ACOUSTICS AND ILLUMINATION

VII SEMESTER B.ARCH

 ACOUSTICS
INTRODUCTION
BASIC THEORY
SOUND ABSORPTION
ROOM ACOUSTICS
SOUND ISOLATION AND NOISE CONTROL
MECHANICAL SYSTEMNOISE AND VIBRATIONS
SPEECH PRIVACY
ELECTRONIC SOUND SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
 All acoustic situations can be described by three parts:
 SOURCE: Speech, HVAC equipment -made louder or quieter
 through sound absorbing/ reflecting material placement
 PATH: Air, earth, building materials – made to transmit more or less sound
 through double wall constructions etc.
 to interrupt sound path for isolation
 RECIEVER: Human/ animal ears, medical equipment- internal mechanical
equipment, outdoor noises
 hear better and be more comfortable if distracting noise is
controlled
 Best to focus on all three parts
 Acoustical requirements to be considered at earliest stages of building design as
later corrections may be difficult and extremely expensive
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Volume
Shape and proportion
Layout: floor slope, distances from
source
Finishes: selection and placement
Furnishings
Special treatments

MECHANICAL SYSTEM NOISE AND SOUND ISOLATION

VIBRATIONS
Equipment characteristics
Location of mech. equip.
Vibration isolation-springs, pads etc.
Air duct and pipe treatment-linings
etc.
Background noise from air outlets
(coordination with sound isolation)
Site noise characteristics
ESSENTIAL Outdoor barriers: buildings
vegetation earth-berms
ELEMENTS OF Location of activities within
ARCHITECTURAL buildings
ACOUSTICS Wall, floor and ceiling construction
Background noise criteria
(Coordination with room acoustics)

ELECTRONIC SOUND SYSTEMS

System compatibility with room
acoustics
Loudspeaker selection, placement
and orientation
System components and controls
Background masking (loudspeaker
layout, sound spectra
 ASSIGNMENT 1

To explore market and collect information on acoustic materials.

 Find types of materials available.

 The acoustic properties that are given of those materials (if any).
 The other physical and architectural properties such as aesthetics, durability,
weathering etc.
 Where they can be used
 Fixing details.
 Prices.
BASIC THEORY
 Sound and noise is a vibration in an elastic medium such as air, water, earth, building material.
 Elastic medium returns to normal state after force is removed
 Amplitude, Cycle, Frequency, Time Period and wavelength.
 Sound energy travels but each vibrating particle of the medium moves an infinitesimal
amount and bumps against adjacent particles. It imparts most of its motion and energy to them.
 The maximum displacement of the particle during vibration is called Amplitude.
 A full circuit by a displaced particle is called a Cycle.
 The time required for one complete cycle is called the Time Period and is measured in
seconds per cycle.
 The number of complete cycles per second is called the Frequency of vibration and is
measured in cycles per second whose unit is Hertz (Hz).
 The distance a sound wave travels during one cycle of vibration is called the Wavelength.
 The movement causes adjacent particles to push together or draw apart - Compression
and Rarefaction.
 Pitch is the subjective response of human hearing to frequency low frequencies are considered
boomy and high frequencies are screechy or hissy.
 FREQUENCY, TONE AND BAND WIDTH

 Pure Tone is vibration produced at a single frequency.

 A graph between sound pressure and time gives a sinusoidal curve
 A tone is composed of a fundamental frequency with multiples of the fundamental called Harmonics.
 Complex sounds consist of a variety of pressures which vary over time, most everyday sounds are
complex.
 Most sound sources, except for pure tones, contain energy over a wide range of frequencies.
 Hearing range for healthy young person is from 20 to 20,000 Hz.
 For measurement, analysis and specification of sound, the frequency range is divided into sections (called
bands).
 One common standard division is into 10 octave bands identified by their center frequencies : 31.5, 63,
125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, 8000, 16,000.
 An octave band in sound analysis, represents a frequency ratio of 2:1
 Wave length scales
44m 22m 11m 5.5m 2.8m 1.4m 0.7m 34cm 17cm 8.6cm 4.3cm 2.1cm 1cm
144’ 72’ 36’ 18’ 9’ 4.5’ 2.25’ 1’1/2” 6-3/4” 3-3/8” 1-3/4” 7/8” 7/16”

HEARING RANGE FOR YOUNG

HEARING RANGE FOR OLD

VOWELS CONSONANTS
SPEECH

HIGH FIDELITY STEREO

8 16 20 31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 16000 32000
20000

Frequency (Hz)
Vibrations below 20Hz are not audible but can be felt.
Human speech ranges between 125 to 8000 Hz.
 INVERSE SQUARE LAW FOR SOUND

 Sound waves from a point source outdoors with no obstructions (free field conditions) are
virtually spherical and expand outwards from the source.
Power is a basic quantity of energy flow measured in watts.
Acoustic and electrical forms of energy are different and cause different responses. 10 watts of electric energy in
an incandescent bulb is very dim light, whereas 10 W of acoustic energy can produce an extremely loud sound.

 The intensity from a point source outdoors at a distance d away is the sound power of the
source divided by the total spherical area 4πd2 of the sound wave at the distance of
interest :
I=W/4πd2 Where I = sound intensity (W/m2)
W = sound power (W)
d = distance from sound source (m)
 The Inverse square law for sound is:
I1 /I2 = (d2 /d1 )2 Where I = sound intensity (W/m2)
d = distance from sound source (m)
Ernst Weber and Gustav Fechner discovered that:
“NEARLY ALL HUMAN SENSATIONS ARE PROPORTIONAL TO THE LOGARITHM OF THE INTENSITY OF THE
STIMULUS”
The unit bel was first used to relate the intensity of sound to an intensity level corresponding to the
human hearing sensation.
 Sound intensity level in bels equals the logarithm of the intensity ratio I/Io where Io is the minimum
sound intensity audible to the average human ear at 1000 Hz.
 Decibels (logarithm to be multiplied by 10) =
L1 = 10 log I/I0 where L1 = sound intensity level (dB)
I= sound intensity (W/m2)
I0 = reference sound intensity = 10 -12
 Human hearing ranges from the threshold of audibility at 0 dB to the threshold of pain at 130 dB.
Represents a tremendous intensity ratio of 10 trillion to 1. A weighing machine of comparable range
would have to be able weigh a human hair and a 30 storey building! Logarithms allow this range to be
represented in convenient small numbers.
Outdoors, away from obstruction according to inverse square law the intensity ratio for doubling the
distance is 22 or 4 and corresponding decibel reduction is 10 log 4 or 6 dB.
Sound from line sources like vehicles on highway drop by only 3 dB on doubling of distances as the line is
a succession of point sources that reinforce each other
Decibels Examples Subjective evaluation

