UNIT1:- INTRODUCTION TO

CLIMATE
AR.SHAFQUAT IMAM
1.0 What is climate ?
 Long-term weather patterns over a minimum of a 30 year period, of a specific
area.
 Climate is a measure of the average pattern of variation
in temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric
particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over long
periods of time.
 Climate is different from weather, in that weather only describes the short-term
conditions of these variables in a given region.
 1.1 Introduction to climate
The root of all weather is the Sun, which heats the Earth. T he heating is uneven,
because of night and day, because different surfaces (such as rocks and trees)
absorb and reflect sunlight in different amounts, and because sunlight hits
the equator more directly than the poles. Uneven heat creates pressure
differences, and Wind flows between areas of high and low pressure High
and Low Pressure Because the Earth is warmer at the equator than at the
poles, major differences in pressure occur. Air moves north and south to try
to equalize the pressure difference created by the temperature difference.
The Earth rotates under this air, which deflects its direction
Every one knows that its warmer in summer & colder in winter, why is that? The
main factor is temperature due to the position of the earth in its elliptical
orbit around the sun, the 23 .5 degree tilt of the earth’s axis of rotation which
gives rise to seasons in various places and the path of the sun in the sky over
the course of the day etc,. The rotation of the earth on its axis gives rise to
Day and night periods and because of the tilt the length of day & night times
keeps varying at different places on earth. If there was no tilt of earth then
we would have had equal day & equal night periods throughout the year.
The path of the sun on earth changes after every 6 months for the Northern
& Southern hemispheres.
The polar climates have unbearable cold conditions for normal human existence
and they have conditions of continuous day or darkness for almost 6 months.
2. Factors affecting climate
There are various factors that determine a places climate.

1. Latitude
2. Altitude
3. Air Pressure
4. Distance from sea/Continental Effect
5. Relief or mountain barriers
6. Ocean Currents
7. Solar Radiation / Angle of Sun
8. Heating of Water bodies and Land Masses
9. Sea Breeze Land Breeze
2.1 Latitude
 Due to the curvature of he earth the amount of solar energy received varies
according to latitude
 Temperature decreases from equator to polar region
 Tropical region-hot
 Polar region –cold
 Temperate region –moderate
2.2 Altitude
 As we go from surface of the earth to higher elevations atmospheric temperature
decreases.
 Normal lapse rate -3° F /1000 ft height.
 Atmosphere get heated from below.
2.3 Air Pressure
 Air pressure is caused by the unequal heating of earth’s surface.
2. Low pressure is warm, moist air. It raises and forms clouds.
2. High pressure is cold, dry air.It sinks and creates clear skies.
 Winds move in groups and always move from HIGH to LOW
pressure.
 Sea is mostly in high pressure due to large amount of evaporation.
2.3 Air Pressure
2.4 Distance from sea
 Sea exerts a moderating influence on climate
 If the place is located away from the sea then the moderating influence of the sea
decreases
 Large bodies of water are slower to heat and cool than land.
 As a result, water temps. remain stable, and land temps. change
frequently .
 Coastlines have stable temperatures.
 Interior of continent has extreme temperatures (hotter and colder)
2.5 Mountain barrier
 Height and aspect of the relief influences the climate of a region
 Mountains act as a climatic barrier
 It prevents the cold/hot wind and protect the region
 Himalayas acts as a climatic barrier
 Mountain Barriers create a phenomenon called the Orographic
Effect or Rainshadow.
2.6 Ocean Currents
 Ocean currents are giant rivers of sea water flowing within
oceans.
 Ocean currents flow in circular paths:
2. Warm currents carry water from low to high latitudes. These
make land nearby warmer.
2. Cool currents carry water from high to low latitudes. These
make land nearby colder.
2.7 Solar Radiation & Angle of Sun
2.7 Solar Radiation & Angle of Sun
2.8 Heating of Water bodies and Land
Masses
2.9 Land and Sea Breeze
3.Importance of climate in architecture

 A built environment can respond to climate or use it as an advantage. Climate, in particular,

produces certain easily observed effects on architectural forms. For example, the proportion
of window area to wall area becomes less as one moves toward the equator.
 In the subtropical and tropical zones, more distinctive changes in architectural form occur to
meet the problems caused by excessive heat. In Egypt, Iraq, India, and Pakistan, deep
loggias, projecting balconies, and overhangs casting long shadows on the walls of buildings
are found. Wooden or marble lattices fill large openings to subdue the glare of the sun while
permitting the breeze to pass through. Such arrangements characterize the architecture of
hot zones, and evoke comfort as well as aesthetic satisfaction with the visible endeavours of
man to protect himself against the excessive heat.
 the gabled roof decreases in pitch as the rate of precipitation decreases. In Northern Europe
and most districts subjected to heavy snow, gables are steep, while in the sunnier lands of
the south, the pitch steadily decreases. In the hot countries of the North African coast the
roofs become quite flat, in some areas providing a comfortable place to sleep. Still further
south, in the tropical rainfall zone, the roofs are again steep to provide protection from the
torrential downpours typical of the region.
4.Elements of Climate
 The designer is interested specifically in those aspects of climate which affect
human comfort and the use of buildings. They includes averages, changes and
extremes of Temperature difference between night & day (diurnal range),
humidity, sky conditions, incoming and outgoing radiation , rainfall and its
distribution, air movements, and special features such as trade winds , thunder
storms, dust storms, and hurricanes.

