2.Discuss a hypothesis . What types of hypotheses you know ?

Discuss each of them with suitable examples in the context of

business environment.
Ordinarily, when one talks about hypothesis, one simply means a mere assumption or some
supposition to be proved or disproved. But for a researcher hypothesis is a formal question
that he intends to resolve. Thus a hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of
propositions set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of
phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation
or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts. Quite often a research
hypothesis is a predictive statement, capable of being tested by scientific methods, that
relates an independent variable to some dependent variable. For example, consider
statements like the following ones:
“Students who receive counseling will show a greater increase in creativity than students
not receiving counseling” or
“the automobile A is performing as well as automobile B.”
These are hypotheses capable of being objectively verified and tested. Thus, we may
conclude that a hypothesis states what we are looking for and it is a proposition which can
be put to a test to determine its validity.
1. Types of hypotheses-
a. Inductive is a generalization based on specific observations.
b. Deductive is derived from theory and provides evidence that supports, expands, or contradicts the theory.
c. Nondirectional - states that relation or difference between variables exists.
d. Directional - states the expected direction of the relation or difference.
e. Null - states that there is no significant relation or difference between variables.
Characteristics of hypothesis:
(i) Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise, the
inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
(ii) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of untestable hypotheses,
many a time the research programmes have bogged down. Some prior study may be done
by researcher in order to make hypothesis a testable one. A hypothesis “ is testable if other
deductions can be made from it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by
observation. “
(iii) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relations
hypothesis.
(iv) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher must
remember that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and he should develop
such hypotheses.
(v) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same is
easily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of
hypothesis has nothing to do with its significance.
Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation. This means
that by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted generalizations, one should be
able to deduce the original problem condition
EXAMPLE. :-XYZ Corporation is a company that is focused on a stable workforce that has
very little turnover. XYZ has been in business for 50 years and has more than 10,000
employees. The company has always promoted the idea that its employees stay with them
for a very long time, and it has used the following line in its recruitment brochures: "The
average tenure of our employees is 20 years." Since XYZ isn't quite sure if that statement is
still true, a random sample of 100 employees is taken and the average age turns out to be
19 years with a standard deviation of 2 years. Can XYZ continue to make its claim, or does it
need to make a change?

1. State the hypotheses.

H 0 = 20 years
H 1 ≠ 20 years
2. Determine the test statistic.Since we are testing a population mean that is normally
distributed, the appropriate test statistic is:
3. Specify the significance level. Since the firm would like to keep its present message to
new recruits, it selects a fairly weak significance level (α = .05). Since this is a two-tailed
test, half of the alpha will be assigned to each tail of the distribution. In this situation the
critical values of Z = +1.96 and −1.96.
4. State the decision rule. If the computed value of Z is greater than or equal to +1.96 or
less than or equal to −1.96, the null hypothesis is rejected.
5. Calculations.
6. Reject or fail to reject the null. Since 2.5 is greater than 1.96, the null is rejected. The
mean tenure is not 20 years, therefore XYZ needs to change its statement.

3.What points must be kept in mind while defining a research problem ? Briefly
mention the advantages of considering these points while defining a research
problem
In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of selecting and properly
defining a research problem. A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it
becomes susceptible to research. Like a medical doctor, a researcher must examine all the
symptoms (presented to him or observed by him) concerning a problem before he can
diagnose correctly. To define a problem correctly, a researcher must know: what a problem
is?

• There must be an individual (or a group or an organisation), let us call it ‘ I,’ to whom
the problem can be attributed. The individual or the organisation, as the case may be,
occupies an environment, say ‘ N’, which is defined by values of the uncontrolled variables,
Yj.

• There must be at least two courses of action, say C1 and C2, to be pursued. A course
of action is defined by one or more values of the controlled variables. For example, the
number of items purchased at a specified time is said to be one course of action.

• There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O1 and O2, of the course of
action, of which one should be preferable to the other. In other words, this means that
there must be at least one outcome that the researcher wants, i.e., an objective.