140 Jet engine 25 m away 140

Threshold of pain Painful, dangerous
130 Jet aircraft during takeoff 100m away 130

120 Hard rock band elect. amplification 120

Threshold of feeling Deafening
110 Accelerating motorcycle few feet away 110

100 Auto horn 100

Crowd noise at football game Very loud
90 Printing press 90
Threshold of hearing loss
Pneumatic concrete breaker
(long term exposure) 80
80 Cafeteria with sound reflecting surfaces.
Loud
70 Aircraft cabin during flight 70
60 Near highway traffic SPEECH 60
50 Office activities 50 Moderate
40 Soft stereo music in residence 40

30 Residence late at night 30 Faint

20 Whisper 20
12 Rustle of leaves 10 Very faint
8 Human breathing Threshold of hearing /audibility
0 Threshold of hearing/ audibility 0
 25

20
Point source (spherical, reduction at 6dB
per doubling of distance)

15

Line source (cylindrical, reduction at 3dB

per doubling of distance)
Noise reduction (dB)

10

0
10 30 60 120

Distance from source (ft)

•An area source, produced by several adjacent sources like rows of cheering spectators at a sports event or
large areas of mechanical equipment has very little reduction of sound energy with distance close to the
source.
 CHANGE IN SOUND LEVEL

 Sound intensity is not perceived directly by the ear; rather it is transferred by a complex hearing mechanism
to the brain where acoustical sensations are interpreted as loudness.
 Sensitivity to noise also depends on frequency content, psychological factors (emotions, expectations etc.)
and duration of sound.
 Properties of logs: log xy =log x + log y, log x/y =log x – log y, log xn =n log x, log 1 =0
 A reasonable guide to explain increase/ decrease in sound levels is:

Change in Change in
Sound Level Apparent
Change in intensity level (or noise reduction: NR) is found by:
(dB) Loudness
1 Imperceptible
NR =L1-L2 NR = Diff. in sound levels of 2 conditions
3 Just barely in Decibels (dB)
perceptible
NR = 10 logI1/I2 I1, I2 = Sound intensities under the two
6 Clearly noticeable conditions respectively (W/m2)
10 About twice (or half)
as loud NR = 10 log (d2/d1)2 by substitution (inverse square law)
20 About four times (or
NR = 20 log (d2/d1) where d’s are distances.
one-fourth) as loud
 DECIBEL ADDITION

 When two (or more sources) create sound the combined sound is not an algebraic addition as decibels
are logarithmic values . If there are more sources, then, combine two at a time. The following table can be
used to rapidly combine sound levels.

When Two Add foll. Find combined sound level of 34,41,43,58 dB

dB values to higher 34 + 41 = 42 and 43 +58 =58 , 42 +58 = 58 dB
Differ by value.
(Using different orders may give a difference of about 1 dB which is not
0 or 1 3
significant.)
2 or 3 2 If n number of equal decibel values are to be combined, add 10 log n to
the decibel value of one.
4 to 8 1 For example if n =76 trumpets each playing at an L1 of 80 dB, then the
total sound is:
9 or more 0
= 80 +10 log 76
= 80 +10 (1.8808)
= 99 dB for 76 trumpets
 Sound Intensity Level Sound Pressure Level Sound Power Level
Symbol LI LP LW
Express as 10 log I/ IO 20 log p/po 10 Log W/WO
Units LI measured in dB LP measured in dB LW measured in dB
I measured in W/m2 p measured in N/m2 W measured in Watt
(or pascal, Pa)
Reference value* Io = 10 -12 W/m2 po = 2x10-5 N/m2 Wo = 10-12 W
(1pW)
At reference value LI = 0 dB LP = 0 dB LW = 0 dB
Pain threshold value I = 10 W/m2 P = 63 N/m2
At pain threshold value LI = 130 dB LP = 130 dB
SOUND ABSORPTION
 When sound hits the boundaries and other surfaces of a room, part of its energy is absorbed
and transmitted, and part is reflected back into the room. Sound levels in a room can be
reduced by effective use of sound absorbing treatment, such as false ceilings, curtains and
carpets etc.
 Free Field conditions occur when sound waves are free from the influence of reflective/ absorptive
surfaces.
 Reverberant Field: Indoors, sound energy drops off under free field conditions only near the source
(usually < than 5 ft for small rooms). Room surfaces reflect sound so there will be little further noise
reduction with distance away from the source (called reverberant field)
 EFFECT OF SOUND ABSORBING TREATMENT

 Close to the source the reduction will be only 3 dB.

 The addition of sound absorption to the ceiling of a small room (<500 ft2 ) can reduce the reverberant
sound levels by10 dB.
 If the ceiling and all four walls are treated then the sound level in the reverberant field drops an
additional 6 dB, but sound levels near the source (free field) are not affected.
 No more reduction is achieved by adding further sound absorbing treatment.

The room was initially completely enclosed

by sound reflecting surfaces and had few
furnishings to absorb sound energy.
Sound level (dB)

Generally a reduction of 6 to 8 dB in rev. noise

is more likely the upper limit for furnished spaces
of comparable size
 SOUND ABSORBTION COEFFICIENT

 SOUND ABSORBTION COEFFICIENT is an expression of the effectiveness of a sound absorbing material. It

is the fraction of the incident sound energy that a material absorbs. Varies from >0 (=no absorption) to <1
(perfect, or all incident sound energy absorbed) and is denoted as α.
 TOTAL ROOM ABSORPTION is the sum of all surface areas in a room multiplied by their respective sound
absorption coefficients with a unit of Sabins in FPS
a=ΣSα where a = total room absorption (sabins)
S = surface area (ft2 )
α = sound abs. coeff. at given frequency as a decimal percent
 Materials with SAC > 0.5 are referred as sound absorbing and
 Materials with SAC <0.2 are referred as sound reflecting.
 Basic types of sound absorbing materials are porous materials, vibrating or resonant panels, and
volume resonators.
 Sound absorption by Porous and fibrous materials is predominantly the indirect conversion of sound
energy to thermal energy mainly by frictional flow resistance.
 The amount of sound absorption that can be achieved depends upon physical properties of thickness,
density, and porosity for most porous materials and fiber diameter and orientation for fibrous materials
 EFFICIENCY OF SOUND ABSORBERS

