1.

1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE: UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPT OF HYDROLOGIC

CYCLE
1.2 Definition of hydrology
Definition of hydrology It is defined as the science that deals with the origin, distribution and
properties of water on the earth including that in the atmosphere in the form of water vapour, on
the surface as water, snow or ice and beneath the surface as ground water.

A civil engineer must have the basic knowledge of hydrology to engage in the design, planning
and the construction of several irrigation structures, flood control works, bridges and highway
culverts.

1.1 Hydrologic cycle

What is the Hydrological Cycle?

Hydrological cycle can be defined as the continuous process of exchange of water from the earth
surface to the atmosphere or vice versa by the influence of solar radiation or solar heat. It is
important to note that:

 The cycle may short circuit at several stages e.g. the precipitation may fall directly into the
sea, lakes or rivers.
 There is no uniformity in the time a cycle takes place.
 The intensity and frequency of the cycle depends on geography and climate, since it
operates as a result of solar radiation.

The three main phases of hydrologic cycle are:

(i) Evaporation and transpiration

(ii) Precipitation – that part occurring over land areas being of greatest interest
(iii) Run Off (Both surface and underground.

Evaporation: It is the conversion of natural liquids like water into gaseous form like air.
Evaporation happens in the water.

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Transpiration: It is the evaporation taking place from any plant or greenery. For example, a
water droplet on a leaf getting evaporated into the atmosphere.

Precipitation: It is the fall of moisture from the atmosphere to the earth’s surface in any form.
Example: rain, hail, snow, sleet, glaze, drizzle, snowflakes.

Runoff: It is the water flowing over the land making its way towards rivers, lakes, oceans, etc.
as surface or subsurface flow.

1.2 PROCESS OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

The process involves a closed system where the water gets transformed either from one place to
other or from one form to other under the action of sun heat. Whatever be the process, the total
water in the whole system remains constant. The representation of the hydrological cycle is
represented in the figure-1 below.

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Fig. 1 Process of Hydrologic Cycle

Water in the sea evaporates under solar radiation, and clouds of H2O vapour move over land
areas. Precipitation occurs as snow, heat, rain and condensate in the form of dew, over land and
sea. Rain falling over land surfaces may be intercepted by vegetation and evaporate back to the
atmosphere. Some of it infiltrates into the soil and moves down or percolates into the
saturated ground zone beneath the water table, the H2O in this zone flows slowly
through a guiter to river channels or sometimes directly to the sea. The H2O that infiltrates
also feeds the surface plant life and some gets drawn up into this vegetation where
transpiration takes place from leafy plant surface

The H2O remaining on the surface partially evaporates back to vapour, but the bulk of the
coalesces into streamlets and runs as surface runoff to the river channels. The river and lake
surfaces also evaporate, so the remaining H2O that has not infiltrates or evaporated arrives
back at the sea via the river channels. Finally the groundwater moving much more slowly,

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either emerges into the stream channels or arrives at the coastline and seeps into the sea, and the
whole cycle starts again.

1.3 The importance of hydrologic cycle in water resources development

1. Hydrologic cycle gives a rough guide on the general climatic conditions and
availability of water in an area.

2. Hydrologic cycle helps in the development of water resources of an area.

3. It helps in planning and building of hydraulic structures used for different purposes such as
power generation, water supply, agriculture, recreation etc.

4. It helps in making proper Engineering decision.

1.4 Hydrology as applied in engineering

To the practicing engineer concerned with the planning and building of hydraulic structures,
hydrology is an indispensable tool. For example, a community or city is rapidly increasing in
population, and there is need to expand the existing water supply. The engineer first looks for
sources of supply, having perhaps found a clear uninhabited mountain catchment area, he must
make an estimate of its capability of supplying water. How much rain will fall on it? How long
will dry periods be and what amount of storage will be necessary to even out the flow? Would a
surface storage scheme be better than abstraction of the groundwater flow from wells nearer the
city?

The questions do not stop there. If a dam is to be built, what capacity must the spillway have?
What diameter should the supply pipelines be? Would afforestation of the catchment area be
beneficial to the scheme or not?

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2.0 UNDERSTAND WHAT MAKE UP THE WEATHER AND CLIMATE OF A PLACE.

2.1 Weather and climate

The atmosphere is the medium of weather and climate. Weather refers to the condition of the
atmosphere at any given time. By contrast climate refers to the average atmospheric
condition of an area over a considerable end at time. For climatic averages a minimum
period of 35 years is desirable. This involves the systematic observation recording and
processing on the various element of climate such as rainfall, temperature, humidity, air
pressure, wind, clouds, and sunshine, before any standardization of the climatic means can be
arrived at.

The hydrology of a region depends primarily on its climate, secondly on its topography
and its geology. Climate is largely dependent on the geographical position on the earth's
surface. Topography is important in its effect on precipitation and the occurrence of lakes,
marshland and high and low rates of run-off. Geology is also important because it influences
topography and because the underlying rock of an area is the groundwater zone where
the water which has infiltrated moves slowly through aquifers to the rivers and sea.

2.2 Key Differences between Weather and Climate

1. The day-to-day information of the changes in the atmospheric conditions in any location
for a particular time is known as weather. On the other hand, the climate is statistical
weather information that provides information about the average weather condition of a
particular location over a long period of time, for the span of more than 30 years.

2. Weather is short term atmospheric condition of any place, which may vary by time-to-
time, like throughout night, or day, while climate is the long term average weather
atmospheric condition of a place or country.

3. Changes may be observed in the weather condition very frequently, though the changes in
climate take a longer time to observe.

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 4. Weather forecasting is observed by the Meteorological Department of any particular
place, and the study is known as Meteorology and Climate is predicted by the Climate
Prediction Centre and its study is known as Climatology.

