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The size principle states that motor units are recruited in an orderly manner from the smaller (lower threshold)
to the larger (higher threshold) motor units, and that the recruitment is dependent on the effort of the activity.
Greater recruitment produces higher muscular force. However, the pervasive faulty assumption that maximal
or near maximal force (very heavy resistance) is required for recruitment of the higher-threshold motor units
and optimal strength gains is not supported by the size principle, motor unit activation studies, or resistance
training studies. This flawed premise has resulted in the unsubstantiated heavier-is-better recommendation
for resistance training. [ J Exerc Sci Fit • Vol 6 • No 2 • 67–86 • 2008]
(Masakado et al. 1995). That is, there were no observ- Intensity of Effort and Motor Unit Activation
able violations of the size principle. In a similar investi-
gation, Desmedt and Godaux (1977) noted that their Interpolated twitch technique
data definitively excluded the hypothesis of preferential The interpolated twitch technique (ITT) is an indirect
recruitment of fast-twitch higher-threshold motor units. measure of the level of motor unit activation during an
The authors concluded that they did not observe a sin- MVC. During an MVC, a supramaximal electrical stim-
gle instance when the faster (larger, higher threshold) ulus (typically a single, double or multiple stimuli) is
motor units were recruited before the slower (smaller, superimposed (either manually or computer generated)
lower threshold) motor units during either a slow con- with surface electrodes onto a muscle or its nerve. When
traction or a brisk ballistic contraction (Desmedt & the superimposed twitch technique is applied prop-
Godaux 1977). erly, the electrical stimulus fully activates all the motor
Thus, motor units are recruited in a regular, nonran- units in the pool. If all the motor units have been re-
dom sequence (Cope & Pinter 1995), and the predeter- cruited and are firing at optimal frequencies, no addi-
mined order of recruitment reduces the time required tional force will be detected. However, if some motor
to select an appropriate combination of active motor units are silent or firing at a low frequency, the inter-
units because the input is distributed uniformly to the polated stimulus will produce a twitch on top of the
motor units (Senn et al. 1997). The size principle also voluntary force. The evoked interpolated twitch is usu-
ensures that the most frequently used and most easily ally measured in Newtons (N) or Newton·meters (N·m).
excited motor units are those that are most resistant to ITT cannot distinguish between incomplete recruitment
fatigue, thereby enhancing energy efficiency (Cope & and insufficient motor unit firing rate responsible for
Pinter 1995). Edstrom and Grimby (1986) noted that any increment in force as a result of the superimposed
the weaker, slower contracting, fatigue resistant motor stimulus. Therefore, the term motor unit activation level
units recruited before the stronger, rapidly contracting, (AL) is preferred (Folland & Williams 2006; Oskouei et al.
fatigable motor units makes great functional sense for 2003; Herbert & Gandevia 1999; Behm et al. 1996;
graded movements and prolonged exercise. Cope and Brown et al. 1990).
Pinter (1995) concluded that the preponderance of avail- When there is an increment in external muscle force
able evidence suggests that there are no functionally (the interpolated twitch) as a result of the superimposed
meaningful violations of the size principle. stimulus during the MVC, the magnitude of the incre-
ment represents that portion of the muscle mass not
Practical application of the size principle activated by the voluntary effort. The interpolated twitch
It is important to recognize that at the conception of is typically normalized to the resting twitch force; that is,
the size principle, Denny-Brown and Pennybacker (1938) the force evoked by the same stimulus applied to the
and Henneman (1957) specifically stated that the resting muscle (pre- and/or post-MVC). The formula for
independent variable was the intensity of the stimulus estimating the motor unit activation level is AL (%) = [1 –
and the dependent variable was the recruitment of Evoked Force (superimposed on the voluntary force)/
higher-threshold (larger, more difficult to excite) motor Evoked Response (control twitch force)] × 100 (Suter &
units. Force was not the prerequisite for recruitment; Herzog 2001; Allen et al. 1998; Suter et al. 1996).