EFFECT OF THICKNESS ON ABSORPTION EFFICIENCY

 Thickness has a considerable effect on sound absorption efficiency of porous materials but the pores
must be inter-connected.
These specialized types of sound absorption techniques can be used to supplement porous
materials or to absorb specific low frequency sound energy like a 120 Hz ‘hum’ from electrical
equipment
Volume Resonators reduce sound energy by friction
at openings and by inter-reflections within the
cavities
Vibrating Panels convert sound energy into
vibrational energy which is dissipated by internal
damping and radiation
 NOISE REDUCTION COEFFICIENT

 The Noise Reduction Coefficient NRC is the arithmetic average , rounded off to the nearest
multiple of 0.05, of the Sound Absorption Coefficients α’s at 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz for a
specific material and mounting condition.
 NRC is a single-number rating of sound-absorbing efficiency at mid-frequencies.
 NRC is not: as the name suggests, the difference in sound levels between two conditions or
between two rooms
NRC = (α250 + α500 + α1000 + α2000 )/4 Where: NRC = noise reduction coefficient (decimal percent)
α = sound absorption coefficient ( decimal percent)

Note : Two materials may have identical NRC but very

different absorption characteristics.

As NRC does not include α’s at 125 and 4000 Hz it should

not be used to evaluate materials where speech or
music perception is important
 APPLICATIONS FOR SOUND ABSORBING MATERIALS

 REVERBERATION CONTROL: So that speech is clear and not garbled. The larger the room volume, the longer
the RT because sound waves will encounter room surfaces less often than in small rooms. Each doubling of
the total amount of absorption in a room reduces the RT by one half. Sound absorption can make sound
appear to come directly from the actual source rather than from everywhere.

 NOISE REDUCTION IN ROOMS: When correctly used, they can be effective in controlling noise build-up in a
room. However they have limited application for noise control and are not all-purpose solution for all noise
problems. Each doubling of the total amount of absorption in a room reduces the noise level only by 3 dB.
Thus it becomes an increasingly inefficient method for noise reduction.
In large open-plan rooms, sound absorbing materials can contribute to speech privacy by causing sound
energy to decrease with distance.

 ECHO CONTROL: Sound Absorbing Materials can be used to control Echo usually (along with reverberation
control). Echoes are long delayed, distinct reflections of sufficient sound level to be clearly heard above the
general reverberation as a repetition of the original sound. Flutter Echo, which can be heard as a ‘rattle’ or
‘clicking’ from a hand clap, may be present in small rooms (or narrow spaces with parallel walls) can also be
controlled with SAM.
 REVERBERATION TIME

 Wallace Clement Sabine (beginning 1895 at 27) – criteria for good listening conditions in rooms were largely non
– existing.
 Asked to improve listening conditions for speech in the new lecture hall (Fogg Art Museum, Harvard Univ.)
 Sound in the hall would persist for about 5½ S due to multiple reflections from the hard surfaces of the hall.
 Most English speaking persons complete 15 syllables in this time, words were impossible to understand
everywhere in this hall.
 Sabine recognized that the problem of persistence of sound energy in the room was due to the size of the
room, its furnishings and the occupants.
 Size of the room affects av. length of reflections, called the Mean Free Path approx. equal to 4V/S where V
=Volume and S = surface area, (square and cubic feet).
 Called this persistence “duration of audibility of residual sound”.
 Repeated tests conducted in the hall with organ pipes as source – had an initial sound level of 60dB above a
young listeners threshold of audibility at 512 Hz.
 He tried to find out how much time it took for the 60 decibels sound to decay – 1 / 1,000,000 of the initial sound
level. Conducted tests late at night.
 Defined as REVERBERATION TIME.
 Cushions used (3” thick, porous sound absorbing material covered with canvas and damask). More cushions-
more sound absorption and lower RT. When he used 550 cushions (1m long) the RT became 1 sec.
 First unit of sound absorption was 1m length of this cushion.
 The result of Sabine’s work made it possible to plan RT in advance of construction. For the first time , desired RT
in rooms at 512 Hz could be the result of design and not luck or copying.
 REVERBERATION TIME

• The equation which Sabine defined and proved empirically is :

T = 0.05 V/a Where
T = reverberation time, or time required for sound to decay
by 60 dB after source has stopped.
V = room volume (ft3)
a = total room absorption in sabins.
This is the sabine formula and is appropriate to use in most architectural work.
It is reasonably accurate when sound field conditions are diffuse (uniformly distributed absorption) and
room dimensions do not vary widely; without one extremely long dimension, deep pockets, or transepts
in churches etc.
 Different activities and conditions have different preferred RT’s.
 A classroom having a height of 15 ft is 60 ft long and 35 ft wide. Sound Absorption Coefficients α’s is 0.30
for the walls, 0.04 for ceiling, and 0.10 for floor at 500Hz .
 Find RT at 500 Hz for this space with no occupants and no sound absorbing treatment.
 Find RT if 50% of the ceiling is treated with acoustical panels with α of 0.85.
 ROOM NOISE REDUCTION

 The buildup of sound levels in a room is due to repeated reflections of sound from its enclosing surfaces.
This buildup is affected by the size of the room and the amount of the absorption within the room.
The difference in decibels in reverberant noise levels or noise reduction , under two conditions of room
absorption can be found as follows:
NR = 10 log a2/a1 Where
NR = room noise reduction (dB)
a2 = total room absorption after treatment (sabins)
a1 = total room absorption before treatment (sabins)
 Since absorption efficiencies vary with frequency, the NR should be calculated at all frequencies for
which sound absorption coefficients are known.
 The NR is the reduction in reverberant noise level. This does not affect the noise level very near the
source of sound in a room.
 A reduction in the reverberant noise level of 10dB (an increase in absorption greater than 10 times the
initial value before treatment) is the practical upper limit for most remedial situations.
OPTIMUM REVERBERATION TIME
 PROBLEM

 A small room 10 ft x 10 ft x 10 ft has all walls and floors finished in exposed concrete. How much is the
noise reduction in the room if the ceiling is completely covered with sound absorbing material.
Sound Absorption Coefficients α’s are 0.02 for concrete and 0.70 for the false ceiling, both at 500Hz.
Find the NR in the room if sound absorbing panels are added to two adjacent walls . The sound
absorption coefficient α is 0.85 for the panels at 500 Hz.
Find the NR if all four walls are treated and the floor is carpeted. The sound absorption coefficient α for
the carpet at 500Hz is 0.50.
ROOM ACOUSTICS