• The courses of action available must provides some chance of obtaining the
objective, but they cannot provide the same chance, otherwise the choice would not
matter.

Thus, if P (Oj | I, Cj, N) represents the probability that an outcome Oj will occur, if I select Cj
in N, then P b O1| I , C1, N g ¹ P b O1| I , C2 , N g . In simple words, we can say that the
choices must have unequal efficiencies for the desired outcomes.

SELECTING THE PROBLEM:

The following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a
subject for research:

( i ) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to
throw any new light in such a case.

(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.

(i) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.

(ii) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the
costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in
selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a
researcher must ask himself the following questions: (a) Whether he is well equipped
in terms of his background to carry out the research? (b) Whether the study falls
within the budget he can afford? (c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be
obtained from those who must participate in research as subjects? If the answers to
all these questions are in the affirmative, one may become sure so far as the
practicability of the study is concerned.

(iii) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not
be necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar to
one that has already been done. But when the field of inquiry is relatively new and
does not have available a set of well developed techniques, a brief feasibility study
must always be undertaken.

NECESSITY OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM:

Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This statement
signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be investigated must be
defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant
ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track
whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles. Questions like: What data are to be
collected? What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied? What relations
are to be explored. What techniques are to be used for the purpose? and similar other
questions crop up in the mind of the researcher who can well plan his strategy and find
answers to all such questions only when the research problem has been well defined.

4 Differentiate between the following :

 Primary data and secondary data
Primary research entails the use of immediate data in determining the survival of the
market. The popular ways to collect primary data consist of surveys, interviews and focus
groups, which shows that direct relationship between potential customers and the
companies. Whereas secondary research is a means to reprocess and reuse collected
information as an indication for betterments of the service or product. Both primary and
secondary data are useful for businesses but both may differ from each other in various
aspects.
In secondary data, information relates to a past period. Hence, it lacks aptness and
therefore, it has unsatisfactory value. Primary data is more accommodating as it shows
latest information.
Secondary data is obtained from some other organization than the one instantaneously
interested with current research project. Secondary data was collected and analyzed by the
organization to convene the requirements of various research objectives. Primary data is
accumulated by the researcher particularly to meet up the research objective of the
subsisting project.
Secondary data though old may be the only possible source of the desired data on the
subjects, which cannot have primary data at all. For example, survey reports or secret
records already collected by a business group can offer information that cannot be obtained
from original sources.
Firm in which secondary data are accumulated and delivered may not accommodate the
exact needs and particular requirements of the current research study. Many a time,
alteration or modifications to the exact needs of the investigator may not be sufficient. To
that amount usefulness of secondary data will be lost. Primary data is completely tailor-
made and there is no problem of adjustments.
Secondary data is available effortlessly, rapidly and inexpensively. Primary data takes a lot
of time and the unit cost of such data is relatively high.
 Sampling and census
Census
• Gathers information from every individual in a certain group
• Since data from the entire population is used, there is no sampling variance
• Provides detailed information about smaller groups
• Can be quite costly, particularly for large populations, due to census tally workers as well
as hiring temporary census home visitors
• Includes an uncomfortable visit from a government worker if the census is not filled out
on time
Sampling
• Gathers information from only a section of the population
• May have a significant degree of sample variance, since the data is derived from only
a small section of a population
• May not provide enough information about smaller groups or smaller geographical
sections of a place
• Costs much less than a census, since data is gathered from only a small section of a
group
Census vs Sampling
Census and sampling are methods of collecting data about the populace. Before we move
forward to enumerate differences between Census and sampling, it is better to understand
what these two techniques of generating information mean. For better governance, every
government requires specific data and information about the populace to make programs
and policies that match the needs and requirements of the population. Census refers to
periodic collection of information from the entire population. It is a time consuming affair as
it involves counting all heads and generating information about them. On the other hand,
there are times when a government cannot wait for next Census and needs to gather
current information about the population. This is when a different technique of collecting
information that is less elaborate and cheaper than Census is employed. This is called
Sampling. This method of collecting information requires generating a sample that is
representative of entire population.
There are stark differences between Census and sampling though both serve the purpose of
providing data and information about a population. Howsoever accurately a sample from a
population may be generated there will always be margin for error, whereas in case of
Census, entire population is taken into account and as such it is most accurate. Data
obtained from both Census and sampling is extremely important for a government for
various purposes such as planning developmental programs and policies for weaker sections
of the society.
It is obvious then that when whole population is taken into account, data collection is called
Census Method, whereas when a small group that is representative of the entire population
is used, it is called a Sample Method.
Summary
Census refers to periodic collection of information about the populace from the entire
population.
Sampling is a method of collecting information from a sample that is representative of entire
population.
There are both advantages and disadvantages of both the methods. Whereas data from
census is reliable and accurate, there is a margin of error in data obtained from sampling.
Census is very time consuming and expensive, whereas sampling is quick and inexpensive.
However, if the next Census is far away, sampling is the most convenient method of
obtaining data about the population.
Stratified sampling and cluster sampling
Cluster sampling and stratified sampling are two different sampling methods. The main
difference between sampling and stratified sampling is, that a cluster is treated as sampling
unit. Hence in the first stage, analysis is done on a population of clusters. While, in stratified
sampling, the elements within the strata are analyzed. Below I have discussed about

Cluster sampling vs. Stratified sampling.

Cluster Sampling
This is basically a sampling technique, wherein the naturally occurring groups are selected
for being included in the sample. The main use of cluster sampling is in market research. In
this method, the total population is divided into samples or groups after which, a sample of
the groups is selected. After this process, relevant and required data from all the elements
of all the groups is collected. At times, instead of collecting information from each group,
information can be collected from a sub sample of the elements. If the variation is between
the members of the groups and not between the actual groups, then this technique will work
the best. Before you start using this methods on clusters, make sure that the clusters are
collectively exhaustive and mutually exclusive.

Stratified Sampling
This sampling technique, wherein a sample is divided into stratum and on random basis,
sampling is performed. Different stratum are created which will allow the usage of different
sampling percentage in each stratum. These stratum are nothing but simple groups which
consists on N number of elements. On these stratum, simple random selection is performed.
Make sure that every element is assigned only one stratum. Stratified sampling is known to
produce weighted mean whose variability is less than that of arithmetic mean of a simple
random sample of the population. In stratified sampling also, the strata should be
collectively exhaustive and mutually exclusive. This will help in applying random or
systematic sampling in each of the stratum. This will also help in the reduction of sampling
error since the representativeness of the samples are improved.

Cluster Vs Stratified Sampling

Cluster Sampling
When natural groupings are evident in a statistical population, cluster sampling technique is
used.
Cluster sampling can be opted if the group consists of homogeneous members.
The advantages of cluster sampling over other sampling methods is, it is cheaper as
compared to the other methods.
The main disadvantage of cluster sampling is, it introduces higher sampling error. This
sampling error can be represented as design effect.
Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is a method where in, the member of a group are grouped into relatively
homogeneous groups.
For heterogeneous members in the groups, stratified sampling is a good option.
The advantages of stratified sampling are, this method ignores the irrelevant ones and
focuses on the crucial sub populations. Another advantage is, with this method, for different
sub populations, you can opt for different sampling techniques. This sampling method also
helps in improving the efficiency and accuracy of the estimation. This sampling method
allows greater balancing of statistical power of tests.
The disadvantages of this sampling method are, it requires choice of relevant stratification
variables which can be tough at times. When there are homogeneous subgroups, it is not
much useful. Its implementation is expensive. If not provided with accurate information
about the population, then an error may be introduced.
This article on cluster sampling vs stratified sampling would be surely of help to people who
were in a dilemma of which sampling method to opt for. Though both methods are
appropriate, one must choose according to his needs and availability of data.

5.What is a semantic differential scale ? Explain the steps in construction

of the scale.When will you use this scale ?