2.3 Elements of weather and climate

1. Precipitation: Precipitation is a form of water in the atmosphere that falls to the earth. This
falls after cloud has been formed in the sky. Various forms of precipitation include rain,
snow, fog, mist, hail, sleet and drizzle.

As an element of weather, the amount precipitation determines whether outdoor activities are
suitable and it can easily be predicted by observing the signs in sky.

2. Temperature: Temperature measures the degree of hotness or coldness of a place from day-
to-day. Increased temperature is determined by the angle of the sun hence temperature may
change repeatedly within a day.

However, temperature is an important of element of weather; it influences other elements of the

weather.

3. Humidity: Humidity is simply the amount of water vapour in the air or in the lower
atmosphere. The humidity is an element of weather that can influence the day by making it
feel hotter; it can be used to predict an upcoming occurrence such as storm.

However, humidity as an element of weather and it is the prolonged moisture level of an area
that can affect an entire ecosystem.

4. Cloudiness: This is simply the state of clouds in the atmosphere at a given time over an area.
Different types of clouds means different weather conditions. For instance, lighter cloud
indicates little or no precipitation, while dark heavy cloud indicates that there will be heavy
rain or thunderstorms.
5. Atmospheric pressure: Atmospheric pressure is the “weight” of the air in the atmosphere,
Changes in atmospheric pressure are mostly caused by the rise of warm air and the descent of
cold air, hence atmospheric pressure occurs mostly in regions near water bodies. For
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 instance, coastal regions and islands on a daily basis experience severe storm because of their
nearness to water bodies.
6. Wind: Wind is the air in motion that moves from areas of high air pressure to those of low
air pressure. The speed of the wind is determined by the difference between the high and
low-pressure wind and it occurs due to rising hot air or sinking cold air.

Wind can be felt only when it is in motion; as the speed of the wind increases, the air tends to
move more quickly and therefore diminish warm air thus making it seem colder than the actual
temperature.

7. Rotation and Revolution of the Earth

Rotation: The first primary motion of the earth is rotation. The earth rotates in a
counterclockwise pattern, spinning on its axis once every 24 hours. The earth wobbles as it
rotates, similar to a spinning top because the rotation of the earth occurs at a slight tilt. The earth
is tilted at approximately 23.5 degrees. The tilt of Earth, as it rotates, creates different
gravitational forces at the north and south poles.

Revolution: As the earth rotates on its axis, it also revolves in orbit around the sun. It takes
exactly 365 days for Earth to make one full trip around the sun -- our definition of a year. The
earth follows a circular path as it travels around the sun in a counterclockwise pattern. The path
that the earth travels is therefore referred to as the plane of the elliptical.

Effects

The rotation of the earth on its axis is responsible for daylight and nighttime. As the sun rises
from our perspective, we are rotating to face the sun. Conversely, the sun sets as we turn away
from the sun. Noon and midnight are the times when the earth is halfway through its daily
rotation. Similarly, as the earth revolves in orbit around the sun, we get seasons. The revolution
of Earth in space is also responsible for why we see the stars shift their position in the night sky
throughout the year

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2.4 The various apparatus for measuring weather conditions.

1. Thermometers: Devices that measures air temperature.

2. Hygrometers: Sensors that assess relative humidity, which is the quantity of water in a gas
form in the air. Humidity plays a role in determining rain, fog, dew points and heat indexes.

3. Barometers: They signify the pressure in the atmosphere. When the barometer drops, and it
changes from high to low air pressure, it typically signifies a coming storm.

4. Anemometers: These sensors spin on a vertical axle with a wheel-like structure at the top and
small cups at the end of each spoke that catch the wind and measure its speed.

5. Wind vanes: They indicate the direction in which the wind blows.

6. Rain gauges: They calculate the amount of rain that falls during a given period.

2.5 Factors that affect the climate of a place:

The climate of a place is influenced by a host of interacting factors such as:

(i) Latitude:The places located at higher altitudes lie far from the equator and receive less
sunlight and places that are situated towards the equator receives more sunlight and are hotter
than the places located at higher latitudes. Sunlight also causes low precipitation or rainfall.
(ii) Elevation:The place at higher region or at high altitude the atmosphere experiences less
pressure. As the gas residing in the atmosphere rises, it experiences feeling less pressure,
hence causing it to expand.
(iii)Ocean Currents: Ocean currents are able to transfer heat energy from land to sea or vice
versa thus affecting the temperature of the region.
(iv) Topography:Topography refers to the shape of the land. Latitudes and elevation ranges are
the key factors that lead to fluctuation in surface temperatures hence leading to climate
change.

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(v) Vegetation: The vegetation mainly comprises trees in the region. Due to the release of water
vapour during photosynthesis into the air, it alters the surface energy fluxes and leads to
potential cloud formation.
(vi) Prevailing winds: Winds distribute and spread particular air masses. The direction of the
wind helps to determine the climate of a region. The wind coming from the humid region
brings cool air while that from the dry region would bring hot air.

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3.0 Understand precipitation as an important component of the hydrological process

3.1 Precipitation

Is the process by which water vapour evaporates to the atmosphere and this water vapour
condense and fall in drops from the clouds. Therefore it is correct to say that the source of almost
all our rainfall is the sea. Evaporation takes place from the oceans and water vapour is
absorbed in the air streams moving across the sea's surface. The moisture-laden air keeps the
water vapour absorbed until it cools to below dewpoint temperature when the vapour is
precipitated as rain, or if the temperature is sufficiently low, as hail or snow.

3.2 Formation of precipitation

Precipitation occurs when air containing moisture cools sufficiently to cause part of the water
vapour to condense on hydroscopic nuclei, which are small particles having an affinity for
water. The droplets coalesce (accumulate) until sufficiently large to overcome the frictional
resistance of falling. The only known mechanism for cooling air sufficiently to cause
available precipitation is pressure reduction when air near the eath’s surface ascends to high
levels. The rate and quantity of precipitation depends on the rate and amount of cooling
and the moisture content of the air.