DIRECTIVITY CONTOURS FOR SPEECH
AUDITORIUM PLAN WITH SPEECH
CONTOUR OVERLAY
BACKGROUND
ANCIENT THEATRES
Open air Greek and Roman theatres had good listening
conditions for drama and instrumental recitals.
Located on steep hillsides in quiet rural locations.
Layouts were semi-circular so audience close to stage,
thus reducing sound energy loss due to distance.
Tiers were steep (>20 0)to provide good site lines, reduce
attenuation caused by seated audience, permit sound
energy to be reflected from orchestra floor.
Actors also wore masks with conical megaphones built in
the mouthpieces which reinforced their voices.
 AUDIENCE SEATING AND SIGHT LINE BASICS

AUDIENCE SEATING SIGHT LINE BASICS

•Outdoors, sound levels fall off with distance, •Unobstructed sight lines allow full view of performers and unobstructed
propagation of the direct sound.
and audience attenuation as it gets scattered
•Sight lines are normally drawn to converge at a point on stage called The
and absorbed grazing against the audience.
Arrival Point of Sight APS.
•An overhead sound reflector can provide
•Laterally staggered seating layouts can achieve satisfactory alternate
reflected sound to reinforce the direct sound .
row vision for back to back dimension B of 40 inches for continental
•Providing a hard reflecting enclosure outdoors
seating and 36 inches for radial and parallel aisle seating.
can greatly improve listening conditions.
 PLAN, DETAIL AT STAGE
•Proscenium theatres should preferably have lateral sight
lines with a preferred view angle of 300.
•The view angle is measured from the perpendicular at
the end of the proscenium opening.
SECTION
•Floor and balconies should be designed so that entire
performance area, performance and scenery can be viewed by
seated audience.
•Balconies should not have slope greater than 260 and the top
balcony should not be more than 65 ft above the stage.
•A balcony view of the first few rows of seating may be desirable
for a sense of congregation.
•The proscenium arch should not obstruct the view of bottom 7
ft. of the backstage wall.
 WHEN SOUND WAVES IMPINGE ON A HARD SURFACE

REFLECTION ( x > 4 λ ).
 If the surface dimension x is larger than 2-4 times the wavelength of
the sound wave, the angle of incidence <i will be equal to the angle
of reflection <r . For example 1000Hz corresponds to a wavelength
of 1.1ft.; therefore a surface dimension of 4 λ or 41/2 ft will reflect
sound energy wavelengths of 1000 Hz and higher.
DIFFUSION ( x = λ ).
 Is the scattering or random redistribution of a sound wave from a
surface. It occurs when the surface depths of hard surfaced
materials are comparable to the wave lengths of the sound.
 This is an extremely important characteristic of rooms used for
musical performances, when satisfactory diffusion is achieved,
audience will have the sensation of sound coming from all
directions at equal levels.
DIFFRACTION ( x < λ ).
 Is the bending or flowing of the sound wave around an object or
through an opening. For example a horn of an automobile located
behind a building can be heard on the other side because the sound
waves bend around the corners of the building.
 In auditoriums, impinging sound waves will readily diffract around
panels that are smaller than their wavelengths, suspended panels
must carefully be designed to be large enough (length and width) to
effectively reflect the desired wavelengths.
 PATTERN OF REFLECTED SOUND

CONCAVE REFLECTOR
 Concave sound reflecting surfaces such as barrel vaults (churches)
and rear walls (auditoriums) can focus sound, causing hot spots and
echoes in the seating areas.
 They are poor distributers of sound and should be avoided where
sound reflecting surfaces are required near source locations in a
room such as the walls near the stage.

FLAT REFLECTOR
 Flat building elements, if large enough and properly oriented can
effectively distributer reflected sound.
 A slight tilt can project sound energy to the rear of an auditorium.

CONVEX REFLECTOR
 Can be most effective for sound distribution. The reflected waves
diverge, enhancing diffusion which is highly desirable for music
listening.
 Reflected sound from convex surfaces is more evenly distributed
across a wide range of frequencies.
 RAY DIAGRAM GRAPHICS

•Ray diagrams are a good and simple method to find the

path difference between a reflected sound path and the
direct sound path.
•A scaled drawing is required and the principles that:
 < of reflection = < of incidence and
 Distance = velocity x time

• Useful sound reflections for speech are those which

come from the same direction as the source and are
delayed by less than 30 ms
Sound Path Time delay Listening conditions
Difference Gap (ms)
(ft)
PATH DIFFERENCE = REFLECTED PATH - DIRECT PATH
<23 <20 Excellent for speech and music
From location 1
path difference = (11+18) -12 = 17 ft. 23 to 34 20 to 30 Good for speech, fair for music
Excellent for speech and music as it is less than 23 ft.
34 to 50 30 to 45 Marginal, (blurred)
From location 2
path difference =(16+26) -33 = 9ft. 50 to 68 45 to 60 Unsatisfactory
Excellent for speech and music as it is less than 23 ft.
> 68 >60 Poor (echo if strong enough)
•The initial-time-delay-gap is the time interval between the arrival of the direct sound and the first
reflected sound of sufficient loudness.
•It should be less than 30 ms or the path difference should be less than 34 ft for good listening
conditions because sounds within this time interval can combine to create a single impression in the
listeners brain.
•Early arriving reflected sound (within 80 ms of direct sound) is important for clarity of music.
Auditoriums with narrow shapes support early reflected sound because the initial-time-delay-gaps will
be short.
•Less initial-time-delay-gap increase the listeners sense of intimacy.
•The listener in the auditorium above will hear the direct sound first and then after the initial-time-delay-
gap, reflections from the wall (1), Ceiling (2), stage enclosure (3), and so on.

CEILINGS
•Hard sound reflecting flat ceilings provide useful sound
reflections which cover the entire seating area of the
room.
•However, by careful reorientation of the ceiling, as
shown, the extent of useful sound reflections can be
increased so that the rear seats receive reflections from
both ceiling planes.
•For concert halls where long RT is a design goal high
ceilings are preferred and all walls should be sound
reflecting
CEILINGS
ECHO CONTROL PRINCIPLES
•Potential echo producing surfaces should be
treated with sound absorbing materials or shaped
as shown.
•The front portion of the ceiling is lowered to
reduce the delayed reflections from overhead and
reoriented to provide useful reflections towards the
rear of the auditorium.
 REAR WALL

SOUND ABSORBING WALL TREATMENTS REAR WALL ECHO CONTROL TREATMENT

A flat, sound reflecting rear wall can produce echoes or

unwanted long delayed reflections in medium to large
auditoriums. They can be treated as shown.
The treatment can be concealed or protected by using
perforated facings which are highly transparent to sound
waves

Deep treatment can be provided either by thick sound

absorbing materials or thin sound absorbing materials
installed with airspace behind.