 Various elements of climate includes:-

1. TEMPRATURE
2. HUMIDITY
3. WIND
4. PRECIPITATION
5. SOLAR RADIATION
4.1 Temperature & its measurement

 Temperature is how Hot or Cold it is.

 The temperature of the air is measured in degree Celsius (°C), most often with a
mercury thermometer.
 The dry-bulb or true air temperature is a value taken in the shade, the
thermometer being mounted inside a louvered wooden box, known as the
“Stevenson screen”. A Stevenson screen or instrument shelter is an enclosure to
shield meteorological instruments against precipitation and direct heat radiation
from outside sources, while still allowing air to circulate freely around them. It
forms part of a standard weather station.
4.2 Humidity & its measurement

 The humidity of the air can be described as absolute humidity (AH), i.e. the
amount of moisture actually present in unit mass or unit volume of air, in terms of
gm /m³.
 The relative humidity is however is the ratio of the actual amount of moisture
present , to the amount of moisture the air could hold (saturation point humidity
SH) at a given temperature and is generally expressed as a percentage (%).
 RH = AH / SH X 100%
 Humidity is usually measured with wet and dry bulb hygrometer.
 A similar instrument–the sling psychrometer–calculates the relative humidity level,
which is a combination of temperature and humidity. Most home weather
stations(with two or more weather measurement instruments) have hygrometers,
because the sling psychrometer contains two thermometers, and one needs to be
kept moist. Like thermometers and barometers, hygrometers are available in both
analog (clock-like) and digital versions.
4.2 Humidity & its measurement
4.2.1 vapour pressure
 The atmospheric pressure is the sum of “partial pressure of dry air (Pa) and the
“partial vapour pressure”
 P=Pa +Pv
 air is saturated when the vapour pressure (Pv) is equal to the saturated vapour
pressure of the same temprature ( Pvs)
 Relative humidity is also expressed as a ratio of actual vapour pressure to the
saturation point vapour pressure.
 S.I. unit is ( N/m²)
 The relationship of all these quantities i.e. dry bulb temperature, wet bulb
temperature, absolute & relative humidity and vapour pressure is shown in a
psychrometric chart.
4.2.2 Psychrometric chart
 4.3 Wind & its measurement
 Wind is simply moving air. Wind speed is how fast the air is
moving.
 Wind velocity is measured using an anemometer. Most weather stations measure
wind speed using a spinning cup anemometer, which rotates depending on the
wind.
 Wind directions are measured by wind vane.
 An anemograph can produce continuous recordings of wind velocity and
directional changes.
 4.3 Wind & its measurement
 the modern wind rose shows the frequency of
winds blowing from particular directions over a
thirty-year period. The length of each "spoke"
around the circle is related to the frequency that
the wind blows from a particular direction per
unit time. Each concentric circle represents a
different frequency, emanating from zero at the
center to increasing frequencies at the outer
circles. A wind rose plot may contain additional
information, in that each spoke is broken down
into color-coded bands that show wind speed
ranges. Wind roses typically use 16 cardinal
directions, such as north (N), NNE, NE, etc.,
although they may be subdivided into as many as
32 directions.
 Compiling a wind rose is one of the preliminary
steps taken in constructing airport runways, as
aircraft typically perform their best take-offs and
landings pointing into the wind.
 4.4 Precipitation & its measurement

 Precipitation is the collective term used for rain, snow, hail, dew and frost, that is
for all forms of water deposited (precipitated)from atmosphere.
 It is measured by rain gauge, i.e. calibrated receptacles and is expressed in
millimetre per a time unit (mm/month, mm/day)
 4.4.1 Driving rain & cloud
 Driving rain is nothing but intense rains associated with strong winds.
 The driving rain index characterises a given location and expresses the degree of
exposure.
 It is the product of annual rainfall (in m) and the annual average wind velocity (in
m/s) .
 Upto 3m²/s – safe or sheltered.
 3m²/s - 7m²/s - moderate
 over 7m²/s – severe.
 This index broadly classify the given location ,The actual rain penetration will
depend on instantaneous rain intensity and the simultaneous wind velocity.
 Percentage of cloud cover at any particular time effects the sky luminance value
which is needed if day lighting of a building is to be predicted.
 4.5 Solar Radiation & its measurement