The basic factors which cause precipitation are:

i. sufficient atmospheric moisture,

ii. Cooling of the moist air
iii. Condensation of water vapour into liquid
iv. The growth of condensation products into precipitation size.

3.3 Mechanism of precipitation

There are three (3) main mechanisms by which an air mass may be lifted. Up lift may take place
at fronts when two air masses of contrasting properties converge (cyclonic or frontal
precipitation, Orographically (forced) to give orographic or relief precipitation or by means of
convection (convectional precipitation.

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 i) Cyclonic or frontal precipitation

This is caused by large scale vertical motion of moist air as the result of horizontal
convergers of air springs in an area of low pressure refers to as depression. Cyclonic
precipitation is no usually intense but it tends to be wide spread over a large area
occurring in belts several 100s of km in width and often last for about 36 hours at a time.

Fig. 3.1 Frontal precipitation

Frontal rainfall occurs when low pressure areas exist, air tends to move into them from
surrounding areas and in so doing displaces low pressure air upward, to cool and
precipitate rain. This type of rain is associated with the boundaries of air masses where one mass
is colder than the other and so intrudes a cool wedge under it, raising the warm air to form clouds
and rain.

ii) Orographic precipitation

This is caused mainly by the forced ascent of the moisture over high ground. The amount and
intensity of orographic precipitation vary with three (3) factors: i. The height and alignment of
the mountain barrier ii. The moisture contact of the air iii. And the stability and depth of the
uplifted layer of moist air. Depending on this factor, orographic ppt may be heavy or it may not
be more than a light drizzle, it most be pointed out that mountains do not caused moisture to be

11
removed from the air mass moving across than they only intensify and influence ppt.
Formation processes.

Fig. 3.2: ORAGRAPHIC PPT: Most orographic rain is deposited on the windward slopes.

iii) Convective precipitation

This is caused by the natural rising of warmer, lighter air in colder denser surrounding. The
cause of the fall in temperature is due to convection, whereby warm moist air rises and cooled to
form cloud and subsequently to precipitate rain. Convective precipitation is typical of the tropics
and may sometimes be in the form of light shower or storms of extremely high intensity.
Convective rainfall is typified by the late afternoon thunder storms which develop from day long
heating of moist air, rising into towering anvil-shaped clouds.

Fig. 3.3: Convective Precipitation.

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 3.4 Classification of precipitation

Precipitation may be classified into types on the basis of two criteria namely its form or
appearance, and its method of formation. There are two basic forms of precipitation these are
liquid and solid.

 Solid Form: (Frost, Sleet, Snow, Glaze)

 Liquid: (Hail, Drizzle, Rain, Dew)

3.5 Forms of precipitation

1. Drizzle: A light steady rain in fine drops about 0.5mm and intensity of less than 1mm/h

2. Rain: The condense water of the atmosphere falling in drops from the clouds usually greater
than 0.5mm diameter. > 0.5mm

3. Glaze: Freezing of drizzle or rain when it come in contact with cold object.

4. Sleets: Frozen rain drops while falling through air at sub-freezing temperature.

5. Snow: Ice crystal resulting from sublimation

6. Hail: Small lumps of ice greater than 5mm dia, form from alternate freezing and melting,
when they are carried up and down in turbulent air current.

7. Dew: Moisture condensed from other atmosphere in small drops upon cool surfaces.

8.Frost: A feathery deposit of ice formed on the ground or on the surface of exposed
object by dew or water vapour that has frozen.

9. Fog: A thin cloud of varying size formed at the surface of the earth by condensation
of atmosphere vapour.

10. Mist: A very thin tall

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3.5 Measurement of precipitation

Of all forms of precipitation only rain and snow makes significant contribution to the
precipitation total at a given place. The depth of fresh snow tall can be measure by a
graduate ruler. The water equivalent can be measured by a snow gauge which is really the rain
gauge fitted with some devices to collect and melt solid precipitation before reading takes place.
The rain is measured with the end of the rain gauge the earliest known measurement of
rainfall was made by Castelli in Italy in 1639. The modern rain gauge still follows the basic
design feature of the first built by Castelli. The rain gauge collects rainfall over a known area.
The amount of water collected is then measure and expressed in unit of depth such as mm. the
rain gauge is assure to be representative of the surround area. There are 2 types of rain gauge:

(1) The self-recording rain gauge

(2) Non-recording rain gauge

The self-recording

This instrument has an automatic mechanical arrangement consisting of clockwork, a

drum with a graph paper fixed around it and a pencil point, which draws the mass curve of
rainfall. From this mass curve, the depth of rainfall in a given time, the rate or intensity of
rainfall at any instant during a storm, time of onset and cessation of rainfall can be established.

The gauge is installed on a concrete or masonry platform 45cm square in the observatory
enclosure by the side of the ordinary rain gauge at a distance of 2-3m from it. The gauge is so
installed that the rim of the funnel is horizontal and at a height of exactly 75cm above ground
surfaces. The recording rain gauge exposed close by, for use as standard, by means of which
the reading of the recordings rain gauge can be checked and if necessary adjusted.

There are three types of recording rain gauges, namely:

i. Tipping bucket rain gauge (cannot record snow)

ii. Weighing type rain gauge
iii. Float type rain gauge.

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Non-recording rain gauge (the Syphon’s rain gauge)

It consists of a funnel with a circular rim of 12.7cm diameter and a glass bottle as a
receiver. The cylindrical metal casing is fixed vertically to the masonry foundation with the level
rim 30.5cm above the ground surface. The rain falling into the funnel is collected in the
receiver and is measured in a special measuring glass graduated in mm of rainfall; when full it
can measure 1.25cm of rain.