Fan shape (for lecture rooms)
Rectangular shape (dashed shape
indicates preferred orientations for
lecture rooms)
SIDE WALLS
Stepped shape (alternate elements of
•Lateral reflections help create side wall are parallel to provide lateral
a favorable auditory spatial reflections towards audience)
impression or intimacy-
essential for satisfactory
perception of music
performances.
•The initial time delay gap or
ITDG is measured from a
listener seated near the
centerline of the hall, halfway
between the conductor and
the rear wall.
•ITDG should be less than 20
Reverse fan shape (side walls at rear
ms
reflect sound towards audience)
•Wide fan shapes and semi-
circular floor plans do not
provide strong early lateral
reflections .
•The reverse fan shape can
provide strongest lateral
reflections and spatial
impressions
 FLUTTER ECHO
•Caused by the repetitive inter-reflections of sound
energy between parallel or concave surfaces. It is
normally heard as a high frequency ringing or buzzing .
•Prevented by reshaping, providing deep sound
absorption, and splaying (1:10 or >50 tilt) or scalloping
smooth surfaces.
•It can also occur in non-parallel walls- pitched roof
flutter.
SMALL ROOMS
Sound Absorbing Surfaces Opposite Sound Reflecting
Surfaces
In small rooms the reflected sound will be minimized by using
sound absorbing materials on adjacent walls or on two opposite
corners
 CONCAVE SURFACES

Concave wall and ceiling usually require

treatment as they cause reflected sound to
converge at a focal point or may get reflected
along smooth concave surfaces called Creep
Echo or the Whispering Gallery Effect because
low voice levels or whispers can be heard at
considerable distances.

Poor distribution of sound in domed spaces:

 The extent of seating affected by focusing on the left
will be more than shown because source location on
stage will vary
SOUND REFLECTIONS
•A good reflector has a hard surface like plaster, acrylic,
gypsum board, sealed wood.
•Is significantly larger than the wavelength of the sound
designed to reflect (4 λ).
•The sound reflecting canopy as shown below provides useful
reinforcement for the direct sound as well as prevents long
delayed reflections and potential echo conditions from the
high ceiling.
 VARIABLE SOUND ABSORBERS

•When RT must be varied to satisfy

different activity requirements in a
room the sound absorbing treatment
can be designed to be adjustable.
•Like Retractable Curtains.
• or like Sliding Facings which have two
layers of perforated material- when the
holes are lined up it acts as an absorber
and when they are staggered they act
as reflectors with sound absorbing
material behind the panels.

•They can also be designed to expose

either sound absorbing or reflecting
surfaces.
•Like Hinged Panels.
•Or like Rotatable Elements.
 VARIABLE VOLUME EXAMPLES

Examples of auditoriums
where the cubic volume can
be changed to match
requirements of reflected
sound energy and
reverberance requirements of
the intended performances
and seating capacities can
vary from more than 3000 to
less than 1000
 STAGE BASICS

•In the thrust (open) and arena stage types

sound reflecting walls and ceilings or panels
are extremely important to help
compensate for the directivity of high
frequency speech signals which are more
directional and so considerably less high
frequency sound is radiated behind the
performer and this part of the frequency
range strongly determines speech
intelligibility.
•Panels called Stage Enclosure (reflecting
and diffusing) can be used on stage to
surround or enclose the sources of sound
and will help distribute balanced and
blended sound uniformly in the audience
area. Stage enclosures also prevent sound
energy being absorbed by scenery (highly
absorbing) in the fly loft and wings.
•The surface surrounding the orchestra
should also contain small irregularities to
blend and reflect high frequency sound.
 CANOPIES

 Sound reflecting panels, called Forestage

Canopies suspended in front of the
proscenium, reflect sound energy from the
stage to the audience and decrease the initial
time delay gap. These panels extend the
orchestra shell into the auditorium which
enhances the direct sound needed for intimacy
and can also reflect sound energy from the
orchestra pit back to the pit.
 The openings between the panels allow sound
energy to flow into the upper volume so it can
contribute to the low frequency reverberance in
the main auditorium below.
 The RT of the stage houses should be
approximately equal to or less than that of the
main auditorium.
 BALCONIES

•Are used in large auditoriums to reduce the

distance to the rear seats and to increase seating
capacity.
•To prevent echoes off the balcony face, apply
deep sound absorbing finish, tilt or slope the
surface facing the stage, so sound will be
reflected towards nearby audience or use
diffusing shapes (Convex) to scatter sound. Persons seated deep under a balcony
cannot receive useful reflected sound from
the ceiling and are shielded from
reverberant sound. As the sound is weak
and dull the listening conditions are poor.
•In a Concert Hall the depth D of the under balcony
should not exceed the height H of the opening for
reverberant sound to reach the rear rows. (D ≤ H)
•In Opera Houses D should not exceed 1.5 H. (D ≤1.5
H)
•The balcony soffit should be sloped to reflect sound
towards the listeners seated underneath

In Cinema halls direct reinforced

sound from loudspeakers located
behind the screen allow deeper
balcony depths up to 3H. (D ≤ 3H).
The cantilevered or flying balcony is open at the rear,
allowing reverberant sound to surround the audience
underneath. D can be more than conventional
balconies of the same height because reverberant
energy will be greater at the rear rows.
CHECKLIST FOR LECTURE ROOMS
MULTIPURPOSE AUDITORIUMS DESIGN
WORSHIP SPACES DESIGN
ROOM ACOUSTIC DESIGN
SOUND ISOLATION
FUNDAMENTALS OF SOUND ISOLATION

 With no isolation the bell produces 70dB close by.

 When surrounded by porous sound absorbing
material, the transmitted noise is reduced by only 3dB,
from 70 to 67dB.
 Porous sound absorbers are very poor sound isolators,
they act as sponges and absorb sound but do not
prevent its transmission.
 When the bell is surrounded by ½” thick plywood
enclosure with a soft airtight seal along the edges, the
noise outside is reduced by 28 dB from the built-up 78
dB inside to 50 dB
 Adding porous absorbing material inside now will
further reduce the noise level outside to 43dB and
built-up sound inside will get reduced to 72 dB.