Semantic differential is a type of a rating scale designed to measure the connotative

meaning of objects, events, and concepts. The connotations are used to derive the attitude
towards the given object, event or concept. Osgood's semantic differential was designed to
measure the connotative meaning of concepts. The respondent is asked to choose where his
or her position lies, on a scale between two bipolar adjectives (for example: "Adequate-
Inadequate", "Good-Evil" or "Valuable-Worthless"). Semantic differentials can be used to
describe not only persons, but also the connotative meaning of abstract concepts—a
capacity used extensively in affect control theory. The Semantic Differential (SD) measures
people's reactions to stimulus words and concepts in terms of ratings on bipolar scales
defined with contrasting adjectives at each end. An example of an SD scale is:

Usually, the position marked 0 is labeled "neutral," the 1 positions are labeled "slightly," the
2 positions "quite," and the 3 positions "extremely." A scale like this one measures
directionality of a reaction (e.g., good versus bad) and also intensity (slight through
extreme). Typically, a person is presented with some concept of interest, e.g., Red China,
and asked to rate it on a number of such scales. Ratings are combined in various ways to
describe and analyze the person's feelings.

The scale construction consists of the following steps:

1) Write a large number of statements that concern the particular attitudinal object being
investigated. For instance one may be looking at the role of voluntary agencies in providing
health services in rural areas. Most of these statements should either be moderately positive
or moderately negative. Natural items are generally avoided in these scales. The items
should be evenly divided between positive and negative statements.
2) Administer the poll of statements on a group of respondents who are similar to the
population on whom the scale will be used. For example, if we want to study the attitude of
housewives the pool should be administered on a group of housewives with similar
background to our final population.
3) Assign scale values to the degrees of agreement or disagreement with each item. The
particular values may differ from one researcher to another. Sometimes one may adopt the
values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and sometimes +2, +1, 0, -1, -2. For negative items the directions should
be reversed.
4) Calculate a total attitude score for each respondent using the same scaling procedure.
The distribution of total scores is then used to refine the list of items. This step is called item
analysis.
5) Items analysis : Analyze the responses and select for the scale those items which most
clearly differentiate between the highest and lowest scores. This can be done by dividing the
respondents into the high and the low scoring categories. The high scorers can be assumed
to be with favorable attitudes and the low scorers can be taken as having the least favorable
attitudes. If the statement is a good one, then it is a safe to expect that the mean score for
the favorable group would be greater than the mean score for the unfavorable group. If the
mean scores across the two groups, for an item, are found nearly equal or equal, then that
statement can be dropped from the scale. One can take the high group as the twenty-five
per cent of all total scores and the low group as the lowest twenty-five per cent.
Alternatively we divide the respondents into quartiles and compute the median score for
each item for the highest twenty-five per cent and the lowest twenty-five per cent of scale
scores.
6) The statements remaining in the pruned list are randomly ordered on the scale form. The
positive and negative ones are mixed.
7) The scale is now administered on the respondents who are asked to indicate their degree
of agreement with the item. A respondent’s score is generated as the sum of his scores on
each statement.
The summated scales have certain advantages. They are easy to construct, are highly
reliable and can be adapted to the measurement of many different kinds of attitudes.

2.What do you understand by factor analysis ? Mention the purpose and uses of
factor analysis.