force was the result of a more intense stimulus. The level The amplitude of the interpolated twitch declines
of effort in voluntary muscle actions determines the de- with increasing contraction intensity. A large interpolated
gree of motor unit activity (see section on Interpolated twitch indicates a low level of voluntary activation,
twitch technique below). The fundamental neuromus- whereas a small or nonexistent interpolated twitch indi-
cular concept is that all voluntary muscle actions initiate cates near-maximal or truly maximal voluntary motor
in the brain and action potentials are generated, which unit activation. Complete motor unit activation is indi-
is analogous to the external electrical stimulus gener- cated by no increment in force and implies that all motor
ated in Denny-Brown and Pennybacker’s (1938) and units in a specific pool have been recruited and are firing
Henneman’s (1957) studies: the greater the stimulus at rates sufficient to produce a maximal force (Gandevia
(internal action potentials generated by the brain or et al. 1998; Kent-Braun & Le Blanc 1996; Allen et al.
external stimulus generated in vitro), the greater recruit- 1995).
ment of motor units through the size principle. Each Although there are some questions concerning the
individual’s effort determines motor neuron activation resolution of force, number of control stimuli, and the
(see below). sensitivity of twitch interpolation (Shield & Zhou 2004),
et al. 1999; De Serres & Enoka 1998; Hurley et al. 1998; resistance) in the 5, 10 and 20 RM protocols, and the very
Kent-Braun & Le Blanc 1996; Vandervoort & McComas different time-under-tension (35, 70 and 140 s, respec-
1986), which compared different age groups, males and tively), elicited similar AL of motor units (93.5–95.5%).
females, healthy and ALS patients, showed that the dif- Behm and colleagues (2002) noted that the most impor-
ferences in the ability to generate force did not affect tant result of their study was that the 5 RM protocol did
the ability to voluntarily activate specific motor units. The not produce greater motor unit activation than the 10 RM
studies strongly support the previously discussed neu- or 20 RM protocols. They concluded: “The commonly
rophysiological concept put forth by Denny-Brown and repeated suggestion that maximal strength methods
Pennybacker (1938) and Henneman (1957). [resistance heavier than a 6 RM] produce greater neural
It is the intensity of the effort (maximal in the adaptations or increases in neural drive was not substan-
aforementioned ITT studies) that determines the AL of tiated in this study” (p. 213). In fact, their study unequiv-
motor units and the resultant force output. A greater ocally demonstrated the direct relationship between
effort produces greater motor unit activation. Maximal intensity of effort—not the amount of resistance or time-
effort produces maximal, or near maximal, activation of under-tension—and voluntary motor unit activation.
motor units. The resultant force, which is the dependent
variable—not the independent variable—is a maximal
force produced in a specific individual for a specific Misapplication of the Size Principle
exercise. It is entirely dependent on the intensity of
effort. However, it is important to recognize that none Although the size principle is described reasonably
of the authors of the aforementioned ITT studies spec- accurately in the resistance training literature, it is often
ulated on a minimal recruitment threshold for strength followed by a misunderstanding of the underlying neu-
gains. rophysiological concept and its practical application to
The motor unit AL required for an optimal stimulus resistance training. Many resistance training authors state
to increase muscular strength is unknown, and may be that in order to produce maximal muscular force, the
considerably less than the 85–100% AL reported in the larger and more difficult to excite motor units must be
ITT studies. Therefore, a maximal or near maximal effort stimulated through a size principle continuum. That
may not be required for optimal strength gains. A max- statement is supported by the size principle (Adam &
imal effort only ensures maximal voluntary motor unit DeLuca 2003; Houtman et al. 2003; Akaboshi et al. 2000;
activation. Scutter & Turker 1998; Feiereisen et al. 1997; Ivanova
Perhaps the most relevant interpolated twitch study et al. 1997; Schmied et al. 1997; Jabre & Spellman 1996;
with the greatest practical application to resistance train- Masakado et al. 1995; Riek & Bawa 1992; Knaflitz et al.
ing was conducted by Behm and colleagues (2002). They 1990; Moritani & Muro 1987; Thomas et al. 1987;
measured recruitment properties by testing 14 resist- Thomas et al. 1986; DeLuca et al. 1982; Desmedt &
ance trained males (age ∼ 21 years) for voluntary and Godaux 1981; Maton 1980; Desmedt & Godaux 1979;
evoked contractile properties before and after perform- Goldberg & Derfler 1977; Freund et al. 1975; Milner-
ing dynamic 5, 10 and 20 RM (repetition maximum) Brown et al. 1973). However, many authors (see below)
elbow flexion exercise (dumbbell curls) at recovery inter- also claim that in order to recruit the larger motor units,
vals of 30 seconds, 1, 2 and 3 minutes. Repetition dura- and more importantly to maximize strength gains, a
tion was consistent across trials at 3 seconds concentric, maximal—or near maximal—resistive force is required.
1 second isometric, and 3 seconds eccentric, with a re- The latter statement is an invalid reverse inference of
sultant time-under-tension of 35, 70 and 140 seconds the size principle.
for the 5, 10 and 20 RM, respectively. The 12 sessions Science places the entire burden of proof on those
were randomly allocated and separated by at least 48 who recommend heavier-is-better resistance training to
hours. The force amplitudes of superimposed stimulation support their claims and recommendations with resist-
compared with post-contraction stimulation was used ance training studies and sound neurophysiological prin-
to estimate the extent of activation during the MVC. The ciples. However, the size principle, interpolated twitch
superimposed stimulation activated those motor units studies, and resistance training studies do not support
left inactivated by the maximal voluntary muscle action. the contention that individuals must train with maximal
There was no significant difference in voluntary motor or near maximal resistance to achieve optimal strength
unit activation following 5 RM (95.5%), 10 RM (93.5%) gains. The following are specific examples of misappli-
and 20 RM (95.1%). The three different loads (amount of cation of the size principle.
and O’Shea (1966). As described in a critical analysis reference cited by Kraemer and colleagues (1988) is the
(Carpinelli et al. 2004) of these and other resistance first edition (Fleck & Kraemer 1987) of the previously
training studies, Berger (1963) reported no significant discussed book by the same authors (Fleck & Kraemer
difference in strength gains for the bench press exer- 1997). The four references cited by Kraemer and col-
cise as a result of training with a 2 RM (17%), 6 RM (21%) leagues (1988) do not support their claims.
or 10 RM (20%); O’Shea (1966) reported no significant Fleck and Kraemer (1988) also recommended
difference in strength gains for the squat exercise as 2–6 RM loads for increasing strength (Figure 1, p. 165)
a result of training with 2–3 RM (22%), 5–6 RM (27%), and stated that loads lighter than 6 RM (7 RM or lighter)
or 9–10 RM (20%). Atha concluded: “From these stud- result in progressively smaller strength gains. For exam-
ies, one begins to believe that the importance of load ple, they claimed that strength gains as a result of train-
magnitude may have been exaggerated” (p. 13). Then, ing with a 6 RM are 50% greater than with a 10 RM.
without any explanation, Atha antithetically claimed: However, they did not cite any evidence to support their
“Tension, not fatigue, is the strengthening stimulus…” statements or recommendation.
(p. 15). Atha claimed that because an RM load such as Kraemer and Bush (1998) described the size principle
a 10 RM does not result in an absolutely greater tension as the orderly recruitment of motor units, which is de-
than a 5 RM, all the motor units available for the spe- pendent on the recruitment threshold, and that maximal
cific exercise would not be activated. That statement force production requires the recruitment of the high-
was probably the result of an incorrect application of threshold motor units at a sufficiently high activation
the size principle by Atha. rate. However, they recommended 2–3 sets of 3–5 rep-
The third reference cited by Kraemer and colleagues etitions for increasing strength. They also claimed that
(1988) is a review by Clarke (1973), who cited two other advanced weightlifters may not require the orderly re-
studies by Berger (1962a, 1962b). Berger (1962a) trained cruitment stipulated by the size principle because these
199 male college students three times a week for 12 advanced trainees can inhibit the lower-threshold motor
weeks. All the participants performed the free weight units and preferentially activate the higher-threshold
bench press for 1 set of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 or 12 RM. Berger motor units. Kraemer and Bush did not cite any refer-
and Clarke claimed that the gains in 1 RM bench press ences to support their training recommendation, their
in the 4, 6 and 8 RM groups were significantly greater incorrect application of the size principle, or violations
than in the 2, 10 and 12 RM groups (neither the pre- of the size principle.
