
Germany 187 HIV/AIDS 273 in‑situ observations 186, 203, 230, 233, 235
glaciers 196‑197, 198, 204, 213, 216 holistic approaches 9, 74, 244 institutional level
Global Environment Outlook 2007 (GEO4) 75 Honduras 249 allocation 284
globalization 33, 36, 96, 102 household level collaborative initiatives 276
global level fisheries 121 development 241, 245‑250, 255‑256, 259,
bioenergy 111 investment 60, 277‑278 292
biogeochemical cycles 173‑178 micro‑hydro plants 72 international waters 283, 284
climate change 212 poverty reduction 84, 86‑87 macroeconomic policies 271
crises 3, 14‑20 sanitation 104, 105 in‑stream water uses 120‑123
ecological footprints 137 water‑saving technologies 41 insurance 284, 285
economic growth 32 see also domestic level integrated approaches
ecosystem degradation 130 Human Development Report 2006 10, 83‑84, 104 climate change 74, 295
energy 43 human level crisis recovery 283
extreme events 214, 215 biogeochemical cycles 174‑176 decision‑making 269
fisheries 122 capacities 255‑256, 292 hydrologic information 233, 235
food crises 33‑35 development 84 institutions 247‑248
freshwater 230 dimension perspectives 169 multiple‑use initiatives 278
groundwater 132, 134, 174 security 280‑282 observation networks 228, 231
river flow 171 technological innovation 41, 42 planning 242‑245, 286‑287, 292‑293, 295
runoff 170, 233 humid tropics 113 risk and adaptation 295
sanitation 103 hydrologic cycle 21, 166‑172, 181‑210 rural development 277, 278
sharing data 226, 227 hydrologic data 226‑236 waste management 143
soil erosion 218 hydropower water resources management 4, 53, 242, 243
water cycle 166‑167, 181‑210 conflicts 152‑153 water saving strategies 274
water scarcity 128 cross‑subsidization 62 watersheds 51
water use 97‑102, 232‑233, 235 energy 16, 34, 72, 118‑119, 119‑120 Integrated Watershed Management Network
waterways 120 future development 43 (IWMNET) 258
Global Monitoring Report 2005 10‑11 water use 98 intensification 107, 201‑202
global warming 21, 70, 181, 211, 216, 295 hygiene 90, 105, 143 interconnectedness 150‑151
GNP see gross national product Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
governance 51, 55, 72‑73, 241, 242‑251, 270‑271
government level 4, 6, 21, 47, 63
grasslands 211‑212
grass‑roots water federations 253
I
ice 193, 220
(IPCC) 19, 70, 131, 182, 184, 201, 202, 212‑213
internal water footprints 101‑102
International Joint Commission 251, 252
international level
gravimetric measurements 185, 186, 234 ICT see information and communications conflicts 154
Great Lakes, North America 251, 252 technology cooperation 220‑222
greenhouse gases 72, 112, 117 IMF see International Monetary Fund environmental sustainability 146
green revolution 44, 217 imports 35 finance 287
green water 106‑107, 168, 263, 287 income institutions 283
gross domestic product (GDP) access to water 84, 86, 87 policy and laws 50‑51
climate change 70, 71 charging for water 61 support 269, 293, 296
disaster costs 8 education 272‑273 trade 32, 35‑36
diversification 271 energy use 119 International Monetary Fund (IMF) 17
energy security 34 food prices 33, 110 International Organization for Standardization
flooding 172 global crises 14 (ISO) 144
groundwater 134 human development 84 Internet‑based resources 256, 258
investment 82‑83 investment 277‑278 invasive species 33
technological innovation 46 pollution 140‑143 investment
variability 171 priorities 295 adaptation 72
water management 296 rural and urban 85 capacity 57‑60
gross national product (GNP) 82 technology 46 climate change 70, 71
groundwater see also poverty corruption 254
buffer functions 211, 217, 223 India 10, 152, 213, 251‑254, 255, 257‑258, 275, 278 data‑gathering 294
cross‑impacts 151 indicators 88, 90, 98, 104, 167 decision‑making 292‑293
energy 16, 279 individual level 98, 99, 293 development 20
global resources 174 Indonesia 115 groundwater 131, 136
