UNIT I

CLIMATE AND HUMAN

COMFORT
Weather:

Weather is the day-to-day atmospheric conditions of a particular place.

Weather is the day-to-day state of the atmosphere, and its short-term variation in
minutes to weeks. Weather keeps on changing from place to place. It may be
hot and sunny in one part of the world, but freezing and snowy in another.

Climate:

Climate is the average weather condition of a place, measured over a long

period of time. The standard averaging period is 30 years .while the weather can
change in just a few hours, climate takes hundreds, thousands, even millions of
years to change.
1.1 Factors affecting climate

There are many different factors that affect climate around the world. It is the
varying influence of these factors that lead to different parts of the Earth
experiencing differing climates. The most important natural factors are:
1.distance from the sea
2.ocean currents
3.direction of prevailing winds
4.'relief' or 'topography'(shape of the land)
5.distance from the equator
6.The El Niño phenomenon.
7.It is now widely accepted that human activity is also
affecting climate, and that the impact is not the same everywhere. 
1. Distance from the sea

The sea affects the climate of a place. Coastal areas are cooler and wetter
than inland areas. Clouds form when warm air from inland areas meets cool air from the
sea. The central areas of continents are subject to a large range of temperatures. In the
summer, temperatures can be very hot and dry as moisture from the sea evaporates before
it reaches the centre of the land mass.
2. Ocean currents

Ocean currents can increase or reduce

temperatures.
Currents are driven by the prevailing winds 
passing  over  the  surface  of  the  ocean. 
Therefore  winds  blowing  from  tropical 
areas  bring  warm  currents  and  vice  versa.  The diagram below shows the
ocean currents of the world . 
warm  currents  move  away  from  the 
3. Direction of prevailing winds
Winds that blow from the sea often bring rain to the coast and dry weather to
inland areas.

4.'Relief' or 'topography'
Climate can be affected by topography. Mountains or high altitude areas receive more
rainfall than low lying areas because as air is forced over the higher ground it cools,
causing moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall.
The higher the place above sea level the colder it will be. This happens because as
altitude increases, air becomes thinner and is less able to absorb and retain heat. That is
why you can see snow on the top of mountains all year round.
5. Distance from the equator
The distance from the equator affects the climate of a place. At the poles, energy from the
sun reaches the Earth's surface at lower angles and passes through a thicker
layer of atmosphere than at the equator. This means the climate is cooler further from the
Equator. The poles also experience the greatest difference between summer and winter day
lengths: in the summer there is a period when the sun does not set at the poles; conversely
the poles also experience period of total darkness during winter. In contrast, day length
varies little at the equator.

6. El Niño
El Niño, which affects wind and rainfall patterns, has been blamed for droughts and
floods in countries around the Pacific Rim. El Niño refers to the irregular
warming of surface water in the Pacific. The warmer water pumps energy and moisture
into the atmosphere, altering global wind and rainfall patterns. The phenomenon has
caused tornadoes in Florida, smog in Indonesia, and forest fires in Brazil. El Niño is
Spanish for 'the Boy Child' because it comes about the time of the celebration of the
birth of the Christ Child.
7. Human influence
The factors above affect the climate naturally. However, we cannot forget the
influence of humans on our climate. Early on in human history our effect on the
climate would have been quite small. However, as populations increased and trees were
cut down in large numbers, so our influence on the climate increased. Trees take in carbon
dioxide and produce oxygen. A reduction in trees will therefore have increased the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
The Industrial Revolution, starting at the end of the 19th Century, has had a huge effect
on climate. The invention of the motor engine and the increased burning of fossil fuels
have increased the amount of carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas - more on that later) in the
atmosphere. The number of trees being cut down has also increased, reducing the
amount of carbon dioxide that is taken up by forests.
Elements of climate

The  most  important  elements  of  climate  and  weather  parameters  that  affect  human 
comfort and are relevant to building design are:
•Temperature
•Humidity
•Wind
•Precipitation

Temperature

Temperature is the measure of how hot or cold the air is. It is commonly measured in
Celsius or Fahrenheit. Temperature is a very important factor in determining the
weather, because it influences other elements of the weather.
Temperature may be affected by:
•Sunshine
•Latitude
•Altitude
•Aspect
•Sea Proximity and Temperature
•Ocean Currents