The rainfall is measured every day at 08.30 hours IST. During rains, it must be measured three
or four times in the day, lest the receiver fill and overflow, but the last measurement should be
at 08.30 hours IST and the sum total of all the measurements during the previous 24 hrs
entered as the rainfall of the day in the register. Thus, the non-recording or the Syphon’s rain
gauge gives only the total depth of rainfall for the previous 24hrs (i.e. daily rainfall) and does not
give the intensity and duration of rainfall during different time intervals of the day. As a step of
protecting the gauge from damage, it is required that barbed wire fence be constructed round it.

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4.0 GAUGING A CATCHMENT

4.1 Sources of errors in reading Theissen instrument

i. Error from improper positioning of the instrument (i.e. if inclined at an angle, it can
affect the reading, as it would not form level surface).
ii. Error from the obstruction of adjacent or nearby high rise buildings and trees.
iii. Some of the precipitation may be lost by evaporation or by wetting the sides of the
gauge or the measuring tube.
iv. Dents in the rim of the receivers or measuring tube may give false results.

There are two main objectives in using precipitation gauges for hydrological purposes:

i. The first is to obtain an accurate measure of precipitation at a given point.

ii. The second is to obtain accurate estimate of precipitation over an area.

4.2 Factors to be considered in locating gauges

The following factors should be considered in sitting gauges:

i. The site should be at open place

ii. The distance between the rain gauge and the nearest object should be at twice the height
of the object
iii. If a suitable site on a leveled ground cannot be found, then the gauge should never be
situated on the site or top of a hill,
iv. A fence, if erected to protect the gauge from cutting it should be located so that the
distance of the fence is not less than twice its height.

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4.3 Gauge networks

Errors in estimating areal rainfall from a given gauge network occur because of the random
nature of storms and their passage between gauges, but conditions will vary depending on terrain
and storm type. Thus more gauges will be required in steeply sloping terrain and for convectional
precipitation, than in flat terrain or for cyclonic precipitation.

Generally speaking, of course, estimates of areal precipitation will increase in accuracy as the
density of the gauging network increases but a dense network is difficult and expensive to
maintain and would normally be used only for a short period in order to determine a smaller and
more convenient network. Analysis carried out by the U.S. Weather Bureau of precipitation data
for relatively flat terrain yielded the network density-area-error relationships, which indicates
that, for a given network density, the error increases as the size of the area is reduced.

The World Metrological Organization established guidelines for the minimum density of
precipitation networks in various geographical regions as follows:

 Small mountainous islands with irregular precipitation, 25 km2 per gauge;

 Temperate, Mediterranean, and tropical mountainous regions, 100-250 km2 per gauge;
 Flat areas in temperate, Mediterranean, and tropical regions, 600-900 km2 per gauge
 Arid and polar regions, 1500-10000 km2 per gauge

More recent work at varying scales has indicated that the density of the gauge network alone
may not be all-important and that an improvement in accuracy may be affected by incorporating
a selective spatial and directional component into the network. Because of the spatial variability
of precipitation, even the densest existing rain gauge network can give only an approximate
value of areal precipitation. This problem can be alleviated by the use of radar in combination
with gauge network. Radar can show the areal variation of rainfall, variation with time, i.e.
intensity characteristics, and the movement of individual storm cells.

Recent improvements in the output of earth satellite data have established their usefulness in
supplementing existing networks by verifying the areal extent, direction of movement, and
character of rain storms. A number of lines of approach have been followed in the hope of
achieving a World Meteorological Organization objective of estimating 12 hourly rainfall

17
intensity from weather satellite data. Thus use has been made of the fact that precipitating clouds
may be distinguished from non-precipitating clouds through differences in emitted radiation, or
differences in reflection characteristics. Satellite evidence has also been used to detect previous
rainfall through the relatively lower reflectivity of wetted terrain. The most promising approach
is to estimate monthly and daily rainfall on the basis of statistical relationships between satellite
and conventional weather data.

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5.0 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION

5.1 Mean areal depth of precipitation

Since most hydrologic problems require a knowledge of the average depth of rainfall
over a large area, some procedures have been developed to convert gauge measurements to
average or mean areal rainfall. These are:

i. Arithmetic mean method

ii. Thiessen mean method
iii. Isohyetal method

ARITHMETIC MEAN CCVC

The simplest procedure is to average arithmetically the proportionate amount measured by

gauges within the area. If the gauges are distributed uniformly and if the variation of individual
gauge readings from the mean is not large, this procedure is probably as accurate as any other
methods. Thus,

P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ………. +Pn = ∑P1

N N

Where,

P = mean areal precipitation, depth

Pi = Station or gauge readings

N = Number of stations.

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Example
During a storm the rainfall observations in a selected basin were found as follows:

Table 3: Computation of average precipitation over a basin using Arithmetic mean method.

Station No. Precipitation in [mm]

1 15
2 19
3 20
4 16.6
5 22
6 28
Total (mm) 120.6

Average precipitation [p]

P = 120.6/6 = 30.1 mm

THIESSEN METHOD

A more formal method of computing mean depth of population over an area is the thiessen
method, which gives weight to the areal distribution of stations. A thiessen network is
constructed by locating the gauging stations on a map and drawing the perpendicular bisectors
to the lines connecting the stations. The polygons thus formed around each station are the
boundaries of the effective area assumed to be controlled by the station. The area governed
by each station is measured (using planimeter) and expressed as a percentage of the
whole area. The size of the polygons varies with the spacing of the stations. Where

Ai = effective area controlled by station

Pi = station precipitation Thus the mean precipitation depth is

Thus the mean precipitation depth is

P = P1A1 + P2A2 + P3A3 +………..PnAn

A A A A

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 Where, A= total basin area (km)

N = number of gauging stations

The results using this method are more accurate than that using Arithmetic mean method. The
greater disadvantage is that it is inflexible as new polygon would have to be drawn whenever
there is a change in the location of the gauges.

The assumptions are that precipitation varies linearly between stations and no allowance
is made for topographical factors. The advantages are that it allows for uneven distribution of
gauges and enables data from the surrounding areas to be taken into consideration in
computing the mean precipitation depth over an area.