hydrologic data 227 Indus River basin 153 hydrologic observations 229, 230
observation 229‑230 industrialized countries 57, 82 hydropower 119
pollution 139, 177 see also developed countries infrastructure 7, 8, 9, 17, 82‑83, 242, 259,
recharge 135, 173, 189‑190, 217, 223 industry 291, 292
sustainable management 131‑136 agriculture conflicts 152 monitoring 226
terrestrial carbon 201 demand management 157 need for 296
transboundary 221‑222 pollution control 143‑144 pollution 140, 144
J
Japan 219
Middle East 154, 155
middle‑income countries 33
migration 30, 31‑32, 70, 282
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
non‑integrated approaches 243
non‑point source pollution 136, 137, 139,
144‑145, 178
non‑water sectoral interventions 269‑270
Jhabua District, Madhya Pradesh, India 278 achieving 3 no‑regrets 296
Joint Monitoring Programme 2000 103, 104 corruption 55, 56 North America 194, 195, 251, 252
Jordan River basin 151 domestic water 96 Northern Hemisphere 192, 193, 194, 195, 213
drinking water 102 nuclear energy 43
K health 88
investment 11‑12, 13
nutrients 138‑139, 144, 173, 175‑176, 219, 220
L
lakes 138, 190‑191, 200, 204, 220, 223, 251,
disasters 282
hazards 220‑221, 222
policy 295
pollution 127, 139‑145
off‑stream uses 96, 97‑98, 99
oil prices 15‑16, 65, 119‑120
online information systems 235, 257
on‑stream uses 96, 98
252, 261 technological innovation 72‑73 operational data 228‑234
land modelling operation and maintenance 57‑58, 235
links 173‑174 groundwater recharge 190 organic materials 138
redistribution policies 283 hydrologic data 203, 226‑227, 235 Orissa, India 152
surface water cycle 181‑210 monitoring networks 261 oxygenation 220
tenure 85 soil moisture 185, 186
use planning 214
zoning 134, 145
land‑based hydrologic cycle 166‑172
landslides 219
water quality 176
Mondi South Africa 274, 275
monitoring
groundwater 135
P
Pakistan 90, 141, 142
latimetry observations 234 information 43, 261‑262 Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) 183‑184,
leadership 21, 291, 293, 296 nanotechnology 45 186, 216
leakage 58, 156 networks 21, 226‑236, 285 Pamir glaciers 196‑197
learning processes 256, 257‑258, 281 performance 256 pan evaporation 184, 185, 202
legal level 49‑56, 72‑73, 146, 156, 222, 249‑250, pollution 136, 146 participation
262, 292 supply and sanitation 103‑104 consultation 275‑276, 277
legitimacy 49, 56 water quality 127, 174 decision‑making 6, 270, 292
Lesotho 255 mortality 13, 87, 88, 89, 90, 215 demand management 274
lifestyle changes 14, 36‑37, 39, 71‑72 mountains 170, 212 institutional 246
literacy 37 multipurpose water schemes 291 policy 49
Living Plant Index 129 multidecadal variability 182‑183, 187 water management 53‑54, 251‑255, 256
local level multilateral aid 17, 64 particulate materials 173‑174, 200‑201
action 293 multilateral treaties 154 partnerships 4, 6, 12, 248‑249, 257, 293
conflicts 151 multinational agreements 228 pastoralists 31‑32
data‑gathering 294 multiplatform information 228, 234, 235 payments for goods and services 65‑66,
finance 57, 65 multiple objectives 280, 281 262‑263, 288, 292
governance 105, 271 multiple‑use approaches 86‑87, 115, 278, 294 PDSI see Palmer Drought Severity Index
investment 9 multisectoral approaches 7 peace and security 19
rights 52 multistakeholder processes 12, 53 perceptions 36, 38, 106
sediment 219 performance monitoring 256
trade 35
see also community level
longitudinal linkages 220
long‑term aspects 74, 140, 174, 183, 195, 294‑295
N
nanotechnology 45
permafrost 190‑191, 192‑194, 200, 201, 204
Peru 93
pesticides 144
philanthropic assistance 64, 296
national level phosphorous 175, 220
M
macroeconomic policies 271‑272
capacity assessment 256
climate change 251
conflicts 151
development plans 293
planning
accountability 251‑255
incremental changes 241
integrated 242‑245, 286‑287, 292‑293, 294