training data nor the percent gains were reported). Kraemer and colleagues (1998) noted that motor unit
According to Berger’s Table 2 (p. 337), strength gains activation is governed by the size principle, and they
as a result of 4, 6 and 8 RM were significantly greater described the process: “Specifically, motor units are re-
than 2 RM, and strength gains using the 8 RM protocol cruited according to their size and recruitment thresh-
were significantly greater than 2, 10 and 12 RM. How- olds” (p. 111). However, they did not cite any references
ever, there was no significant difference in strength gains to support their statement that a resistance equal to or
between the 2 RM group and the 10 or 12 RM groups, greater than a 6 RM has the greatest effect on strength
which indicated that there was no significant difference gains (p. 114).
in strength gains as a result of training with the lightest Kraemer and Newton (2000) stated that according
(12 RM) and the heaviest (2 RM) loads. And, contrary to the size principle, the smaller low-threshold motor
to the statement by Clarke and in Berger’s narrative, units are recruited first and the progressively higher-
Berger’s Table 2 (p. 337) showed no significant difference threshold motor units are recruited with increasing
between the 6 RM group and the 4, 8, 10 and 12 RM demands of the activity. However, their statement is
groups. followed by four misapplications of the size principle:
In Berger’s other study (1962b), there was no 1. “Heavier resistances (e.g., 3–5 RM) require the recruit-
significant difference in strength gains (1 RM bench ment of higher-threshold motor units than a lighter
press) between groups using the lightest load (10 repe- resistance (e.g., 12–15 RM)” (p. 363). As previously
titions) and the heaviest load (2 repetitions) for either noted, by their description of RM loads, the demands
the lower volume 1-set protocol (12.2 and 11.3 kg, 10 and (effort) with both the heavier and lighter resistance
2 repetition protocol, respectively) or the higher volume are similar at the end of the set.
3-set protocol (13.0 and 13.3 kg, 10 and 2 repetition 2. “Lifting heavier resistances according to the size
protocol, respectively). That is, the heavier resistance did principle, however, starts with the recruitment of low-
not elicit a significantly greater strength gain. The fourth threshold motor units (Type I). The high-threshold
Brown and colleagues (2007) stated that improving than explosive high force or high power repetitions—
maximal strength is most successful when heavy loads are any less effective for the recruitment of the larger
are used; that is, 2–4 repetitions with loads close to the motor units.
1 RM. They did not cite any evidence to support their Stone (1982) also stated that purposefully slow
claim. Brown and colleagues also stated that loads be- movements reduce the training effect because the lower
tween 85% and 95% 1 RM create the overload required forces require the recruitment of fewer motor units;
for maximal strength gains and they cited a meta- therefore, the larger motor units will not be effectively
analysis (Peterson et al. 2004) to support their recom- trained. He did not cite any training studies to support
mendation. The credibility of the meta-analysis by his opinion that the size principle is violated. As previ-
Peterson and colleagues has been previously challenged ously discussed, the size principle dictates that motor
(Otto & Carpinelli 2006). For example, Peterson and unit recruitment is determined by the degree of effort,
colleagues claimed that there was a trend for increased which can be maximal or near maximal at the end of a
strength gains with a greater percent 1 RM up to 85% set of repetitions, regardless of repetition duration or
1 RM. However, their own data actually failed to support absolute muscular force.
that claim. Their effect sizes for training with 70%, 75%, Stone and O’Bryant (1984) stated: “Tension, not
80% and 85% 1 RM were 0.07, 0.73, 0.57 and 1.12, fatigue, is the major factor in developing maximum
respectively. The reported effect size was 10 times greater strength” (p. 148). Because the only reference to support
for training with 75% 1 RM compared with 70% 1 RM, their questionable application of the size principle was
decreased for 80% 1 RM, and then doubled for 85% the previously discussed review by Atha (1981), their