 Earth receives almost all its energy from sun in the form of radiation , thus sun is
the dominating influence on climates.
 The spectrum of solar radiation extends from 290 to 2300 nm (10ˆˉ9m).
 Uitravoilet :- 290 to 380 nm
 Visible light:- 380 nm (voilet)- 700 nm (red)
 Infrared :- 700 – 2300 nm
 The intensity of radiation reaching the upper surface of the atmosphere is taken
as the solar constant 1395 w/m², it may vary ±2% due to solar output variation, &
±3% due to changes in earth sun distance.
 4.5 Solar Radiation & its measurement

The earth sun relationship affects the amount of radiation received at a particular point
on the earth surface in three ways.
1. the cosine law, which states that the intensity on a tilted surface equlas the normal
intensity times the cosine of angle of incidence.

2. Atmospheric depletion i.e. absorption of radiation by ozone, vapour, dust particle etc.
3. Duration of sunshine i.e. the length of daylight period.
4.5 Solar Radiation & its measurement
4.5 Solar Radiation & its measurement
4.5 Solar Radiation & its measurement
 4.5 Solar Radiation & its measurement

A simple sunshine recorder will register the

duration of sunshine which can be expressed
in number of hours per day, as an average of
each month.
 a variety of more sophisticated instruments
includes ,
 Solarimeter.
 Heliometer.
 Actinometer
 Pyranometer. Etc.
 The intensity of solar radition is measured (SI
UNIT) in W/m²
 W/m² = J /m²s since W=J/s
 4.6 Revision of measuring equipments.

 Air Temperature – Thermometer 

 Air Pressure – Barometer 
 Humidity – Hygrometer 
 Rainfall - Rain gauge or water gauge 
 Solar radiation- sunshine recorder, solarimeter, heliometer,
pyranometer.) 
 Wind - Weather vane (direction) with anemometer (speed) 
 Weather balloon - all of the above at varying elevations 
Reference definitions
 Weather; It’s the momentary state of environment at a certain location
 Climate: The weather in some location averaged over some long period of time
 Atmosphere: A particular environment or surrounding influence / The mass of air surrounding the Earth
 Space ; Any location outside the Earth's atmosphere
 Zenith: The point above the observer head, the imaginary sphere against which celestial bodies appear.
 Altitude; Angular distance above the horizon (especially of a celestial object)
 Latitude: An imaginary line around the Earth parallel to the equator
 Longitude; The angular distance between a point on any meridian and the prime meridian at Greenwich
 Earth; The 3rd planet from the sun; the planet we live on in global form & it moves around the sun in elliptical orbit“
 Azimuth; the angle between the vertical plane containing it and the plane of the meridian
 Meridian; An imaginary great circle on the surface of the earth passing through the north and south poles at right angles to
the equator
 Equinox: when the sun crosses the plane of the earth's equator during 2 times of the year
 Equator; An imaginary line around the Earth forming the great circle that is equidistant from the north and south poles, A
circle dividing a sphere into two equal and symmetrical parts
 Ocean; A large body of water constituting a principal part of the hydrosphere
 Topography ; Precise detailed study of the surface features of a region
 Solar radiation; Radiation from sun
Reference definitions
 Cyclone; A violent rotating windstorm with a low pressure center; circling counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere
and clockwise in the southern
 Wind; Air moving from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure
 Breeze; A slight & pleasing wind (usually refreshing) it’s a low pressure wind condition.
 Storm; A violent weather condition with winds 64-72 knots and precipitation and thunder and lightning
 Precipitation; The water in any form falling to earth at a specific place (rain, snow, hail, sleet or mist)
 Solastice; Either of the two times of the year when the sun path is at its greatest distance from the equator
 Albedo; The ratio of reflected to incident light
 Bathymetry; Measuring the depths of the oceans
 Relative humidity ; The ratio of the amount of water in the air at a give temperature to the maximum amount it could hold
at that temperature; expressed as a percentage
 R Value; A measure of thermal resistance used in building and construction, with larger values corresponding to better
insulation and less heat loss; it is the inverse of the U value (U-value is the inverse of R-value. U=1/R R-value is the standard
way of describing how effective an insulation is ) it is easier to explain to consumers that R-19 insulation is better than R-11
rather than telling them U=0.05 insulation is better than
 U Value :A measure of how well a building element transfers heat, with smaller values corresponding to better insulation
and hence less heat loss; it is the rate of energy loss per unit area per degree difference in temperature, and is equal to the
inverse of the R value "a solid brick wall has a U value of about 2, similar to double glazing; well-insulated modern
buildings should have walls with a U value less than 0.3“
 Gale : A strong wind moving 45-90 knots; force 7 to 10 on Beaufort scale
 Knot mile ; A unit of length used in navigation; exactly 1,852 meters; historically based on the distance spanned by one
minute of arc in latitude
QUESTIONS ???