Factor analysis can be applied in order to explore a content area, structure a domain, map
unknown concepts, classify or reduce data, illuminate causal nexuses, screen or transform
data, define relationships, test hypotheses, formulate theories, control variables, or make
inferences. Our consideration of these various overlapping usages will be related to several
aspects of scientific method: induction and deduction; description and inference; causation,
explanation, and classification; and theory.
Uses Of Factor Analysis
This section will outline factor analysis applications relevant to various scientific and policy
concerns. Many of the uses described below overlap. My aim is not to avoid redundancy but
explicitly to relate factor analysis to the diverse interests of readers. Interdependency
and pattern delineation. If a scientist has a table of data--say, UN votes, personality
characteristics, or answers to a questionnaire--and if he suspects that these data are
interrelated in a complex fashion, then factor analysis may be used to untangle the linear
relationships into their separate patterns. Each pattern will appear as a factor delineating a
distinct cluster of interrelated data.
Parsimony or data reduction. Factor analysis can be useful for reducing a mass of
information to an economical description. For example, data on fifty characteristics for 300
nations are unwieldy to handle, descriptively or analytically. The management, analysis, and
understanding of such data are facilitated by reducing them to their common factor
patterns. These factors concentrate and index the dispersed information in the original data
and can therefore replace the fifty characteristics without much loss of information
Structure. Factor analysis may be employed to discover the basic structure of a domain. As
a case in point, a scientist may want to uncover the primary independent lines or
dimensions--such as size, leadership, and age--of variation in group characteristics and
behavior. Data collected on a large sample of groups and factor analyzed can help disclose
this structure. Classification or description. Factor analysis is a tool for
developing an empirical typology.7 It can be used to group interdependent variables into
descriptive categories, such as ideology, revolution, liberal voting, and authoritarianism. It
can be used to classify nation profiles into types with similar characteristics or behavior. Or
it can be used on data matrices of a transaction type or a social-choice type to show how
individuals, social groups, or nations cluster on their transactions with or choices of each
other. Scaling. A scientist often wishes to develop a scale on which individuals, groups, or
nations can be rated and compared. The scale may refer to such phenomena as political
participation, voting behavior, or conflict. A problem in developing a scale is to weight the
characteristics being combined. Factor analysis offers a solution by dividing the
characteristics into independent sources of variation (factors). Each factor then represents a
scale based on the empirical relationships among the characteristics. As additional findings,
the factor analysis will give the weights to employ for each characteristic when combining
them into the scales. The factor score results are actually such scales, developed by
summing characteristics times these weights. Hypothesis
testing. Hypotheses abound regarding dimensions of attitude, personality, group, social
behavior, voting, and conflict. Since the meaning usually associated with "dimension" is that
of a cluster or group of highly intercorrelated characteristics or behavior, factor analysis may
be used to test for their empirical existence. Which characteristics or behavior should, by
theory, be related to which dimensions can be postulated in advance and statistical tests of
significance can be applied to the factor analysis results.
Data transformation. Factor analysis can be used to transform data to meet the
assumptions of other techniques. For instance, application of the multiple regression
technique assumes that predictors--the so-called independent variables--are statistically
unrelated. If the predictor variables are correlated in violation of the assumption, factor
analysis can be employed to reduce them to a smaller set of uncorrelated factor scores. The
scores may be used in the regression analysis in place of the original variables, with the
knowledge that the meaningful variation in the original data has not been lost. Likewise, a
large number of dependent variables also can be reduced through factor analysis.
Exploration. In a new domain of scientific interest like peace research, the complex
interrelations of phenomena have undergone little systematic investigation. The unknown
domain may be explored through factor analysis. It can reduce complex interrelationships to
a relatively simple linear expression and it can uncover unsuspected, perhaps startling,
relationships. Usually the social scientist is unable to manipulate variables in a laboratory
but must deal with the manifold complexity of behaviors in their social setting

Mapping.. By mapping I mean the systematic attempt to chart major empirical concepts
and sources of variation. These concepts may then be used to describe a domain or to serve
as inputs to further research. Some social domains, such as international relations, family
life, and public administration, have yet to be charted. In some other areas, however, such
as personality, abilities, attitudes, and cognitive meaning, considerable mapping has been
done.

4.Write short notes on any three of the following :

(a) Objective characteristics and Inferred characteristics
(b) Editing of primary data
(e) Audio-visual aids in presentation of reports

(c) Operating and Strategic decisions

We define Strategy as “The Art and Science of meeting your competitors in the Market
under advantageous conditions”. It’s about positioning your business relative to your
competitors. It’s about gaining market share when you are advantaged and exiting markets
when you have no advantage. Strategic decisions should always be market centric
decisions.
Operating decisions are structural decisions associated with staffing, facilities, asset
management, and controlling and financing the business. They are often not strategic
decisions as they do not relate to how we are positioning our business in the markets we
serve.
When I was at a large NYSE company, George Gage, the Vice President of Business Planning,
indicated most of our managers spent the majority of their time on operational decisions
unrelated to strategy. As a business manager we come into the office each day and face a
deluge of e-mails, follow-up phone calls and lengthy conference calls seldom getting to focus
on those decisions critical to our market position and changes in the size and shape of our
markets.
How much of your time is trapped in making the day-to-day operational decisions? Do you
spend any part of your day analyzing competitors, surveying changing customer needs,
searching for the market externality or market alternative products or services that will
significantly impact your business?