mainstreaming 38, 234‑235 environmental sustainability 145‑146 land use 214
Q
quality, water
dealing with 269
decision‑making 292, 295‑296
integrated approaches 277
malnutrition 14
semi‑arid tropics 113
Senegal River 284
sensitivity 189, 190, 203
service provision/delivery
basin closure 151 nanotechnology 45 corruption 55
Index
costs 3, 292
decentralization 246
efficiency 249
finance 61, 63
T
Tajikistan 223
population 29‑30, 31
rural contrast 84‑86
sanitation 103
stormwater 214
national 51‑52, 81 Tanzania 70 wastewater 287
partnerships 6 tariffs 60, 61‑62, 65 water loss 156
small‑scale 89, 105‑106 technological innovation 41‑48, 72‑73, 105, urbanization 29, 31, 101, 136, 138
sewage treatment 140‑143 115, 156, 259‑260, 285 user finance 57, 60, 61‑62, 286
see also wastewater temperature use of water 16, 21, 41, 82‑83, 96‑149, 212,
shared resources 51, 146, 220, 283 extreme events 216 232‑233, 294
sharing data and information 226, 228, 229, glaciers 196‑197
231‑232, 235, 236, 256‑258, 293‑294
Siberia 190‑191, 193
siltation 130
single‑use systems 87
growing seasons 222
hydrological cycle 201, 202
permafrost 193
precipitation 213‑214
V
value 92, 145, 157, 228, 231
skin disease 143 productivity 199‑200, 219 values 38‑39
sludge 142 sediment 220 variability
slums 30, 84, 103‑104, 105, 282 snow cover 195 adaptation 222
small islands 113 temporal level 167‑172, 294‑295 climate change 68, 73, 74
small‑scale water provision 63, 65, 249, 262 Tennessee Valley Authority 280, 281 glaciers 196
small towns 103 terrestrial systems 197‑201, 228, 229‑230 precipitation 181, 182‑183
snow 113, 194‑196, 201, 204, 213, 216 thaw lakes 200 rainfall 70
social level thermal stratification 138, 220 soil moisture 186
climate change 71‑72 thermocline 220 spatial and temporal 167‑172
decision‑making 4 Tien Shan, Akshiirak glacier massif 197, 198 uncertainty 211
development 291 tourism 116, 117, 279‑280 vegetation 212, 218, 220
drivers 36‑39 toxic chemicals 273 Viet Nam, poverty reduction and growth 10
groundwater sustainability 134‑135 trade 32, 35‑36, 62, 145, 158 virtual water 14, 15, 32, 33, 35‑36, 101, 102, 168
marketing 286 trade‑offs 6, 49, 66, 269, 277, 291, 294 vulnerability
policy 272‑273 traditional aspects 52, 256, 262 aquifers 223
responsibility 274 see also customary aspects climate change 19‑20, 73, 113‑114
sanitation 105‑106 transboundary 18, 146, 153‑154, 221‑222, 230, economic development 70
water management 150 231‑232, 243, 286 ecosystem services 92
soft infrastructure 57, 82‑83 transition economies 140 groundwater pollution 134
soil 185‑186, 200, 204, 218 transparency 49, 56, 150, 270, 292 poverty 37
solar energy 279 transpiration 106 urban and coastal areas 30
solar radiation 184 transport 111, 120‑121, 201
South Africa 222, 275
South Asia 106, 133
South‑East Asia 8
space hydrologic observations 233‑234
treaties 50, 154
tundra 212
Tunisia 156, 244, 274
Turkey 187, 280, 281
W
wastewater
Spain 222 agriculture 287
spatial level 118, 167‑172, 174, 175, 176,
294‑295
sphere of decision‑making 4, 5
spring melt 194, 195
U
Uganda 91, 271
energy 117
environmental impacts 142‑143
information 233
infrastructure costs 58, 59
stakeholders 9, 246, 251‑255 Ukraine 186 micro‑organisms 44
standards of living 39, 71 UN see United Nations nanotechnology 45
stationarity 181 uncertainty perceptions 106
statistical downscaling 203 climate change 68, 69, 71, 73, 74, 112‑114 pollution 138
The Stern Review 2006 71 data and information 292 technological innovation 41
storage dealing with 269 see also pollution; sewage treatment
Africa 11 decision‑making 295‑296 water box dilemma 3, 4‑6
economic development 81, 82 economic 17 water footprints 15, 33, 35‑36, 96, 101‑102, 117
groundwater 171‑172, 173, 223, 230 future water use 101 water as human right 54, 248
need for increases 153 hydrological cycle 202‑203, 227 water‑logging 130‑131
terrestrial carbon cycles 197, 199 precipitation 181, 182 water stress 92, 142