1 RM. Their data also implied the unlikely scenario statement remains unsubstantiated.
that training with 70% 1 RM to muscular fatigue had no Garhammer (1987) described the size principle as
effect on strength gains. More importantly, there is no the recruitment of smaller motor units first and larger
known physiological hypothesis to explain why a 5% motor units last. He also claimed that performing 3
difference in resistance, performed for one or two fewer sets of 5 repetitions for the bench press and squat exer-
or greater repetitions with a similar effort (RM), would cises was the most productive way to train, but recom-
result in such large differences in outcomes. In addition, mended 10–15 repetitions for other exercises such as
many studies in the meta-analysis had no control group, the thigh curl. No rationale was presented for his appar-
which required the use of a pooled standard deviation ent incorrect interpretation of the size principle (heavier
rather than the pre-training standard deviation employed weights to recruit the larger motor units), or why the
by Peterson and colleagues. Most of the studies included hamstring and quadriceps would require a different
in their meta-analysis did not compare different RMs range of repetitions.
or percent 1 RM; they simply reported the effects of one Berger (1982) noted: “The actual force of a muscle
specific protocol (e.g., with or without dietary supple- depends on the number of stimulated motor units and
ments) on different outcomes. The data from this meta- their frequency of firing or MUI [motor unit involve-
analysis do not support the claims by Peterson and ment]” (p. 15). However, he then stated: “To increase
colleagues (2004) or Brown and colleagues (2007). force capacity of a muscle, relatively heavy loads must
Stone (1993) noted that the size principle describes be lifted” (p. 30). Berger’s statement is surprising be-
the recruitment process from the smaller to the larger cause his own studies (Berger 1963, 1962a, 1962b) do
motor units and the evidence suggests that this orderly not support his claim, and because he specifically dis-
sequence is similar for gradual or explosive voluntary tinguished between force and effort. That is, Berger cor-
and reflex muscle actions. However, he also stated that rectly stated that if a specific load (resistance) is held
the larger motor units are only recruited when high until fatigue occurs, the force of contraction remains
force or high power outputs are required, and that in constant as motor unit involvement increases (Berger
order to activate the larger motor units, very high force- 1982).
ful contractions must be employed. The former state- Palmieri (1983) noted that there is an orderly
ment is valid. The latter statement is inconsistent with recruitment of motor units based on the size principle,
the size principle, which has resulted in unsubstanti- with the smaller motor units recruited first followed by
ated resistance training recommendations. According the larger motor units. However, his claim that the resist-
to the size principle, there is no reason to believe that ance (load) must be high because moderate loads do
non-explosive, lower-power repetitions performed with not require the recruitment of larger motor units is
a moderate resistance and a reasonable effort—rather inconsistent with the size principle.
claim for changes in 1 RM as a result of training with implemented” (p. 107). Fry’s heavier-is-better training
a specific percent of the 1 RM (40%, 60%, 80% or 95% philosophy (Fry 2004) is not supported by Zatsiorsky’s
1 RM) is highly questionable (Fry 2004). observations.
Thorstensson and colleagues (1976) trained 14 Fry (2004) concluded: “The bottom line is that rela-
physical education students (age, 19–31 years) with 3 tively heavy loads must be utilized if maximal strength
sets of 6 RM squats, three times a week for 8 weeks. is to be increased and/or maintained” (p. 671). However,
The 1 RM squat increased 67%. However, they did not neither the size principle nor the references (Green et al.
report the percent 1 RM used in training, and as previ- 1998; Fleck & Kraemer 1997; Fleck & Kraemer 1996;
ously discussed, the percent of the 1 RM for a specific Zatsiorsky 1995; Hakkinen & Pakarinen 1993; Hakkinen
exercise in a group of subjects cannot be accurately et al. 1990; Stone & O’Bryant 1984; Thorstensson et al.
estimated from the number of repetitions performed. 1976) cited by Fry supports his conclusion.
There was insufficient information reported in the four Several other claims related to the size principle
studies (Green et al. 1998; Hakkinen & Pakarinen 1993; and motor unit recruitment in the aforementioned book
Hakkinen et al. 1990; Thorstensson et al. 1976) cited by Zatsiorsky (1995), which was cited by Fry (2004)
by Fry (2004) to support his attempt to clearly illustrate and also cited five times in the American College of
a specificity (percent 1 RM) of training, and none of Sports Medicine’s Position Stand (2002) on resistance
the studies he cited actually compared the effects of training, warrant examination. After he described the
training with different percents of the 1 RM. Therefore, size principle, Zatsiorsky expressed opinions that lack
it is unclear how Fry derived the data shown in his any scientific support. For example, Zatsiorsky claimed
Figure 3. in his Figure 4.7 (p. 103) that a 1 RM recruits all the
Fry (2004) also stated that it has been theorized motor units within the pool, with slower and interme-
that his training philosophy (heavier resistance produces diate motor units recruited but not exhausted; and the
better results) is more important for advanced trainees. larger motor units recruited and exhausted (he did not
The four references he cited to support his claim are define exhausted). He claimed in his narrative that
books—not resistance training studies. The misappli- these larger exhausted motor units are the only motor
cation of the size principle in the books by Fleck and units subjected to a training stimulus. However, there
Kraemer (1997) and Stone and O’Bryant (1984) has been is no neurophysiological evidence to suggest that during
previously discussed. In their book entitled Periodization a maximal effort (e.g., 1 RM, 5 RM or 10 RM), an optimal
Breakthrough!, Fleck and Kraemer (1996) claimed that stimulus requires exhaustion of the motor units. Further-
to increase maximal strength and power, 1–6 repeti- more, he did not cite studies that support any of his
tions are required. They specifically noted that training speculations.
with a 5 RM load produces mostly gains in maximal Zatsiorsky (1995) noted that maximal muscular
strength and power and some muscular size, while train- tension is achieved by lifting a maximal resistance (1 RM)
ing with a 7 RM load elicits smaller gains in strength or lifting a submaximal resistance to failure (e.g., 5 RM).
and power and greater muscular hypertrophy. They did Although a 1 RM could elicit high muscular tension, this
not cite any training studies to support their opinion that is not the case with the submaximal resistance. The effort
training with 5 repetitions per set versus 7 repetitions is the same (maximal), but as previously discussed,
per set would produce differential outcomes—either the tension created within the muscle is less with the
statistically or clinically significant—in muscular strength, submaximal load (assuming similar repetition duration).
power or hypertrophy. The tension remains at that level throughout a set of
In the book by Zatsiorsky (1995), the author reported repetitions until fatigue causes a reduction in the ability
his direct observations of the USSR weightlifting team to generate tension.
during the year prior to the 1988 Olympic Games. Only Zatsiorsky (1995) stated: “If an athlete can lift a bar-
7% of all the lifts employed loads heavier than 90% bell 12 times but lifts only 10, the exercise set is worth-
maximum. These elite competitive athletes performed less” (p. 105). He noted that the smaller motor units
as many lifts (8%) with loads lighter than 60% of maxi- are recruited but not exhausted, and the larger motor
mum. The majority of all the lifts (85%) were with units are not recruited at all (Figure 4.7, p. 103). He
loads between 60% and 90% maximum (Figure 4.4, claimed that if motor units are not fatigued (he did not
p. 97). Zatsiorsky noted that the largest proportion of define fatigued), then they are not trained. Because
weights lifted was between 70% and 80% maximum there is no universally accepted definition for the con-
resistance, and that these levels should be “thoughtfully cept of exhausted or fatigued muscles, these words are
with some high-threshold motor units firing prior to low- greater muscle damage would produce an ideal stimulus,
threshold motor units. However, Nardone and colleagues nor did they speculate on how muscle damage would
reported electromyographic activity in five subjects who stimulate any strength-related adaptations.