(d) Ordinal Scale

A scale of measurement in which data are listed in rank order but without fixed differences
among the entries. An example of an ordinal scale would be a best-to-worst ranking of
players in the National Basketball Association.

An ordinal scale not only categorizes the variables in such a way as to denote differences
among the various categories, it also rank-orders the categories in some meaningful way.
With any variable for which the categories are to be ordered according to some preference
the ordinal scale would be used. The preference would be ranked and numbered 1,2 and so
on.

When items are classified according to whether they have more or less of a characteristic,
the scale used is referred to as an ordinal scale (definition of ordinal scale). The main
characteristic of the ordinal scale is that the categories have a logical or ordered relationship
to each other.These types of scale permit the measurement of degrees of difference, but not
the specific amount of difference. This scale is very common in marketing, satisfaction and
attitudinal research. Any questions that ask the respondent to rate something are using
ordinal scales. For example,
How would you rate the service of our wait-staff?
Excellent 0 Very good 0 Good 0 Fair 0 Poor 0
Although we would know that respondent X ("very good") thought the service to be better
than respondent Y ("good"), we have no idea how much better nor can we even be sure that
both respondents have the same understanding of what constitutes "good service" and
therefore, whether they really differ in their opinion about its quality.
Likert scales are commonly used in attitudinal measurements. This type of scale uses a five-
point scale ranging from strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree,
strongly disagree to rate people’s attitudes. Variants of the Likert-scale exist that use any
number of points between three and ten, however it is best to give at least four or five
choices. Be sure to include all possible responses: sometimes respondents may not have an
opinion or may not know the answer, and therefore you should include a "neutral" category
or the possibility to check off "undecided/uncertain", "no opinion" or "don’t know".
Although some researchers treat them as an interval scale, we do not really know that the
distances between answer alternatives are equal. Hence only the mode and median can be
calculated, but not the mean. The range and percentile ranking can also be calculated.
6.Mention the different types of report, particularly pointing out of
the difference between a technical report and a popular report.
Research report s the oral or written presentation of evidence and findings in such detail and
form as to be readily understood and assessed by the reader and so to enable him to verify
the validity of the conclusions. It also helps the researcher himself to evaluate the success of
his research efforts in this process, to clarify and check his own thoughts.
Type: Research reports are of several types. This is because research reports vary greatly
in length and type. For example, business firms prefers report in letter form just one or two
pages in length. There are two types of reports:
(a) Technical Report: It emphasis on (i) the method employed (ii) assumptions made in
the course of study (iii) the detailed presentation of the findings, their limitations and
supporting data. A technical report can be outlined as below:
• Summary of results
• Nature of the study
• Methods employed
• Data
• Analysis of data and presentation of findings
• Conclusions
• Bibliography
• Technical appendices
• Index.
It should, however, be remembered that even in a technical report simple presentation and
ready availability of the findings remain an important consideration and as such liberal use
of charts and diagram is considered desirable.

(b) Popular report: The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness. The simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimizing of
technical, particularly mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and diagrams.
Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon now
and then is another characteristics feature of the popular report. General outline of popular
report is as follows:

• The findings and their implications: It emphasis in the report is given on the findings
of most practical interest and on the implications of these findings.
• Recommendations for action: It is on the basis of the findings of the study is made in
this section of the report.
• Objective of study: A general review of how the problem arises is presented along
with the specific objectives of the project under study.
• Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and
techniques used, including a short view of the data on which study is based, is given
in this part of report.
• Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of
the study are presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts
of illustrations such as charts, diagrams and like ones.
• Technical appendices: More detailed information on method used, forms, etc. is
presented in the form of the appendices. But theses appendices are often not
detailed if the report is entirely meant for general public.
 There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be
prepared. The only important thing about such report is that it gives emphasis on simplicity
and policy implications from the operational point of view.