Humidity
Humidity is the amount of watervapour contained in the air. The more water vapour in the
air the higher is the humidity. If the humidity level exceeds the amount of water air can
hold condensation occurs forming dew if it's warm or frost if it's cold. When air is at a
high altitude and has a high humidity then clouds start to form. Humidity varies with
temperature. Warmer air can hold more moisture. Humidity is measured in percentages on
the scale of air's ability to hold moisture. Therefore condensation occurs at 100% humidity
for a given temperature .
Precipitation
Precipitation  is  the  term  given  to  moisture  that  falls  from  the  air  to  the  ground. 
Precipitation can be snow, hail, sleet, drizzle, fog, mist and rain. it is measured by rain 
gauges expressed in millimeter per unit time.(mm/month) or mm/ day . The maximum 
rainfall for 24 hr period is useful guide for design of pavements, roofs, gutters

1.Convectional Rainfall
This is where a water surface is heated by the sun,
e.g. the sea. The air above the sea then becomes
heated making the air less dense so it rises and
cools. As we know cooler air can not hold as much
water vapour as warm air therefore when the rising
air becomes too cold to hold the moisture the
condensation occurs giving us clouds. Once there is
too much water in the cloud for the air to support
gravity forces the water to be released in what we
know as rain.
2.Frontal Rainfall
When two air masses met, one is warmer
than the other the warmer air is forced to
rise over the colder air. As this warm air
rises it cools and forms clouds just like
the air in convectional rainfall.

3. Relief Rainfall
Wind bringing moist air from the
seashore starts to rise up a hillside.
As this air rises the air passes its
Dew Point, the point at which
condensation occurs, and the vapour
forms clouds. The water vapour then
falls as precipitation on top of the
hill or on the other side.
Wind
On  the  surface  of  the  Earth,  wind  consists  of 
the  bulk  movement  of  air.  Wind  is  caused  by 
differences  in atmospheric  pressure.  When 
a difference  in  atmospheric  pressure exists,  air 
wind vanes anemometers
moves  from  the  higher  to  the  lower  pressure 
Measurement
area, resulting in winds of various speeds. On a 
Wind speed is measured by cup type or 
rotating  planet,  air  will  also  be  deflected  by 
propeller anemometers and direction is 
the Coriolis  effect,  except  exactly  on  the 
measured by wind vanes. An anemograph 
equator. Globally, the two major driving factors 
can produce continuous recording of wind 
of large-scale winds are 
velocity and directional changes. Wind 
1. the  differential  heating  between  the 
velocities are normally recorded at a height 
equator and the and 
of 10 m.Measued in m/s, mph or 
2. the rotation of the planet.
knot(nautical miles per hour)
vegetation
The picture of climate is incomplete with out some notes on the character of abundance
of plant life. Vegetation can influence the local climate or site climate. It is an important
element in design of outdoor spaces, providing sun shading and protection from glare.

Sky conditions
It is usually expressed in terms of presence or
absence of clouds. On average two observations are
made per day. It is usually expressed in percentage.
 Components of Climate
The term "climate system" refers to the many elements that contribute to creating a climate
in a particular place or region. The climate system of the earth is an interactive system
consisting of five major components namely
1. atmosphere, 2. cryosphere 3. biosphere 4.Lithosphere 5. hydrosphere.
Surface water
Sea or ocean
Climate classification systems
There are three fundamental types of classifications used in climatology.
1. empirical systems
2. Genetic classification systems
3. Applied classification systems

1. empirical systems of classification that are based on observable features. The

Koeppen system is an empirical system based on observations of temperature and
precipitation. These are two of the easiest climate characteristics that can be
measured, and probably the ones with the longest historical record. It's fairly easy to
collect air temperature readings with a thermometer and precipitation with some sort
of collecting device that can measure the amount of precipitation. Climates are
grouped based on annual averages and seasonal extremes.
2. Genetic classification systems are those based on the cause of the climate. A genetic
system relies on information about climate elements like solar radiation, air masses,
pressure systems, etc. These are inherently the most difficult classifications to create
and use because of the multitude of variables needed.