Example: If the calculated or measured sectional areas of the polygon, and the measured
precipitation are given by the values presented in the following table (3) below.

Table (4): Bi-sectional areas (A) of Theissen polygon, and the measured precipitation (P)
for stations
Station No. Bi-sectional Measured (Col. 2 * Col. 3)
areas (Ai) [km2] precipitation (Ai *Pi)
(Pi) [mm]

P1 25 10 250
P2 125 15 1875
P3 80 20 1600
P4 90 17 1530
P5 120 25 3000
P6 115 40 4600
P7 130 12 1560
TOTAL 685 14415

Then the average precipitation over the catchment will be computed by the total of the column 4
to the total area in column 2. The result will be found as :

14415/685

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= 21.04 mm.

ISOHYETAL METHOD

Isohyetal are contours of equal precipitation which are drawn from station records. The average
pptn is computed by weighting the average precipitation depths between each pair of
isohyets by the area between the isohyets, totaling these values and dividing by the total area
of the basin. This is probably the most accurate method of computing average areal
precipitation. Thus the mean precipitation depth is given as

Where,

P = Isohyets

αi = area between isohyets

N = Number of contour spacing

A = Total Basin area

Example: Calculate the average rainfall over the area given in the figure using Isohyetal method.

Table (5): Rainfall computation by Isohyetal Method

Isohyet (mm) Area between isohyet Average rainfall (mm) Rainfall volume
(sq. km) (mm.sq.km)
125 33.28 125 4,160.00
100 197.12 112.5 22,176.00
75 296.96 87.5 25,984.00
50 501.76 62.5 31,360.00
25 494.11 37.5 18,529.13
Less 25 79.36 21.0 1,666.56
total 1602.59 103,875.69

Pav = 103, 875.69/1,602.59 = 64.82 mm

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5.2 Interpretation of rainfall data

The total amount of rainfall at a point is the record usually available. However, this information
is not adequate for many hydrological purposes. Often, more information are required on
any or all of the following:

i. Mean areal depth of population which is the average depth of rainfall over the area,
ii. Intensity which is a measure of the quantity of rainfall in a given time (mm/h or
cm/hr)
iii. Frequency which is the number of occurrence for a given depth of rainfall in a given
time,
iv. Duration which is a period of time during which rain fall (min, hr, or days),
v. Areal extent this concerns the area over which a points rainfall can be held to apply.

5.3 Determining rainfall patterns

Closely related, in some respects, to the problem of determining the average precipitation over
an area is the further problem of determining the pattern of storm rainfall from the individual
totals recorded at a number of perhaps widely spaced rain gauges. The degree to which rainfall
decreases, from one or more peaks at the centre of a storm to zero rainfall at the outer margins of
the storm, will obviously have considerable bearing on its hydrological effects on a catchment
area I terms of run-off, soil moisture, and groundwater changes

Notwithstanding the caution of Collinge, that cyclonic rainfall should not regarded as a uniform
sheet of rain preceding a frontal system but rather as a series of overlapping rainfall cells which
build up and die away with no apparent pattern, one can still make a general distinction between
cyclonic rains where there is often little variation of daily totals over a radius of 15 km, and
convectional rains, where large difference can occur over short distances in a few hours.
Referring to the United States, for example, Hershfield , noted that in major summer storms in
relatively flat areas it is not unusual for the isohyetal pattern to show gradients of 30 mm or
more per kilometer.

Investigations have shown that in large cyclonic storms there is a ratio between the precipitation
rate along an isohyet and the logarithm of the area enclosed by this isohyet, and that from the

23
resulting straight-line graph, the rainfall at any point could be determined directly in terms of
distance from the storm centre. Normally, in an area of high relief, orographic effects will tend to
outweigh the variations outlined above, and in such cases it may be possible transpose seasonal
rainfall patterns to those of individual storms, since both will be largely determined by the
topography.

This technique is most effectively used in conjunction with an isopercental map which shows
the relationship between the normal seasonal pattern and that for the individual storm, and
enables a fairly detailed isohyetal map to be developed from a comparatively small number of
rain gauges.

6.0 CONCEPT OF EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION

6.1 Importance of evaporation and transpiration

Transpiration is defined as a natural plant physiological process whereby H2O is taken from the
soil moisture storage by roots and passes through the plant structure and is evaporated from the
cells in the leaf called Stomata.

Growing vegetation of all kinds needs water to sustain life, though different species have very
different needs. Only a small fraction of the water needed a plant is retained in the plant
structure. Most of it passes through the roots to the stem or trunk and is transpired into the
atmosphere through the leafy part of the plant.

In field conditions it is practically impossible to differentiate between evaporation and

transpiration if the ground is covered with vegetation. The two processes are commonly linked
together and referred to as evapo-transpiration.

The amount of moisture which a land area loses by evapo-transpiration depends primarily
on the incidence of precipitation, secondly on the climatic factors of temperature,
humidity e.t.c. and thirdly on the type, manner of cultivation and extent of vegetation.
The amount may be increased, for example, by large trees whose roots penetrates deeply
into the soil, bringing up and transpiring water which would otherwise be far beyond the
influence of surface evaporation.

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Transpiration proceeds almost entirely by day under the influence of solar radiation.

At night the pores of plants close up and very little moisture leaves the plant surfaces. If water
is available in abundance for the plant to use in transpiration, more will be used than if at
times less is available than could be used.

6.2 FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION

The following factors briefly explained below affects transpiration

1. Solar Radiation: Evaporation is a process that is taking place almost without

interruption during the hours of daylight and often during the night also. Since the change of
state of the molecules of water from liquid to gas requires an energy input (known as the latent
heat of vaporization) the process is most active under the direct radiation of the sun. it follows
that clouds, which prevent the full spectrum of the sun’s radiation reaching the earth’s surface,
will reduce the energy input and so slow up the process of evaporation.

2. Wind: As the water vaporizes into the atmosphere, the boundary layer between earth and
air becomes saturated and this layer must be removed and continually replaced by dryer air
if evaporation is to proceed. This movement of the air in the bound any layer depends on wind
and so the wind speed is important.

3. Relative Humidity: As the air humidity rises, it’s ability to absorb more water vapour
decreases and the rate of evaporation slows. Replacement of the

4. Boundary layer of saturated air by air of equally high humidity will not maintain the
evaporation rate; this will occur only if the incoming air is drier than the air that is displaced.

5. Temperature: An energy input is necessary for an evaporation to proceed. It follows that if

the ambient temperatures of the air and ground are high, evaporation will proceed more rapidly
than if they are low, since heat energy is more readily available.

6. Nature and Shape of Surface: A body of water with a flat surface has greater vapour
pressure than one with a concave surface, but less than one with a convex surface under the same
conditions. Studies have shown that evaporation rate under restricted conditions is proportional
to the diameter or other linear dimension of the evaporating surface, but not to evaporating area.

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Evaporation rates are greater for land surfaces than for water bodies.

7. Atmospheric Pressure: The decrease in atmospheric pressure with increased attitude

increases the rate of evaporation. Decreasing evaporation with increasing attitude would
occur only if all other climatic factors affecting the aqueous vapour pressure of the air
remained the same

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7.0 MEASUREMENT PARAMETERS

7.1 Measurement of transpiration

In field condition, it is practically impossible to differentiate between evaporation and

transpiration if the ground is covered with vegetation. The two processes are commo ly linked
together and referred to as Evapotranspiration. Therefore, we shall discuss the measurement
of evaporation and transpiration from one point of consideration; evapotranspiration.

Direct measurements of evaporation or evapotranspiration from extended natural water or

land surfaces are not practicable at present. However, various methods derived from point
measurements or other calculations have been invented which provide reasonable results.

The water loss from a standard saturated surface is measured with evaporimeters, which may
be classified into atmometers and pan or tank evaporimeters. An evapotranspirometer
(lysimeter) is a vessel or container placed below the ground surface and filled with soil, on
which vegetation can be cultivated. It is a multi-purpose instrument for the study of several
phases of the hydrological cycle under natural conditions. Estimates of evapotranspiration (or
evaporation in case of bare soil) can be made by measuring and balancing all the other
water budget components of the container i.e. precipitation, under ground water, drainage, and
change in water storage of the block of soil usually, surface run-off is eliminated. The
measurement of evapotranspiration has attracted the attention of scientists of many disciplines
since classical times and even today has not been entirely satisfactorily resolved. Some of
the difficulties involved have already been touched upon, and not least among these is the
problem of determining the extent to which the plant itself influences water losses. This is a
particularly important problem because, if it is accepted that transpiration is normally the
principal factor involved I evapotranspiration, it follows that attempts to estimate
evapotranspiration results ion by means of formulae should theoretically place more
emphasizeo on the factors which influence transpiration than on those which influence
evaporation. Again, it has been shown that there are problems associated with the physics
of evapotranspiration and still other uncertainties and problems associated with the
measurement of the relevant physical quantities. For these reasons, in particular, no completely
successful technique for measuring or estimating evapotranspiration has been devised.

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During recent years there have been numerous literature reviews and publications of
experimental evidence concerning comparative assessments of measured and calculated
evapotranspiration. The discrepancies between the results of different methods are often
large in comparison with the magnitude of other hydrological variables such as precipitation
or stream flow, and frequently fall clearly outside an acceptable margin of experimental error.
Although these discrepancies indicate that in some, if not all of the methods for determining
evapotranspiration are in error, there is no absolute standard against which results from a
given formulae or instruments may be assessed.

7.2 FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION

 Light: This is a very important factor because transpiration takes place during the day
time. When there is light, the stomata of the plant remains open and transpiration of water
takes place through them.
 Humidity of air: There is an increase or decrease on the rate of transpiration
accordingly as the air is dry or moist. When the atmosphere is saturated, it can receive no
more water.
 Temperature of air: The higher the temperature the greater the rate of transpiration.
 Wind: During high wind, transpiration becomes very active since the area around the
transpiring surface is not allowed to become saturated.

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8.0 RUN-OFF

8.1 Definition

Run-off is defined as the water that is not intercepted by vegetation or by artificial surfaces such
as roots or pavements when falling from atmosphere and it flows slowly down to the river
channel. Run-off which is also referred to as stream flow catchment yield is normally
expressed as a volume per unit of time.

Run-off may also be expressed as a depth equivalent over a catchment i.e. millimeters per
day or month or year. This is a particularly useful unit for comparing precipitation and run-
off rates and totals since precipitation is almost invariably expressed in this way.

8.2 Factors affecting run-off

There are many catchment properties that influence or accepts run-off, these are:

(a) Catchment Area

(b) Slope of Catchment

(c) Catchment Orientation

(d) Shape of Catchment

(e) Annual Average Rainfall

(f) Soil-Moisture Deficit

(g) Lake and Reservoir Area.

Climatic factor also affects run-off, the form of precipitation also has an influence, since
snowfull and freezing temperatures can effectively put the expected run-off into storage and
reduce evaporationspiration.

The main effect of climate however is in rainfall intensity and duration. Rainfall intensity has
a direct bearing on run-off since once the infiltration on capacity is exceeded all the excess rain
is available and flows to the surface water courses.

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8. 3 Sources and components of runoff

The persistent misuse of runoff terminology has resulted in much confusion and ambiguity
about the source and components of runoff. The total runoff from a typically heterogeneous
catchment area may be divided into four components as follows:

 Channel precipitation
 Overland flow
 Interflow
 Groundwater flow

Channel precipitation: Direct precipitation onto the water surfaces of streams, lakes, and
reservoirs makes an immediate contribution to stream flow. In relation to other components
however, this amount is normally small in view of the small percentage of catchment area
normally covered by water surfaces.