 A noise source close by to a reflective wall will have 3

dB higher noise close to the source than when it is in
the open and 6 dB higher if it is placed close to a
reflective wall and floor.
 TRANSMISSION LOSS

 The Mass Law for Transition Loss for homogenous

•When sound waves impinge on building
building materials states that the TL and Sound
elements they vibrate, to transmit the
Transmission Class Rating (STC) for each doubling of
sound energy, the magnitude of which
surface weight (pounds per square foot) increases by
inversely depends on the weight or mass of
about 5.
the building element.
 Stiffness has an inverse relationship with transmission
loss.
 STC is a single number rating of TL performance for a
construction element tested over a standard frequency
range. The higher the STC the lesser is the sound
transmission. It follows law of diminishing returns.
 Sound leaks must be avoided:

•Transmission loss or TL (measured in dB) is a measure of how always seal cracks, and open joints in partitions, avoid
much sound energy is reduced in transmission through back to back electrical outlets, and eliminate all other
materials. The more massive a material- the higher is the TL. potential sound leaks
TL = L1 - L2 :TL is Transmission loss in dB
L1 is sound level in room 1 in dB
L2 is sound level in room 2 in dB
And
TL = 10 log 1/τ
τ is sound transmission coefficient

• τ is the ratio of the sound energy transmitted by a material to

the incident sound energy.
TL for double walls
 TL of a wall can be increased by separating the layers with an air space to
form a Double Wall Construction.
Composite Constructions
 When a weaker element such as a door or window is used in construction
the composite TL for the combination is closer to the TL of the weaker
element.
Composite TL = 10 log ΣS / ΣτS TL is Trans Loss in dB
S = surface area ft2
τ is Sound Transmission Coefficient
 The TL performance of a given wall construction varies with design and
location.
 The sound level L1 is the same in both the source rooms but L2 and NR is
not the same. Noise reduction is greater when sound is transmitted into a
large highly absorbent (dead)receiving room as
compared to a small reverberant (live).
 The transmitted sound does not build up in a dead
room as compared to a live room.
 NOISE REDUCTION BETWEEN ROOMS

 Noise reduction between rooms is the arithmetic in

sound levels between the rooms.
NR = L1 – L2 L1 is sound level in room 1 in dB
L2 is sound level in room 2 in dB

 Noise reduction is based on the following 3 factors:

 Area of wall transmitting sound (S in ft2) The size of
the common barrier is important because it becomes
the source of sound in the receiving room. When
sound waves strike the wall the energy causes the wall
to vibrate that in turn makes the air particles at the
back of the wall in the receiving room to vibrate and
radiate sound into the receiving room.
 Absorption in receiving room (a2 in sabins) the noise
build-up is greater in reverberant rooms than in dead
rooms.
NR = TL + 10 log a2 /S
 Transmission Loss of common wall (TL in dB) TL is a
physical property of the material but also varies with where: TL = sound transmission loss of
edge support conditions , barrier size and the quality common barrier (dB).
of construction. Sound leaks can make all TL a2 = absorption in receiving room (sabins).
calculations go wrong. S = surface area of common barrier
OUTDOOR NOISE CONTROL
EARTH BERMS ATTENUATION FROM VEGETATION
 OUTDOOR NOISE REDUCTION

THIN WALL BARRIERS BALCONIES AND OVERHANGS

 LANDUSE PLANNING FOR NOISE CONTROL

AIRCRAFT NOISE HIGHWAY

ORIENTATION OF BUILDINGS
USEFUL FOMULAE
USEFUL FOMULAE
USEFUL FOMULAE
 Find the TL of a material that has a sound transmission coefficient τ of 6x10-4 . #32dB.
 The TL of a heavy brick wall is 40 dB. Find sound transmission coefficient τ of this wall. #6x10-4
A 12.5 window with a TL of 20 dB is in a 100 ft2 brick wall which has a TL of 50dB find the composite TL of
this wall-window construction. #29dB .
 Two adjacent rooms have a common ½ brick wall with a TL of 40 dB at 500Hz. The area of the wall is 200
ft2 and both rooms have 300 sabins of absorption a2 at 500Hz. Find the sound level L2 in room 2 if the
sound level L1 in room 1 is 74 dB. #32dB.
ILLUMINATION
INTRODUCTION
BASIC THEORY
TYPES OF LUMINAIRES
 Candela (cd): It is the unit of luminous intensity of a source.
A light source has a luminous intensity of 1 candela if it emits 1 lumen per steradian.
If a source has a luminous intensity of 1 candela that means it emits a flux of 1 lumen in a solid angle of 1
steradian, then the total luminous flux emitted by it all-round is = 4πx1 = 4π lumens as the solid angle
subtended by the surrounding space at a point is 4π steradian. Thus if a source has a luminous intensity
of I candela, then total flux radiated out by it all-round is:
φ = 4π x I lumens
 Luminous Flux (F or φ; lm): it is the total light energy radiated out per second from a luminous source. As
it is the rate of flow of light energy it is a sort of power unit.
One lumen is equal to the flux given out in a solid angle of 1 steradian by a source of 1 candela.
 Luminous Intensity (I): The luminous flux radiated out per unit solid angle by a light source
 If dφ is the luminous flux radiated out by a source within a solid angle of dω in any particular direction,
then I = dφ / dω lm/sr or cd
 Illuminance or illumination (E). When luminous flux falls on a surface, it is said to be illuminated.
 The illumination of a surface is measured by the normal flux per unit area received. If dφ is the luminous
flux incident normally on an area dA, then
E = dφ / dA lm/m2 or lux . Or E = φ / A lux
 RADIATION AND LIGHTING PHYSICS AND TERMINOLOGY

 The radiated power of light as perceived by the eye is measured in terms of luminous flux Φ-lumen (lm).
 The luminous flux radiated per solid angle in a defined direction is light intensity I-candela (cd).
 The luminous flux per unit area is the lighting intensity or illuminance E-lux (lx).
 The lighting density L is a measure of the perceived brightness. For lamps it is high and results in glare
necessitating shielding for lights indoors. The lighting density of room surfaces is calculated using the
lighting intensity E and the degree of reflection.
Radiation physics Lighting technology Lighting technology, Typical values of illuminance E
quantity quantity and symbol Unit and Abbreviation
Global radiation –clear sky Max. 100 000 lx
Radiation flux Luminous flux Φ Lumen (lm)

Radiant Intensity Light intensity I Candela (cd) Global radiation –cloudy sky Max. 20 000 lx

Irradiance Illuminance E Lux (lx) Optimum sight 2000 lx

Radiance Lighting density L (cd/m2) Minimum in the work place 200 lx

Radiant Energy Quantity of light Q (lm . h) Street lighting 10 lx

Irradiation Light exposure H (lx . H) Moon light 0.2 lx

 Lamps convert electrical power (W) into luminous power (lumen, lm). The light yield (lm/W) is the
measure of the efficiency of the lamp.
 LAWS OF ILLUMINANCE FOR POINT SOURCES