3. Applied classification systems are those created as an outgrowth of, a particular

climate-associated problem. The Thornthwaite classification system is one based on
potential evapotranspiration and thus groups climates based on water requirements. His
classification system grew out of the issue of trying to predict the supply and demand for
water in different climate regions.
Koppen climate
The Koppen climateclassification system
classification system one of the most widely used
systems for classifying climate because it is easy to understand and
data requirements are minimal. It is an empirical system largely based
on annual and monthly means of temperature and precipitation.
The Köppen system uses a letter coding scheme to classify climate.

The five main groups of climates are designated by capital letters, all
but the dry climates being thermally defined. These are:
1. A - Tropical climates (sometimes identified as
"equatorial" climates)
2. B - Dry climates (sometimes identified as "arid"
climates)
3. C - Warm temperate climates
4. D - Subarctic climates (sometimes identified as "snow"
or "boreal" climates)
tropical climates
A tropical climate is a climate of the tropics. In the Köppen climate
classification it is a non-arid climate in which all twelve months have
mean temperatures above 18 °C .
Unlike the extra-tropics, where there are strong variations in day
length and temperature, with season, tropical temperature remains
relatively constant throughout the year and seasonal variations are
dominated by precipitation.
 C - Warm temperate climates E - Polar climates
A - Tropical climates
B - Dry climates D - Subarctic climates
tropical climates
The tropics is a region of the Earth surrounding the Equator. It is limited in latitude by 
the Tropic  of  Cancer in  the northern  hemisphere at  23° N  and  the Tropic  of 
Capricorn in the southern hemisphere at 23° S; these latitudes correspond to the axial 
tilt of  the  Earth.  The  tropics  are  also  referred  to  as  the tropical zone and  the torrid
zone . 
A tropical climate is the climate experienced
in the tropics. In the Köppen climate
classification it is a non-arid climate in which all
twelve months have mean temperatures
above 18 °C .
Unlike the extra-tropics, where there are strong
variations in day length and temperature, with
season, tropical temperature remains relatively
constant throughout the year and seasonal
variations are dominated by precipitation.
Classification of tropical climates
The classifications of tropical climates are provided by G.A Atkinson
in 1953. The basis of classification is given by two atmospheric
factors which dominantly influence human comfort :
1. Air temperature and
2. Humidity.
The extremes of these main criterions are the ones that causes
discomfort. The tropical regions of earth are divided into 3 major
climatic zones and 3sub groups :Within  the  tropical  climate  zone  there  are 
distinct varieties based on precipitation:
3. warm- humid equatorial climate – 
subgroup : Warm humid island or trade- wind climate.
4. Hot-dry desert or semi-desert climate – 
subgroup: hot dry maritime desert climate.
5. Composite or monsoon climate( combination of 1 and 2) 
subgroup : tropical upland climate.
1. warm- humid climate
warm- humid climate
warm- humid island climate
2.Hot-dry desert or semi-desert climate
hot dry maritime desert climate.
3. Composite or monsoon climate
tropical upland climate.
Human body heat balance
Human body heat production
Heat is continuously produced by the body. Most of the biochemical process involved in
the tissue- building , energy conversion and muscular work are exothermic..i.e. heat
producing. All energy and material requirements of the body are supplied from the
consumption and digestion of food. The process involved in conversion of foodstuff into
living matter and useful form of energy are known as metabolism.

The total metabolic heat production can be divided into

1. basal metabolism – heat production due to
vegetative, automatic processes .
2. muscular metabolism- heat production of muscles
while carrying any work or activities.

Of all the energy produced in the body only about 20%

is utilized, 80% is surplus heat and must be dissipated
to environment.
Human body heat loss
The deep body temperature must remain balanced and constant around 37 degree. Like
all mammals, humans “burn” food for energy and must discard the excess heat. In order
to remain body temperature at this steady rate , all surplus heat must be dissipated to
environment. If there is some form of simultaneous heat gain form the environment that
also must be dissipated.
This is accomplished by evaporation coupled with the three modes of sensible heat

transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation.

The body is in a state of thermal equilibrium with its environment . It loses heat exactly
in the same rate as it gains heat. Mathematically, the relationship between the body’s
heat production and all its other heat gains and losses is:

Heat production = heat loss

Convection
The convection is the transfer of heat from one part of a fluid (gas or liquid) to another part
at a lower temperature by mixing of fluid particles. Heat transfer by convection takes place at
the surfaces of walls, floors and roofs. Because of the temperature difference between the
fluid and the contact surface, there is a density variation in the fluid, resulting in buoyancy.
This results in heat exchange between the fluid and the surface and is known as free
convection. However, if the motion of the fluid is due to external forces (such as wind), it is
known as forced convection. These two processes could occur simultaneously. The rate of
heat transfer (Q convection) by convection from a surface of area A, can be written as
Radiation

Radiation is the heat transfer from a body by virtue of its temperature; it increases as
temperature of the body increases. It does not require any material medium for propagation.
When two or more bodies at different temperatures exchange heat by radiation, heat will be
emitted, absorbed and reflected by each body. The radiation exchange between two large
parallel plane surfaces (of equal area A) at uniform temperatures T1 and T2 respectively, can
be written as
Convection : The rate of convective heat loss is increased by a faster rate of air
movement , by a lower air - temperature and a higher skin temperature.

Radiant heat loss depends on the temperature of the body surface and the temperature of
opposing surfaces.

Evaporation heat loss is governed by the rate of evaporation, which in turn depends on
the humidity of air ( the dryer the air, the faster the evaporation) and on the amount of
moisture available for evaporation. Evaporation takes places in the lungs through
breathing and on the skin as imperceptible perspiration and sweat.

As soon as the sum is more than zero, vasomotor adjustments will take place, blood
circulation to skin surface is increased, more heat is transported to the surface and the
skin temperature is elevated- all forms of the heat loss processes are accelerated.
Conversely if the sum of the above equation is less than zero, the blood circulation to the
skin is reduced, skin temperature is lowered and heat loss process is slowdown.
The thermal balance of body can be expressed by an
equation. The heat gain and heat loss factors are :

Gain :
Met = metabolism (basal and muscular)
Cnd = conduction (contact with warm bodies)
Cnv = convection ( if air is warmer than skin
Rad = radiation( from sun sky and hot bodies).
Loss :
Cnd = conduction (contact with cold bodies )
Cnv = convection ( if air is cooler than skin )
Rad = radiation( to night sky and cold surfaces)
Evp = evaporation (of moisture and sweat)

Met- Evp ± Cnd ± Cnv ± Rad = 0

Heat Exchange Of The Body With The Environment

Met- Evp ± Cnd ± Cnv ± Rad = 0

CONDUCTION
 Regulatory
mechanism
Body heat exchange

Thermal balance of the body

Effects of climatic factors on human body heat loss
Effective temperature
Mahoney tables
The Mahoney tables are a set of reference tables used in architecture used as a guide to
climate-appropriate design. They are named after architect Carl Mahoney,. The concept
developed by Mahoney (1968) in Nigeria provided the basis of the Mahoney Tables, later
developed by Koenigsberger , Mahoney and Evans .) . The Mahoney Tables proposed a
climate analysis sequence that starts with the basic and widely available monthly climatic
data of temperature, humidity and rainfall,
The tables use readily available climate data and simple calculations to give design
guidelines, in a manner similar to a spreadsheet, as opposed to detailed thermal analysis or
simulation. There are six tables; four are used for entering climatic data, for comparison
with the requirements for thermal comfort; and two for reading off appropriate design
criteria. A rough outline of the table usage is:

•Air Temperatures. The max, min, and mean temperatures for each month are entered
into this table.
•Humidity, Precipitation, and Wind. The max, min, and mean figures for each month
are entered into this table, and the conditions for each month classified into a humidity
group.
•Comparison of Comfort Conditions and Climate. The desired max/min temperatures
are entered, and compared to the climatic values from table 1. A note is made if the
conditions create heat stress or cold stress (i.e. the building will be too hot or cold).

•Indicators (of humid or arid conditions). Rules are provided for combining the stress
(table 3) and humidity groups (table 2) to check a box classifying the humidity and aridity
for each month. Then these indicator are checked and added up, giving a yearly total.

•Schematic Design Recommendations. The yearly totals in table 4 correspond to rows in

this table, listing schematic design recommendations, e.g. 'buildings oriented on east-west
axis to reduce sun exposure', 'medium sized openings, 20%-40% of wall area'.

•Design Development Recommendations. Again the yearly totals from table 4 are used to
read off recommendations, e.g. 'roofs should be high-mass and well insulated'.