trends 190‑192 reducing 291 water user associations 6, 246, 248, 253‑254
see also groundwater; reservoirs renewable water supply 170, 171 WBCSD see World Business Council for
storms 70, 214 variability 211 Sustainable Development
streamflow 186‑188, 201, 202, 204, 213, 220, water quality 174 wealth 84
229, 232 water use 97 wetlands 91, 151, 191‑192, 204, 212
see also river flows win‑win scenarios 283‑285 wildfire 200
stunting in children 90 under‑five mortality 88 willingness to pay 9, 57, 61
subsectoral management 4 UN Secretary‑General’s Advisory Board on wind speed 185, 220
subsidence 217 Water and Sanitation (UNSGAB) 64 win‑win scenarios 269‑285
subsidies 62, 64, 66, 117, 133, 158, 279 UNFCCC see United Nations Framework withdrawals
supply 64, 68, 102‑106, 154‑158, 167, 246 Convention on Climate Change agriculture 106
support 293 United Kingdom 187 groundwater 132
surface fluxes 181 United Nations Framework Convention on increases 96
sustainable development 3‑23, 36, 68, 288 Climate Change (UNFCCC) 18, 19 industrial water 116
sustainable level United Nations (UN) 20, 269, 291, 293 Mediterranean 157
change 286 United States of America (US) 243 water use 97, 98, 99, 100
cost recovery 65 allocation institutions 284 women 38
environmental 12‑14, 37, 127, 134‑135, dams 172 World Business Council for Sustainable
145‑146 ecosystem restoration costs 9 Development (WBCSD) 75
finance 57, 66, 284‑288, 291, 292 infrastructure 8, 57 World Economic Forum 2008 296
groundwater 131‑136 power generation technologies 118 World Panel on Financing Water Infrastructure
institutions 284 regional development 280, 281 9, 64, 262
sanitation 244 snow cover 195‑196 World Water Assessment Programme 291, 296
technological innovation 47 soil conservation 218 World Water Monitoring Day™ 285
tourism 279‑280 streamflow 187 World Water Vision 2000 53‑54, 75
water management 36 water charging 263
Sustainable Water Management Improves
Tomorrow’s Cities Health (SWITCH) 257
Sweden 187
SWITCH see Sustainable Water Management
upstream‑downstream relationships 151, 152,
262‑263
upstream irrigation 157
urban areas
Y
yields 107‑108, 112‑113, 222
Improves Tomorrow’s Cities Health agriculture conflicts 152
Switzerland 187
synergies 6, 269, 291, 294
groundwater 133‑134, 134‑135
infrastructure 57‑58
knowledge networks 257‑258
migration 282
Z
Zambia 259, 287
pollution 140‑143 zooplankton 219
The news media are full of talk of crises – in climate change, energy and food and
troubled financial markets. These crises are linked to each other and to water resources
management. Unresolved, they may lead to increasing political insecurity and conflict.
Water is required to meet our fundamental needs and rising living standards and
to sustain our planet’s fragile ecosystems. Pressures on the resource come from a
growing and mobile population, social and cultural change, economic development
and technological change. Adding complexity and risk is climate change, with
impacts on the resource as well as on the sources of pressure on water.
The challenges, though substantial, are not insurmountable. The Report shows how some
countries have responded. Progress in providing drinking water is heartening, with the
Millennium Development Goal target on track in most regions. But other areas remain
unaddressed, and after decades of inaction, the problems in water systems are enormous
and will worsen if left unattended.
Leaders in the water sector can inform decisions outside their domain and manage
water resources to achieve agreed socioeconomic objectives and environmental
integrity. Leaders in government, the private sector and civil society determine these
objectives and allocate human and financial resources to meet them. Recognizing
this responsibility, they must act now!
UNESCO ISBN:
978-9-23104-095-5
Earthscan ISBN:
978-1-84407-840-0