 If a light source is assumed to be a point source or is sufficiently far away from the surface as to be
regarded as one, then:
The illuminance (E) of a surface is
1. Directly proportional to the luminous intensity (I) of the source, i. e., E α I.
2. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the source and the surface, i.e., E α 1 / r2.
3. Directly proportional to the cosine of the angle made by the normal to the illuminated surface with the
direction of the incident flux.
combining the three we have: E = I cos θ /r2

 A lamp L of luminous intensity I is suspended at a height h above the work plane LI

as shown: θ
the illuminance at point A directly below L where θ = 0 and cosθ = 1, is:
EA = I cosθ /r 2 or EA = I/h2
h

 At point B, cosθ = h/LB = h/ √(h2 + x2)

θ
EB = I/LB2X h/LB or EB = I . h/LB3
A B
x
EB = I . h/LB3 or I/h2 . h3/ LB3 or EB = EA cos3θ
 LIGHTING

Aims of good lighting:

 To ensure safety of the occupants.
 To promote work and other activities in the given space.
 To create a visually comfortable environment.
 To create an aesthetically pleasing environment.
Involves:
 Careful planning of brightness and color pattern both within the working areas and
surroundings so that attention is drawn naturally to the important areas, detail is seen
quickly and accurately and the room is free from gloom.
 Using directional lighting where appropriate to assist perception of task detail and to give
good modelling.
 Controlling direct and reflected glare from light sources to eliminate visual discomfort.
 Minimizing flicker from certain types of lamps and ensuring proper color rendering of light.
 Correlating lighting throughout the building to prevent excessive differences between
adjacent areas so as to reduce risk of accidents.
 Installation of emergency lighting systems where necessary.
 ILLUMINATION LEVELS

 The brightness pattern seen within an interior may be considered as composed of three main parts: The
task itself, immediate background of the task, and the general surroundings.
 In occupations where visual demands are small, the levels of illumination derived from a criteria of visual
performance alone may be too low to satisfy other requirements. For such situations, illumination levels
are based on standards of safety. Unless there are special circumstances associated with the occupation,
it is recommended that illumination of all working areas should generally be 150 lux.
 Where work takes place over the whole utilizable area of the room, the illumination should be reasonably
uniform and the diversity ratio of minimum to maximum should not be less than 0.7. ( this does not take
into account the effects of any local lighting provided.
 When task brightness appropriate to an occupation has been determined, the brightness of other parts of
the room/space should be planned to give a proper emphasis to visual comfort and interest. A general
guide is:
For high task brightness- above 100cd/m2:
between visual task and adjacent areas like table tops, counters, etc.- (maximum) 3 to 1.
between visual task and remote areas of the space- (maximum) 10 to 1.
For low task brightness- below 100cd/m2:
the task should be brighter than both the background and the surroundings.
The work plane (if not specified) is assumed to be, for calculation purposes, a horizontal plane 850 mm above
floor level.
For art objects, the illumination levels recommended are of the vertical plane on which it is displayed.
Where the task is localized, the recommended value is for the task only and should not be the general level of
illumination throughout the interior.
GLARE:
 Excessive contrast or abrupt and large changes in brightness produce glare causing discomfort and
impairing vision (where details and tonal changes may not be seen) often leading to accidents. A gradual
transition of brightness minimizes discomfort due to glare.
Direct Glare is due to light sources within field of vision. Reflected Glare is due to reflections from
surfaces of excessive brightness. Veiling Glare where peripheral field is very bright.
LIGHTING FOR MOVEMENT:
 Accidents may occur if people move immediately from well light work areas to dimly lit staircases,
passages etc. as the time needed for adaptation to the lower level may be more and one may hit
obstacles or fall down steps. Therefore transition spaces may need to be illuminated more than the
required levels.
 Disability from glare caused by direct bright lights needs also to be avoided. Confusing shadows in
staircases must be avoided. Changes in levels must be highlighted.
ENTRANCES:
 There is a risk of accidents occurring if entrances are poorly lit particularly at doorway steps as the
transition from brightly lit outdoors to the interiors may be very fast for people to adapt. Adequate
windows must be provided and may need to be supplemented by artificial lighting.
 At night transition from brightly lit lobbies to the dim outdoors must also be made gradual and no direct
bright light fittings must be placed at the exits.
 Steps to and from the building must be well lit by screened lights.
 ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING DESIGN: LUMEN METHOD 1

 To design for a standard level of illumination on the working plane on the basis of recommended levels for visual
tasks. Advance information on the surface reflectances of walls, ceilings, and floors as well as décor and
furnishing is required.
 Determination of illumination level- a recommended value (from standards) is taken depending on the activity
involved.
 Selection of light sources and luminaires is done depending on choice of lighting system – general, directional or
localized.
 Determination of luminous flux Φ.
 Arrangement of luminaires.
Determination of luminous flux Φ.
The luminous flux Φ reaching the work plane depends upon the following:
 Lumen output of lamps
 Type of luminaire
 Proportion of the room (Room Index -kr). Kr = L . W / (L + W) . Hm (Length and width of room. mounting height
of fixture above work plane- in meters)
 Reflectance of internal surfaces of the rooms
 Depreciation in lumen output of lamp over time.
 Depreciation due to dirt collection on lamp, luminaire and room surfaces
 ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING DESIGN: LUMEN METHOD 1

 Coefficient of utilization or utilization factor:

 The compilation of tables for the utilization factor requires considerable calculations. For every luminaire, the
exact light distribution has to be measured in laboratories and their efficiencies have to be measured and
calculated. These are :
The luminous flux radiated by the luminaire directly to the working plane.
The luminous flux reflected and re-reflected by the ceiling and walls to the working plane
The inter reflections between the ceiling and wall resulting in additional luminous flux on the measuring surface.
All these measurements have to be made:
 for different reflection factors of the ceiling and walls
 for different room indices.
 Depreciation due to ageing of lamp.
 Maintenance factors for the luminous flux due to deposition of dirt on the lamp, luminaire and room surfaces.
The values of the reflection factor of ceilings and walls are as follows:
 White and very light colors 0.7
 Light colors 0.5
 Middle colors 0.3
 Dark colors 0.1
 ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING DESIGN: LUMEN METHOD 1

