Wide Area Network Services: Part III: Wide Area Networks and Internetworking Technologies

Chapter 12
Wide Area Network Services

Part III: Wide Area Networks and Internetworking
Technologies
Topics Addressed in Chapter 12
• WAN services fundamental concepts
• Packet distribution networks
• Frame relay networks
• Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)
• T-1 services
• SONET services
• ISDN
• Wireless WAN services
• Choosing among WAN services
Business Data Communications (6e)
Copyright © 2003 by Pearson Education, Inc. Stamper and Case 12 - 2
WAN Services Fundamentals
• There are two major categories of WAN
connections:
– Circuit-switched networks
– Packet-switched networks
• Switching is fundamental to both approaches
– Switching technologies establish paths across networks
from senders to receivers
– Switching allows connections to be established and
maintained between senders and receivers so that they
can exchange messages and information

Circuit-Switched Networks
• In circuit-switched networks, a switched dedicated circuit is created to
connect two (or more) parties
– To users, it is as if a direct physical point-to-point path is established
between sender and receiver
– Multiple-switches may be involved is establishing a switched connection
(see Figure 12-1)
• There are three phases to circuit-switched communications:
– Creation of the temporary circuit
– Information transmission
– Circuit termination
• Because there is a limit to the number of switched connections that can
be established at a particular point in time, circuit-switched network
users may not be able to initiate communication sessions during peak
usage times
Figure 12-1

Packet-Switched Networks
• In packet-switched networks (see Figure 12-2), data is packetized
prior to transmission
– Each packet is a group of bits organized in a predetermined
structure
– Each packet contains data bits as well as additional overhead
information to ensure error-free transmission to intended
recipients
– Packets may be called blocks, cells, datagrams, data units, or
frames
• Packet assembler/disassemblers (PADs) are responsible for
assembling outgoing data into packets for transmission over the
packet-switching network as well as for unpacking incoming
packets so that data can be delivered to intended recipients
Figure 12-2

Packet Formats
• Figure 12-3 illustrates the format of HDLC
packets used in X.25 packet-switching networks
Major overhead fields include:
– Flag: used to delimit the beginning and end of a packet
– Address: specifies the address of the intended packet
recipient
– Control: transports packet sequence numbers and
retransmission requests
– Frame check: used for error checking. CRC-16 or a 16-
bit checksum may be used with HDLC frames

Figure 12-3

Packet-Switching Advantages
and Disadvantages
• Relative to circuit-switching, packet-switching has a number of advantages and
disadvantages. Advantages include:
– A single-link between packet-switching nodes can be simultaneously shared
by multiple senders and receivers; senders are not denied access to the
network during peak usage periods
– Packet-priority systems can be established
– Subscribers to packet-switching services are often charged on the volume of
data (number of packets) transmitted rather than connection time
• Disadvantages include:
– Variable transmission delays caused by packet processing and packet
queues at packet switches
– Some packet-switching networks support variable packet sizes; this
contributes to longer packet processing times at packet switches
– The inclusion of overhead data in packets means that data transmission
efficiency and throughput is lower than that in circuit-switched networks

Switching Alternatives in Packet-
Switched Networks
• Two fundamental approaches are used to route packets from senders to receivers:
– Datagram approach: individual packets, even those associated with a single
file, are routed independently
• Two packets (datagrams) from the same source can have two different
temporary circuits established to the same recipient
• This type of circuit allocation is called connectionless because a
dedicated connection is not established and because the packets that
make up a single file do not follow each other over the same circuit from
sender to receiver
– Virtual circuit approach: this is similar to establishing a dedicated circuit in a
circuit-switched network. Packets that comprise a single file (or message)
follow the same route in sequence from sender to receiver.
• This type of packet-switching is called connection-oriented
• It is not identical to circuit-switched connections because the route
segments in virtual circuits are shared, not dedicated

Virtual Circuits
• Call setup packets are used to establish virtual circuits; these are used
to identify the best path to the destination across the network.
• Virtual circuit details are stored in virtual circuit tables at packet
switches
• The paths followed by packets in virtual circuits are called logical
channels; each packet includes a logical channel number when created
by the PAD
• There are two major types of virtual circuits:
– Switched virtual circuits (SVCs): which are similar to temporary circuit-
switched connections
– Permanent virtual circuits (PVCs): which is similar to a leased, circuit-
switched connection
• Once a PVC is allocated, no call setup or call clearing is needed; the logical
circuit is permanently stored in virtual circuit tables

Packet Distribution Networks (PDNs)
• PDN concepts were first introduced in 1964; ARPAnet (and today’s
Internet) are grounded in PDN and packet-switching concepts
• A PDN is sometimes called an X.25 network or public data network.
– The X.25 designation stems from ITU’s recommendation X.25 which
defines the interface between DTE and DCE for public data networks (see
Figure 12-4)
– The term value-added network (VAN) is often used in conjunction with
PDNs because network proprietors offer additional services beyond mere
data transmission including virtual circuits, error recovery, network
management, message priorities, and store-and-forward capabilities
• X.25 PDNs are more widely available outside the U.S.
– In the U.S., frame relay services are more common than X.25

Figure 12-4

PDNs and the OSI Reference Model
• Only three layers of the OSI reference model are
described for PDNs (see Figure 12-5) because a PDN is
only responsible for message delivery:
– Packet Layer Protocol (PLP) in the X.25 protocol stack
corresponds to OSI’s network layer
– HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) and LAPB (Link
Access Protocol—Balanced) are X.25 data link layer
protocols. LAPB plays a key role in error recovery
– X.21 is the physical layer standard for X.25 networks; RS232
serves as the physical layer protocol for communications
between terminals and packet-switching nodes

Figure 12-5

Important X.25 PDN Standards
• X.25: defines interface between DTE and DCE in public data
networks
• X.21: specifies the interface between user terminal equipment
and PDN packet-switching nodes
• X.3: specifies packet assembly/disassembly processes
• X.28: governs asynchronous dial-up access to PDNs
• X.29: governs synchronous dial-up access to PDNs
• X.75: defines the interface between different public packet-
switching networks, both domestic and international
• X.121: defines a global addressing scheme for PDNs
• Several of these are illustrated in Figure 12-7

Figure 12-7

PDN Error Correction Processes
• PDNs employ node-to-node (aka hop-to-hop or point-to-
point) error detection and correction (see Figure 12-8)
• Each packet is checked for errors at each packet switch
before being forwarded to the next hop on its path
• If no errors are detected, an ACK is sent to the previous
hop
• If errors are detected, a NAK is sent to the previous hop
which triggers retransmission of the packet
• This process means that PDNs are store-and-forward
networks; packets are stored at switching nodes until
positive acknowledgements are received
Figure 12-8

Frame Relay Networks
• Frame relay is an outgrowth of X.25 networks
• It is designed to eliminate much of the transmission overhead
associated with X.25 networks and to take advantage of higher-speed,
less error-prone, and more reliable digital circuits to connect switching
nodes.
• To improve throughput over X.25, frame relay networks point-to-point
error detection and end-to-end error correction (see Figure 12-10)
– Frames with errors are discarded by frame relay switches; missing frames
cause recipients to request retransmission
• Many ISPs, especially those in urban areas, support frame-relay-based
Internet access
• Higher transmission speeds make frame relay more attractive than
X.25 for interconnecting geographically distributed LANs

Figure 12-10

Frame Relay Technologies
• Key technologies in frame relay networks are illustrated in
Figure 12-9. These include:
– Frame assembler/dissembler devices (FRADs) which like X.25
PADs are responsible for building outgoing frames and unpacking
incoming frames
– Frame relay switches which are responsible for accepting frames,
checking them for errors, and transmitting them to their next hops
in the network
• Both switched and permanent virtual circuits are supported in frame
relay networks
– Frame relay circuits. Frame relay switches are typcially connected
by DS-1 (T-1) or DS-3 (T-3) circuits. The Frame Relay Form
(FRF) has addressed connections up to 622 mbps (OC-12)

Figure 12-9

Frame Formats
• Frames are formatted by FRAD devices or software
• Variable length frames may be supported; some may
include up to 8,000 characters
• Figure 12-11 shows a LAPD (Link access Procedure—D
channel) frame relay
• The address field carries the recipient’s network address as
well as a data link connection identifier (DLCI) that serves
the same purpose as a virtual circuit identifier in X.25 (see
Figure 12-12)
• The BCEN, FCEN, and DE fields are used to address
network congestion during peak usage periods
Figure 12-11
Figure 12-12

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• ATM is a high-bandwidth, low-delay, packet-switching and multiplexing
technology that can handle many types of network traffic and WAN services
• ATM represents a step in the evolution of frame relay by using frames (called
cells) that do not vary in size
– The use of small fixed-size packets translates into easier switching and
faster transmission rates.
– By 2002, ATM transfer rates of 38.813 gbps had been achieved over OC-
768 circuits
• Virtual channels are used in ATM to establish logical connections between
senders and receivers (see Figure 12-13)
– Once setup up, full-duplex variable-rate transmission is possible over the
connections
• Virtual paths are also supported. These are bundles of virtual channels with the
same end-points that are switched as a set. Each channel can carry a different
type of data

Figure 12-16

Figure 12-13

ATM Cell Formats
• Two cell formats have been specified for
ATM (see Figure 12-14):
– User-network interface (UNI): UNI cells carry
data between the user and the ATM network
– Network-network interface (NNI): NNI cells
carry network control information between
ATM switches
• NNI also enables network control information to be
exchanged between different ATM networks

Figure 12-14

ATM Protocol Stack
• Link other packet-switching networks, the ATM protocol
stack corresponds to the layers 1, 2, and 3 of the OSI
reference model (see Figure 12-15)
• Two ATM layers correspond to OSI’s data link layer:
– User inputs (such as voice, data, and video) are processed into 53-
octet cells at the ATM adaptation layer (AAL) before being passed to
ATM switches for delivery to recipients
• There are multiple AAL sub-layers (see Table 12-1); these are responsible
for segmenting and reassembling different types of user inputs. Five
different quality of service levels are identified
– The ATM layer is responsible for final cell formatting. ATM typically
uses SONET (OC-3, OC-12, etc.) for framing and error correction out
over the wire. ATM switches convert cells to SONET frames and
frames to cells at the port interface
Figure 12-15

Table 12-1

T-1 Services
• T-1 lines are among the most widely used leased digital circuits in the
U.S.
• Each T-1 line has a bandwidth of 1.54 mbps and can be subdivided
into twenty-four 64 kbps channels
– Channels are differentiated via a TDM adaptation called periodic framing
– Each T-1 frame consists of 192 data bits (8-bits per channel X 24 channels
and a framing bit (193 bits total)---see Figure 12-17. 8000 frames per
second can be transmitted (8000 x 193 bits = 1.54 mbps)
– The 24 channels can be reallocated to users when there are fewer than 24
simultaneous users
– Reallocation of a single T-1 line among two or more subscribers is known
as fractional T-1 (FT-1)

Figure 12-17

T-1 Service Access Technologies
• Businesses use a variety of services to
access T-1 services (see Figure 12-18).
These include:
– T-1 CSU/DSUs
– T-1 multiplexors
– T-1 channel banks
– T-1 switches

Figure 12-18

SONET Services
• Synchronous optical network (SONET) is an optical transmission
interface/specification for high-speed digital transmission over optical fiber
• SONET specifications define a hierarchy of standardized data transfer rates
over optical media. An abbreviated set is provided in Table 12-2
– Each level is capable of carrying multiple lower-speed signals. An STS-1
channel, for example, is capable of carrying multiple DS-1 (T-1) signals
• STS-1 frames are the fundamental data transmission format in SONET (see
Figure 12-19)
– Each consists of 810 octets that can logically be depicted as a matrix of 9 rows
with 90 octets in each row
– 87 octets in each row carry data and can be flexibly allocated to lower
bandwidth channels such as DS-0, DS-1, and DS-2
• SONET service access technologies include add-drop multiplexors, cross-
connect switches, and broadband bandwidth managers

Table 12-2
Figure 12-19

ISDN
• Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is widely used by business
to provide digital WAN services among geographically dispersed
operating locations
• ISDN switches are the core of the ISDN network (see Figure 12-20)
• Two major categories of ISDN are:
– Narrowband ISDN. This is essentially a circuit-switched digital network
service that allows temporary connections to be dynamically created and
terminated among ISDN subscribers. Two narrowband service levels exist:
• Basic rate interface (BRI) that supports two 64 kbps bearer channels and one 16
kbps data channel (2B+D)
• Primary rate interface (PRI) with 23 64 bps bearer channels and a 64 bps data
channel (23B+D)
– Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) which may be described as ATM over SONET

Figure 12-20

Wireless WAN Services
• Increasingly, organizations are turning to wireless WAN
services to satisfy their data communication needs
including:
– Circuit-switched cellular systems (see Figure 12-21)
– Cellular digital packet data (CDPD)
– ARDIS (Advanced Radio Data Information Service)
– Mobitex
– Metricom (see Figure 12-22)
– Personal communication services (PCS)
– Broadband wireless services (such as wireless T-1 service)

Figure 12-21

Figure 12-22

Choosing Among WAN Services:
Business Considerations
• Businesses have many issues to consider when choosing
WAN services including:
– Availability
– Data transmission rates
– Costs
• Other factors include: reliablity, security, expandability,
and support for mobile users
• The Internet is also affecting business choices
– Many businesses are leveraging ISDN, frame relay, and T-1
services to access the Internet via ISPs
– Businesses are also seeking ways to bypass traditional WAN
services to route voice, data, and video over the Internet

Chapter 12
Wide Area Network Services
Part III: Wide Area Networks and Internetworking
Technologies

Wide Area Network Services: Part III: Wide Area Networks and Internetworking Technologies

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Chapter 12

Wide Area Network Services

Business Data Communications (6e)

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