5"A sample may be large yet worthless because it is not random; or it may
be random but unreliable because it is small." Comment upon the above
statement and explain the importance of sampling in daily life.

We are always sampling in our daily lives. But to put under the definition and meaning of
statistics is difficult simply because while doing so we are not recording the same reason
being these are random and unorganised. Statistics is known to proove whatever you want
to proove. It often is used in reverse form for this reason. For example if you want to proove
that poor people sleep well or have less hear decease you may decide how to take sample
and how to proove it.

I think you should first understand why we use "sample"? Because we are unable to get the
"population" so we use sample to represent the population, and make inferences based on
the sample. If the sample is large but not random, there might be trouble in satisfying the iid
(independent and identically distributed) assumption, which is essential in statistical
inference.

As to the small sample size problem, you may take a look at the Central Limit Theorem to
get a better understanding of the size of a sample.

Sampling Is Part of Daily Life

For example, we sample food by taking a bite or two and then deciding if it is too hot or too
cold or if it needs sampling. Without sampling, we would need to eat all of the food before
being able to decide what to do. Reading and viewing provide another example. You may
decide to switch channels after watching a program for a few minutes. You may decide not
to continue reading a novel after the first thirty pages or so.

Followings are the advantages of using sampling over census method for data collection.

1. Lower cost: The cost of collecting data from the whole of the units of the target market
or population gets very costly whereas collecting the data from a few units would be
comparatively much cheaper.

Saves time: the use of sampling technique to collect data is time saving in comparison to
total enumeration or census method.
Usefulness of units: The small size of the sampling does not affect the average estimation
of different features of the total population.

Few researchers: Usually the trained and competent researchers are not available in
numbers. This problem can be easily avoided by using sampling method for data collection.

1.What do you mean by research? Discuss application of research in management

decision making.

Research can be defined as the search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation,
with an open mind, to establish novel facts, usually using a scientific method. The primary
purpose for applied research (as opposed to basic research) is discovering, interpreting, and
the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a
wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe.Seeking help and
information on the following methods:

1. Sampling-Uses,benefits,disadvantages

2. Questionnaire- Uses, benefits , disadvantages

3. Hypotheses-Usage, Advantages, disadvantages

Through research, an executive can quickly get a synopsis of the current scenario which
improves his information base for making sound decisions affecting future operations of the
enterprise. The following are the major areas in which research plays a key role in making
effective decisions.
Marketing
Marketing research has become very crucial in taking sound marketing decisions. Marketing
research involves the process of systematic collection, compilation, analysis, and
interpretation of relevant data for marketing decisions. Research tools are applied
effectively for studies involving demand forecasting, consumer buying behaviour, measuring
advertising effectiveness, media selection, test marketing, product positioning, and new
product potential.
Production
Research enables an organisation to decide on what to produce, how much to produce,
when to produce, and for whom to produce in the field of production. Research tools are also
of immense help in quality control, and setting up optimum inventory level.
Banking
Banking institutions have found it useful to setup research departments for the Introduction
to Research 8 Methodology
purpose of gathering and analysing information both for their internal operations and for
making indepth studies on economic conditions of business. Reserve Bank of India has
setup an excellent research department for planning and management reporting.
Materials
The materials department uses research to frame suitable policies regarding where to buy,
how much to buy, when to buy, and at what price to buy.
Human resource development
The human-resource development department uses research to study wage fates, incentive
schemes, cost of living, employee turnover rates, employment trends, and performance
appraisal. It also uses research effectively for its most important activity namely manpower
planning.
Government
Research lays the foundation for all government policies in our economic system. For
example, research is applied for evolving the union finance budget and railway budget every
year. Research is used for economic planning and optimum utilisation of resources for the
development of the nation. Research is also needed for systematic collection of information
on the economic and social structure of the nation. Such information indicates what is
happening to the economy and what changes are taking place.