Overland channel: Overland flow comprises the water which, failing to infiltrate the surface
travels over the ground surface towards a stream channel either as quasi-laminar street flow
or, more usually, as flow anastamasing in small trickles and minor rivulets. The main cause
of overland flow is the inability of water to infiltrate the surface and in view of the high
value of infiltration characteristic of most vegetation covered surfaces it is not surprising that
overland flow is rarely observed phenomenon (except on laboratory models).Conditions in
which it assumes considerable importance include the saturation of the ground surface, the
hydrophobic nature of some very dry soils, the deleterious effects of many agricultural
practices on infiltration capacity.

Inflow: Water which infiltrates the soil surface and then move laterally through the upper soil
horizon towards the stream channels, either as unsaturated flow, or more usually, as shallow
perched saturated flow above the main groundwater level is known as inflow. The general
condition favouring the generation of interflow is one in which lateral hydraulic conductivity
through the soil profile. Then during prolonged or heavy rainfall water will enter the
upper part of the profile more rapidly than it can pass vertically through the lower part, thus
forming a perched saturated layer from which water will escape laterally, in the direction of
greater hydraulic conductivity.

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Groundwater flow: Most of the rainfall which percolates through the soil layer to the
underlying groundwater will eventually reach the main stream channels as groundwater flow
through the zone of saturation. Since water can move only very slowly through the ground, the
outflow of groundwater into the stream channels may lag behind the occurrence of
precipitation by several days, weeks, or often years. Groundwater flow also tends to be very
regular, representing as it does, the overflow from the slowly changing reservoir of moisture in
the soil and rock layers. It must not inferred from this that groundwater may not show a rapid
response to precipitation.

8.4 ESTIMATION OF RUNOFF

The relationship between rainfall and runoff is usually complex and is influenced by various
factors such as storm pattern, antecedent, and basin characteristics. Because of these
complexities and the frequent lack of adequate data, many techniques have been developed
to estimate runoff from rainfall data. To facilitate comparisons, it is usual to express values for
rainfall and runoff in similar terms. The runoff from rainfall may be estimated by the
following methods; Empirical, infiltration, rational, hydrograph methods and mathematical
models. The most commonly used ones are the rational and unit hydrograph methods.

i) Rational method: Is used to obtain the maximum yield of a catchment from

measurement of rainfall depths.
Q = 0.278CiA
Where,
Q = yield;
I = intensity of rainfall in times TC
A = catchment area in (km2);
C = Coefficent of runoff,
TC = time of concentration, time required for water to flow from the most remote
point of the basin/catchment to the outlet.
tc = (L/5)0.8 x 25 x 10-5

31
where,
L = length of catchment along the longest river channel (m)
S = Overall catchment slop (m/m)
Tc = Concentration time (hr).
Values of C varies from 0.05 for flat sandy areas to 0.9 for impervious urban areas.
For duration t = 5 to 20 minutes, intensity.
I = 750 (mm/hr)
T+10
For t = 20 to 120 minutes I = = 100 (mm/hr)
T+20
The expression is rational because the units of the quantities involved are
numerically consistence. Assumptions involved in the use of the formula are:
 The rate of runoff resulting from any rainfall intensity is a maximum when
this rainfall intensity last longer than as long as the time of concentration;
 The maximum rainfall resulting from a rainfall intensity with a duration equal
to or greater than the time of concentration is a simple fraction of such rainfall
intensity i.e. it assumes a straight line relation between Q and I and Q= 0
when I = 0.
 The frequency of peak discharges is the same as that of the rainfall
intensity for the given time of concentration.
 The relationship between peak discharge and size of drainage area is the
same as that between duration and Intensity duration and duration of rainfall.
 The coefficient runoff is the same for storms of various frequencies.
 The coefficient of runoff is the same for all storms in a given water sheds

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Example1

For an area of 20 hectares of 20 minutes concentration time, determine the peak discharge
corresponding to a storm of 25-year recurrence interval. Assume a runoff coefficient of 0.6.
From intensity-duration-frequency curves for the area, for T = 25-yr, t = 20 min, i = 12cm/hr.

Solution

For t = tc = 20 min,T = 25-yr, i = ic = 12 cm/hr= 120 mm/hr

Q = kCiA = (0.00278) 0.6 × 120 × 20 = 0.00278 (1440)

Q = 4 cumec

Eample 2

Estimation of Peak Flood 23 Step 5: Calculate Flood Peak Discharge Q = 0.00278 C I A (Metric)
= 0.00278 X 0.44 X 30 Mm/Hr X 800 Ha = 29.5 M3/S

Example3

Consider a section of a downtown business area of 35,400 square feet that drains to a particular

storm water inlet. The runoff coefficient for this drainage area has been estimated to be 0.85.

Based on a specified design return period and the time of concentration of the drainage area, the

design storm intensity has been determined to be 5.1 in/hr. What is the peak runoff rate from this

area to be used for design of the storm water inlet?

Solution:

Q = CiA = (0.85)(5.1)(35,400/43,560) cfs

Q= 3.52 cfs.

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ii) Hydrograph analysis

A better approach to establish rainfall – runoff relationship is through unit bydrograph

method which describes a continuous time history of flood discharge from a catchment due
to rainfall event instead of just the maximum flow. Detailed analysis of hydrographs is
important in flood mitigation, flood forecasting for establishing design flows for flood
conveyance structures. A hydrograph is any graphical representation of hydrologic quantities
against time. For example, the graphical representation of stream flow fluctuations as
discharge hydrograph. Hydrographs potray the characteristics of flow in a basin. Usually
precipitation hydrographs are plotted as bar graphs while discharge hydrographs are plotted
as continuous lines. The area under a discharge hydrograph represents the volume of runoff.
The analysis of a hydrograph involves the separation of the various components contributing
to flow with reference to their sources, which combined to produce the total flow at the outlet
of the basin.

It is appropriate to consider how various properties of the catchment area affect the rate and
quantity of discharge from it. Catchment area here means the whole of the land and water
surface area contributing to the discharge at a particular stream or river cross-section, from
which it is clear that every point on a stream channel has a unique catchment of its own.
There are many catchment properties which influence runoff and each may be present to a
large or small degree. The intension in analyzing them separately is to try to determine the
effect of each characteristic on precipitation and its subsequent drainage from the catchment

 Catchment area: The area shows a hypothetical cross-section through the geology, it is
perfectly possible for areas beyond the divide to contribute to the catchment. The true
boundary is indeterminate, however, because although some of the groundwater on the
left of the divide between two areas, while the surface runoff may be on the right hand
part of the area. If the runoff is expressed, not as a total quantity for a catchment, but as a
quantity per unit area (usually m3/ sec), it is observed, other things been equal, that peak
runoff decreases as the catchment area increases. This is due to the time taken by the
water to flow through the stream channels. Similarly, minimum runoff per unit area is
increased due to greater areal extent of the groundwater aquifers and minor local rainfall.

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 Slope of catchment: The more steeply the ground surface is sloping the more rapidly
will surface runoff travel, so that concentration times will be shorter and flood peaks
higher.
 Catchment orientation: Orientation is important with respect to the meteorology of the
area in which the catchment lies. If the prevailing winds and lines of storm movement
have a particular seasonal pattern, as they usually have, the runoff hydrograph will
depend to some degree on the catchment's orientation within the pattern.
 Shape of the catchment: The effect of shape can best be demonstrated by considering
the hydrographs of discharge from three different shaped catchments of the same area.

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9.0 INFILTRATION

9.1 Defining infiltration

Infiltration is defined as the movement of water into the soil through the soil
surface. Whereas interception can be defined as that tendency by which rain is
prevented from falling freely to the ground surface.

When rain falls upon the ground, it first of all wets the vegetation or the bare soil. When the
surface cover is completely wet, subsequent rain must either penetrate the surface layers, if
the surface is permeable, or runoff the surface towards a stream channel if it is impermeable.
If the layer is porous and has minute passage available for the passage of water droplets, the
water infiltrates into the sub-surface soil.

Soil with vegetation growing on it is always permeable to some degree. Once

infiltrating water has passed through the surface layers, it percolates downward under
the influence of gravity until it reaches the zone of saturation.

Different types of soil allow water to infiltrate at different rates. Each soil type has a different
infiltration capacity, f, measured in mm/hr. For example it can be imagined that rain
falling on a gravelly, or sandy soil will rapidly infiltrate and provided the phreatic
surface is below the ground surface, even heavy rain will not produce surface run off.
Similarly, a clayey soil will resist infiltration and the surface will become covered with
water even in light rains The infiltration capacity of a soil at any time is the maximum rate at
which water will get into the soil. Infiltration capacity depends on factors as will be
discussed further.

9.2 Factors affecting infiltration

The various factors affecting the infiltration rate are:

i. Rainfall characteristics
ii. Surface conditions of soil
iii. Soil characteristics
iv. Condition of the soil mass

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 v. Human activities.

9.3 Measurement of infiltration

Infiltration rate of capacity may be determined by measurement using

Infiltrometers By estimation through hydrograph analysis By the use of equations.

9.4 Method of measuring infiltration

There are two main types of infiltrometers namely

 The ring infiltrometer

 Tube infiltrometer

RING INFILTROMETER

Consist of a cylinder driven a few containers into the soil to prevent leakage. There are two
cylinders, one inside the other forming two concentric rings on the outside, the outer ring 36cm
in diameter is meant to reduce the border effect on the inner ring which is 23cm in diameter.

Surrounding dryer soil. Such tests give useful comparative results but they do not simulate real
conditions and have been largely replaced by sprinkler tests on large areas. Here the sprinkler
simulates rainfall, and runoff from the plot is collected and measured as well as inflow, the
difference being assumed to have infiltrated.

INFILTRATION CAPACITY

One aspect of infiltration which has long been considered important in hydrology is the
infiltration capacity of the soil surface. It defined as the maximum rate at which rain can be
absorbed by a soil in a given condition. The usefulness of this concept has often been questioned
on the grounds that since the actual infiltration rate will equal the infiltration capacity when the
latter is exceeded or equaled by the rainfall intensity and, in all other cases, will equal the rainfall
intensity, when allowance is made for interception and surface storage. Therefore, the term
infiltration capacity is redundant and could be replaced by the term infiltration rate.

37
In the present context, however, the two terms will be distinguished partly because infiltration
rate is often used to imply that infiltration is proceeding at a rate lower than the infiltration
capacity, and partly because the relationship between rainfall intensity and the rate of infiltration
varies depending on whether rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity. Thus, when the
rainfall intensity is lower than the infiltration capacity of a soil, all the falling rain not held at
surface storage will infiltrate into the soil so that there will be a direct relationship between the
rate of infiltration and the intensity of rainfall.

When, however, rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity, the foregoing relationship
breaks down and may, indeed be replaced by an inverse relationship between infiltration and
rainfall intensity. This is normally the case when an increase in rainfall intensity is reflected in an
increase in rain drop size and consequently in an increase in their compacting force as the drop
strikes the ground surface.

9.5 Surface cover conditions

The nature of the surface cover is also an important influence on the infiltration process. Thus a
vegetation cover tends to increase infiltration in comparison with areas of bare soil not only by
retarding surface water movement but also by reducing rain drop compaction. Most experimental
evidence indicates that infiltration is higher beneath forest than beneath grass although the
presence of ground litter has a more pronounced effect on the infiltration rate than does the main
vegetation cover itself.

38