 CALCULATIONS:
Eav = μ . Φ /A
Or,
Φ = Eav . A / μ (for new conditions)
And,
Φ = Eav . A / μ . d (for working conditions)
Where,
Φ = the total Luminous Flux of the light sources installed in the room in lumens
Eav = the average Illumination Level required on the working plane in lux
A = Area of the working plane in m2
μ = The Utilization Factor in new conditions
d = Maintenance Factor
 ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING DESIGN: LUMEN METHOD 1

Generally the number of lamps or luminaires is calculated from:

Nlamp = Eav . A / μ . d . Φlamp or
Nluminaire = Eav . A / μ . d . Φluminaire
Where
Φlamp = Luminous flux of each lamp in lumens
Φluminaire = Luminous flux of each luminaire in lumens
Nlamp = total number of lamps
Nluminaire = Total number of luminaires
 The luminaire arrangement aims to achieve better uniformly distributed illumination. The location of the
luminaire has an important effect on the utilization factor.
 The utilization factor tables are calculated for ‘a’m spacing in either direction between luminaires and
‘½a’ m space between end luminaire and wall. Where ‘a’ is kept more or less equal to the mounting
height - the distance between the luminaire and the work plane.
 For small rooms where room index is less than 1 ; ‘a’ should always be less than the mounting height.
 ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING DESIGN: LUMEN METHOD 2

 Utilization Factor (ŋ): Part of the lumen output of a source is lost in the fitting as well as due to absorption of the
light by the walls and ceiling of the room therefore only a portion of the lumen output of the lamp reaches the
work plane.
Utilization Factor is the ratio of the lumens actually received by a particular surface to the total lumens emitted
by a luminous source.
ŋ = lumens actually received on working plane / lumens emitted by light source.
 Maintenance Factor (m): Luminous intensity of all luminaires deteriorates owing to blackening and collection of
dirt on the luminaire. walls and ceiling and other reflecting surfaces reflect less light when they become dirty.
m = illumination when everything is perfectly clean / illumination under actual conditions.
the value of m varies from 1.3 to 1.5.
 Depreciation Factor (p): is reciprocal of maintenance factor. p = 1/m.
 Space – height ratio: Horizontal distance between two lamps / mounting height of lamps
The value varies between 1 to 2.

Required total flux φ = E x A / ŋ x p or E x A / (ŋ x 1/m) or mEA / ŋ

 If a group of light units is given, then illuminance produced on a given surface is:
E = φ x ŋ x p /A or E=φxŋ /mxA
 TYPES OF LAMPS

Typical Incandescent Lamp

 TYPES OF LAMPS

Incandescent Lamps:
 Tungsten Filament Lamps: Available in many shapes and sizes. Often used in applications where color rendering is very
important. Generate significant heat. Age and size affect the efficiency of these lamps and are used where high level of
illumination is not required. Life of most inc. lamps vary from 750-1000 hours. Color Rendering Index (CRI) is very good
approaching 100.
Consists of a hollow glass bulb containing a glass stem which carries a coiled (single or double) tungsten filament. A brass
cap is fixed onto the bulb and has two pins and two contact points.
They are of two types: vacuum type and gas filled type .
The vacuum type cannot achieve very high temperatures so the lamps have poorer efficiency- they generally give 10 -20
lumens per watt. The inert gas filled type achieves higher temperatures (up to 25000C) and efficiency – 25-35 lm/W and are
so bright that the bulb is given an internal coating.
Discharge lamps:
Ionization of a gas is done to produce light. For this purpose high voltages are required , include fluorescent lighting,
mercury vapor lamps, sodium vapor lamps, decorative neon signs.
 Fluorescent lamps: Low pressure gas discharge sources where light is produced mainly by fluorescent powder coatings
(phosphors) that are activated by UV energy generated by a mercury arc. They usually consist of glass tubes with electrodes
at either end. The tubes contain mercury vapor at low pressure with a small amount of an inert gas. The phosphors are
applied to the inside of the glass tubes. When a current is applied to the electrodes, an arc forms which radiates some light
but radiates mostly UV energy. This UV energy excites the chemicals in the phosphors which in turn emit light. Have a life
between 8,000 to 20,000 hours. CRI ranges between 50-60. efficacy ranges between 55-100 lm/W.
Require a ballast which provides the starting and operating voltages.
 Compact Fluorescent Lamps: or CFLs offer increased flexibility in usage as they are much smaller and come in many shapes
sizes and illumination levels.
 TYPES OF LAMPS

High Intensity Discharge Lamps (HID):  Metal Halide Lamps (MH): Very similar in
construction to mercury lamps, with the arc tube
Include Mercury, Metal Halide (MH) and High
containing various metallic halide compounds in
Pressure Sodium (HPS) Lamps. They are electric
addition to mercury. These compounds improve
discharge lamps, provide a relatively compact
the efficacy and color rendering. Typical MH lamp
source of light, have a long life and require
efficacy ranges from 75-125 lm/W and CRI from 60
ballasts. Starting time for many HIDs is of the
to more than 90. Compact MH lamps with CRI of
order of several minutes.
more than 90 are used for accent display lighting.

 Mercury Lamps: Bluish-white light is produced in

them by applying current through pressurized
mercury vapor. There are two enclosures –an
inner tube which contains the mercury arc and an
outer bulb which shields the inner tube from
temperature fluctuations . The outer bulb also
absorbs UV radiation produced by the arc. The
outer bulb can also be coated with phosphors. ML
have long rated lives 16,000- 24,000 hours.
Efficacies range between 35-65 lm/W. color
rendering is poor and ranges between 20- 50.
 TYPES OF LAMPS

 High Pressure Sodium (HPS) Lamps: Produce light Low Pressure Sodium Lamps: Lower pressure
by applying a current to sodium vapor. Contain than that in HPS Lamps. The lamp shape is linear.
two envelopes- the inner arc-tube containing Ballasts are required. Have a life of 16,000 hours
sodium and mercury and the outer glass bulb to and a very high efficacy of about 180 lm/W.
absorb the UV emitted and stabilize the Produce monochromatic yellow light - No color
temperature of the arc-tube. Efficacies range from rendering (CRI is -144).
45-150 lm/W and lives of about 24,000 hours.
Color rendering is quite poor (CRI 22).
Other Types of Lamps:
 Electrodeless lamps: for compact sources for long
rated lives.
 Compact-arc Xenon and Mercury Lamps: for
search - lights and projectors.
 Electro-luminescent lamps: for instrument
display panels and exit signs.
 Carbon arc lamps: for projectors and spot lights.
 Gas-lights: for historic lighting applications
TYPES OF LAMPS- CHARACTERISTICS
TYPES OF LAMPS- SHAPES