Chapter 1: Hydrology and Hydrologic Cycle

1.1. Difference between hydrology and hydraulics

Hydrology is the science of water resource engineering which deals
with the study of occurrence, distribution, movement and the properties of
water on the earth or beneath the earth surface or in the atmosphere while
Hydraulics is the science of water in motion and its interactions with the
surrounding environment.

1.2 The hydrologic cycle and its human impact

Human activities can influence the hydrologic cycle in many other
ways. The volumes and timing of river flows can be greatly affected by
channeling to decrease the impediments to flow, and by changing the
character of the watershed by paving, compacting soils, and altering the
nature of the vegetation.

1.2.1 Water Cycle

Water cycle also called hydrologic cycle, cycle that involves the
continuous circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system. Of the many
processes involved in the water cycle, the most important are evaporation,
transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. Although the total
amount of water within the cycle remains essentially constant, its distribution
among the various processes is continually changing.

Evaporation/Transpiration

Evaporation can be defined as the process by which liquid water is

converted into a gaseous state. Evaporation can only occur when water is
available. It also requires that the humidity of the atmosphere be less than the
evaporating surface (at 100% relative humidity there is no more evaporation).
The evaporation process requires large amounts of energy. While
Transpiration is the process of water loss from plants through stomata.
Stomata are small openings found on the underside of leaves that are
connected to vascular plant tissues. In most plants, transpiration is a passive
process largely controlled by the humidity of the atmospheric and the
moisture content of the soil. Of the transpired water passing through a plant
only 1% is used in the growth process. Transpiration also transports nutrients
from the soil into the roots and carries them to the various cells of the plant
and is used to keep tissues from becoming overheated. Some dry environment
plants do have the ability to open and close their stomata. This adaptation is
necessary to limit the loss of water from plant tissues. Without this adaptation
these plants would not be able to survive under conditions of severe drought.
 Precipitation

Precipitation is any liquid or frozen water that forms in the

atmosphere and falls back to the Earth. It comes in many forms, like rain, sleet,
and snow. Along with evaporation and condensation, precipitation is one of
the three major parts of the global water cycle. Precipitation forms in the
clouds when water vapor condenses into bigger and bigger droplets of water.
When the drops are heavy enough, they fall to the Earth. If a cloud is colder,
like it would be at higher altitudes, the water droplets may freeze to form ice.
These ice crystals then fall to the Earth as snow, hail, or rain, depending on the
temperature within the cloud and at the Earth’s surface. Most rain actually
begins as snow high in the clouds. As the snowflakes fall through warmer air,
they become raindrops.
 Surface flow/Stream flow

Surface runoff (also known as overland flow) is the flow of water

occurring on the ground surface when excess rainwater, stormwater,
meltwater, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the
soil. This can occur when the soil is saturated by water to its full capacity, and
that the rain arrives more quickly than the soil can absorb it. Surface runoff
often occurs because impervious areas (such as roofs and pavement) do not
allow water to soak into the ground. Surface runoff is a major component of
the water cycle. It is the primary agent of soil erosion by water. While Stream
flow or channel runoff, is the flow of water in streams, rivers, and other
channels, and is a major element of the water cycle. It is one component of the
runoff of water from the land to waterbodies, the other component being
surface runoff. Water flowing in channels comes from surface runoff from
adjacent hillslopes, from groundwater flow out of the ground, and from water
discharged from pipes. The discharge of water flowing in a channel is
measured using stream gauges or can be estimated by the Manning equation.
The record of flow over time is called a hydrograph. Flooding occurs when the
volume of water exceeds the capacity of the channel.

Subsurface flow/Groundwater flow

Subsurface flow, in hydrology, is the flow of water beneath earth's

surface as part of the water cycle while Groundwater flow is defined as the
"part of stream flow that has infiltrated the ground, has entered the phreatic
zone, and has been discharged into a stream channel, or springs and seepage
water.
 1.2.2 Humans and the Water Cycle
A number of human activities can impact on the water cycle:
damming rivers for hydroelectricity, using water for farming, deforestation and
the burning of fossil fuels.

Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectricity is electricity produced from hydropower. In 2015,

hydropower generated 16.6% of the world's total electricity and 70% of all
renewable electricity and was expected to increase by about 3.1% each year
for the next 25 years. Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-
Pacific region generating 33 percent of global hydropower in 2013. China is the
largest hydroelectricity producer, with 920 TWh of production in 2013,
representing 16.9% of domestic electricity use.
 Irrigation

Irrigation may be defined as the science of the artificial application of

water to the land in order to fulfill the water requirements of the crops
throughout the crop period for the full nourishment of the crops. Nutrients to
the crops may also be applied through irrigation.
 Deforestation

Deforestation, clearance, clearcutting or clearing is the removal of a

forest or stand of trees from land which is then converted to a non-forest use.
Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban
use. The most concentrated deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests. About
31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests.
 Greenhouse effect

The Greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a

planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it
would be without this atmosphere. Radiatively active gases (i.e., greenhouse
gases) in a planet's atmosphere radiate energy in all directions. Part of this
radiation is directed towards the surface, warming it. The intensity of the
downward radiation – that is, the strength of the greenhouse effect – will depend
on the atmosphere's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that
the atmosphere contains.
1.3 Interrelationship of the phases of the hydrologic cycle
Water is constantly moving within and above the earth in a cycle
called the hy- drologic cycle. Not only is the hydrologic cycle a cycle of
water, it is a cycle of energy as well. There are six major components of this
cycle: evapotranspiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration,
percolation and runoff.

1.3.1 Evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration (ET) is the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration

from the Earth's land and ocean surface to the atmosphere. Evaporation
accounts for the movement of water to the air from sources such as the soil,
canopy interception, and waterbodies. Transpiration accounts for the
movement of water within a plant and the subsequent loss of water as vapor
through stomata in its leaves. Evapotranspiration is an important part of the
water cycle. An element (such as a tree) that contributes to evapotranspiration
can be called an evapotranspirator.

1.3.2 Precipitation
Precipitation is any liquid or frozen water that forms in the
atmosphere and falls back to the Earth. It comes in many forms, like rain, sleet,
and snow. Along with evaporation and condensation, precipitation is one of
the three major parts of the global water cycle. Precipitation forms in the
clouds when water vapor condenses into bigger and bigger droplets of water.
When the drops are heavy enough, they fall to the Earth. If a cloud is colder,
like it would be at higher altitudes, the water droplets may freeze to form ice.
These ice crystals then fall to the Earth as snow, hail, or rain, depending on the
temperature within the cloud and at the Earth’s surface. Most rain actually
begins as snow high in the clouds. As the snowflakes fall through warmer air,
they become raindrops.

1.3.3 Stream flow

Stream flow or channel runoff, is the flow of water in streams, rivers,
and other channels, and is a major element of the water cycle. It is one
component of the runoff of water from the land to waterbodies, the other
component being surface runoff. Water flowing in channels comes from
surface runoff from adjacent hillslopes, from groundwater flow out of the
ground, and from water discharged from pipes. The discharge of water flowing
in a channel is measured using stream gauges or can be estimated by the
Manning equation. The record of flow over time is called a hydrograph.
Flooding occurs when the volume of water exceeds the capacity of the
channel.
 1.3.4 Infiltration/Percolation

Infiltration and Percolation are two related but different processes

describing the movement of moisture through soil. Infiltration is defined as the
downward entry of water into the soil or rock surface (SSSA, 1975) and
percolation is the flow of water through soil and porous or fractured rock. In
hydrologic modeling, these two processes are usually modeled separately.
Infiltration rate is the rate at which a soil under specified conditions absorbs
falling rain, melting snow, or surface water expressed in depth of water per
unit time (ASCE, 1985). Percolation rate, although more difficult to measure
directly, represents the rate at which soil moisture moves down through the
soil or permeable rock.
 1.3.5 Groundwater

Groundwater is the water found underground in the cracks and

spaces in soil, sand and rock. It is stored in and moves slowly through geologic
formations of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers.