COMPUTER

COMMUNICATION
UNIT VI INTRODUCTION TO X.25
PROTOCOL
Ms. Leena Thomas
TL
Electronics & Communication (HPP)
Polytechnic - MSUB
What is X.25?

● X.25 is a standard for WAN communications that defines how

connections between user devices and network devices are
established and maintained.
● X.25 is designed to operate effectively regardless of the type of
systems connected to the network. It is typically used in the
packet-switched networks (PSNs) of common carriers, such as the
telephone companies. Subscribers are charged based on their use
of the network.
What is Switching?
● Switching is process to forward information coming in from one port
to a port leading towards the destination.
● A communication system may include number of switches and nodes.
● The switching performed by different nodes can be categorized into
the following three types:
1.Circuit Switching
2.Packet Switching
3.Message Switching
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING
● When two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated communication path, it is
called circuit switching. There 'is a need of pre-specified route from which data will travels
and no other data is permitted
● To transfer the data, circuit must be established so that the data transfer can take place.
● Circuits can be permanent or temporary. Applications which use circuit switching may have
to go through three phases:
●Establish a circuit
●Transfer the data
●Disconnect the circuit
● Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable example
of circuit switching.
 MESSAGE SWITCHING

● In message switching, the whole message is treated as a data unit and is

switching / transferred in its entirety.

● A switch working on message switching, first receives the whole message

and buffers it until there are resources available to transfer it to the next
hop. If the next hop is not having enough resource to accommodate large
size message, the message is stored and switch waits.
Message switching has the following drawbacks:
● Every switch in transit path needs enough storage to accommodate entire message.
● Because of store-and-forward technique and waits included until resources are available,
message switching is very slow.
● Message switching was not a solution for streaming media and real-time applications
 PACKET SWITCHING
● The entire message is broken down into smaller chunks called packets. The
switching information is added in the header of each packet and transmitted
independently.
● It is easier for intermediate networking devices to store small size packets and
they do not take much resources either on carrier path or in the internal memory
of switches.

● Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
● Enhances line efficiency. The internet uses packet switching technique.
● Main difference between Packet switching and Circuit Switching is
that in packet switching the communication lines are not dedicated to
passing messages from the source to the destination
● A long message is broken up into a series of packets in “NETWORK”
OSI layer.
● Advantages :-

1. More efficiently.
2. It is more flexible.
3.Improved bandwidth.
4. Small sized packet reduces transmission delay.
X.25 Devices and Protocol Operation
● Data terminal equipment (DTE) devices are end systems that communicate across the
X.25 network. They are usually terminals, personal computers, or network hosts, and
are located on the premises of individual subscribers.

● Data communication Equipments (DCEs) are communications devices, such as modems

and packet switches that provide the interface between DTE devices and a PSE, and
are generally located in the carrier's facilities.

● PSEs are switches that compose the bulk of the carrier's network. They transfer data
from one DTE device to another through the X.25 PSN.
Packet Assembler/Disassembler
● The packet assembler/disassembler (PAD) is a device commonly found in X.25
networks. The PAD is located between a DTE device and a DCE device, and it
performs three primary functions: buffering (storing data until a device is ready to
process it), packet assembly, and packet disassembly. The PAD buffers data sent
to or from the DTE device. It also assembles outgoing data into packets and
forwards them to the DCE device.

● PAD disassembles incoming packets before forwarding the data to the DTE. (This
includes removing the X.25 header) Figure illustrates the basic operation of the
PAD when receiving packets from the X.25 WAN.
X.25 session establishment

● X.25 sessions are established when one DTE device contacts another to request a
communication session.

● It’s up to the receiving DTE whether to accept or refuse the connection.

● If the request is accepted, the two systems begin full-duplex communication.

● Either DTE device can terminate the connection.

● After the session is terminated, any further communication requires the

establishment of a new session.
Virtual circuit switching
● The X.25 is a packet-switched virtual circuit network
● Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented
switching.
● In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is
established before the messages are sent.
● Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the
connection between sender and receiver.
● In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
● Here, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.
● Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection
between the sender and receiver.
● When a route is established, data will be transferred.
● After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver
that the message has been received.
● If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the
termination.
● This is not a physical connection between the DTEs; it is a logical
communication path
Types of Virtual circuit switching
Public networks offer two types of virtual circuit--permanent and switched.
Typically a subscription consists of a mixture of the two.

A permanent virtual circuit (PVC) is a permanent association between two DTEs

that is established when a user subscribes to a public network. Many providers
charge a flat rate per month for a PVC in addition to the charge per unit of data.

A switched virtual circuit (SVC) is a temporary association between two DTEs that
exists only for the duration of a call. Most providers charge per minute for an SVC
in addition to a charge per unit of data.

In general, SVCs are less expensive than PVCs unless two end-points need to be in
constant communication,
 Basic Operation
● The basic operation of an X.25 virtual circuit begins when the source DTE
device specifies the virtual circuit to be used (in the packet headers) and then
sends the packets to a locally connected DCE device. At this point, the local
DCE device examines the packet headers to determine which virtual circuit to
use and then sends the packets to the closest PSE in the path of that virtual
circuit. PSEs (switches) pass the traffic to the next intermediate node in the
path, which may be another switch or the remote DCE device.
● When the traffic arrives at the remote DCE device, the packet headers are
examined and the destination address is determined. The packets are then
sent to the destination DTE device. If communication occurs over an SVC and
neither device has additional data to transfer, the virtual circuit is terminated.
 X.25 Protocol Suite
● Physical layer: Deals with the physical interface between an attached station
and the link that attaches that station to the packet-switching node. X.21 is
the most commonly used physical layer standard.
● Frame layer: Facilitates reliable transfer of data across the physical link by
transmitting the data as a sequence of frames. Uses a subset of HDLC known
as Link Access Protocol Balanced (LAPB), bit oriented protocol.
● Packet layer: Responsible for end-to-end connection between two DTEs.
Functions performed are:
● Establishing connection
● Transferring data
● Terminating a connection
● Error and flow control
● With the help of X.25 packet layer, data are transmitted in packets over
external virtual circuits.
 Frame / Link Layer
The link layer (also called level 2, or frame level) ensures reliable transfer of data
between the DTE and the DCE, by transmitting the data as a sequence of frames (a
frame is an individual data unit which contains address, control, information field
etc.).

The functions performed by the link level include:

•Transfer of data in an efficient and timely fashion.

•Synchronization of the link to ensure that the receiver is in step with the
transmitter.
•Detection of transmission errors and recovery from such errors
•Identification and reporting of procedural errors to higher levels, for recovery.
the most commonly used link layer protocol, i.e. LAPB (Link Access Protocol, Balanced). LAPB is a bit-oriented
protocol that ensures that frames are correctly ordered and error-free. There are three kinds of frames:

1. Information: This kind of frame contains the actual information being transferred and some control information. The
control field in these frames contains the frame sequence number. I-frame functions include sequencing, flow control,
and error detection and recovery. I-frames carry send- and receive-sequence numbers.

2.Supervisory: The supervisory frame (S-frame) carries control information. S-frame functions include requesting and
suspending transmissions, reporting on status, and acknowledging the receipt of I-frames. S-frames carry only
receive-sequence numbers. There are various types of supervisory frames.

● RECEIVE READY-Acknowledgment frame indicating the next frame expected.

● REJECT-Negative acknowledgment frame used to indicate transmission error detection.
● RECEIVE NOT READY (RNR)-Just as RECEIVE READY but tells the sender to stop sending due to temporary
problems.

3. Unnumbered: This kind of frames is used only for control purposes. U-frame functions include link setup and
disconnection, as well as error reporting. U frames carry no sequence numbers.
Packet Layer
Within layer 3, the Packet Layer Protocol manages the exchange of data packets between DTE and DCE. This
layer establishes, maintains, and terminates user sessions, handles addressing and carries out
fault-management.

The general format of an X.25 packet header is shown below:

The components are:

General Format Identifier

This specifies the format of the rest of the header, which varies according to packet-type.

Group and Channel

Together, the Group and Channel fields identify the virtual circuit to be used for a call.

Type

In a control (non-data) packet, the type field identifies the type of the packet. In a data packet, the type field
is used for setting flow control, sequencing, and piggybacking information.

Control

The Control field specifies whether this is a control or a data packet. It is set to 1 for control packets and 0 for
data packets.

In data packets, the header is followed by data. In control packets, the header is followed by additional
information that specifies, among other things, addressing and any special facilities that are to be used.