performed concentric, isometric and eccentric plantar In the other reference cited by Crewther and col-
flexion muscle actions with a torque that corresponded leagues (2005), Jamurtas and colleagues (2000) reported
to 15–20% of the torque produced during a maximal the acute responses to 6 sets of knee extension and
voluntary muscle action. Neither the review by Behm calf raise exercises performed to volitional exhaustion
nor the study by Nardone and colleagues supports the in 24 previously untrained males. Two sessions were
claim by Crewther and colleagues because the forces separated by 6 weeks. The three groups of participants
were less than 20% maximal and not supramaximal, performed the exercises using 70% of their 1 RM con-
as mistakenly reported by Crewther and colleagues. centric-only machine exercise, eccentric-only machine
Furthermore, Crewther and colleagues (2005) noted exercise, or plyometric jumps (concentric and eccentric
that ballistic training (described by them as throwing muscle actions). Creatine kinase concentration signifi-
and catching the resistance) may enhance the training cantly increased post-exercise, peaked at 24 hours, and
stimulus. They speculated that near maximal forces are remained elevated for 72 hours. The changes were not
required to elicit maximal strength gains. They did not significantly different among the groups (concentric,
cite any references to support their recommendation eccentric and plyometric) at any time (24, 48 and 72
for throwing and catching the resistance. hours post-exercise). Muscle soreness was significantly
Crewther and colleagues (2005) claimed that another lower in the concentric group compared with the other
benefit of supramaximal loading is the higher incidence two groups. Jamurtas and colleagues speculated that
of microscopic muscle injury, which provides an ideal the eccentric phase of the plyometric exercises may
stimulus for morphological adaptation to occur according have produced more microscopic damage to the muscle
to the protein degradation-synthesis response of muscle. fibers, as indicated by the greater degree of soreness.
However, the studies they cited (Nosaka & Newton 2002; Because of the reported tenderness around the muscu-
Jamurtas et al. 2000) did not measure or report micro- lotendinus junction, they hypothesized that damage to
scopic muscle injury. Nosaka and Newton reported the connective tissue may have contributed to the perceived
acute effects of performing 3 sets of 10 maximal eccen- soreness. They did not measure microscopic muscle
tric arm curl muscle actions in one limb compared with damage, nor did they speculate on the effect of muscle
3 sets of 10 submaximal (50% maximal isometric force damage as a stimulus for adaptation, as erroneously
at 90 degrees) eccentric muscle actions in the contralat- reported by Crewther and colleagues.
eral limb of eight previously untrained males. Plasma cre- Interestingly, four training studies compared con-
atine kinase concentration significantly increased after ventional concentric/eccentric training with concentric/
both sessions, with peak levels occurring 4–5 days post- accentuated-eccentric training (also known as nega-
exercise. These changes in creatine kinase were signifi- tive accentuated training). Brandenburg and Docherty
cantly greater following the session of maximal eccentric (2002) randomly assigned 23 young males to one of
loading compared with submaximal loading, and the dif- two training groups: 4 sets of ∼ 10 concentric/eccentric
ferences became greater after 3–5 days. The authors sug- repetitions to concentric failure with ∼ 75% of the con-
gested that the difference in load affected the recovery centric 1 RM, or 3 sets of ∼ 10 concentric/accentuated-
process several days after the exercise session, which was eccentric repetitions to concentric failure using ∼ 75%
significantly more than the changes immediately post- of the 1 RM for the concentric muscle actions and
exercise. Nosaka and Newton specifically noted: “… CK 110–120% of the concentric 1 RM for the eccentric mus-
[creatine kinase] activity may not be a quantitative re- cle actions. Both groups followed a 2-second concentric
flection of muscle damage” (p. 207). However, they did 2-second eccentric protocol for elbow flexion and elbow
advise against using maximal or near-maximal resistance extension exercises for 9 weeks. They reported a sig-
for eccentric muscle actions in potential non-compliant nificant increase in elbow flexor 1 RM (11% and 15%),
trainees, and recommended the use of submaximal re- elbow extensor 1 RM (9% and 24%), and specific tension
sistance and machines with eccentrically shaped cams (concentric 1 RM divided by the cross-sectional area)
(e.g., Nautilus machines) that vary the external torque. for the biceps (9% and 9%) and triceps (13% and 22%)
Contrary to the statement by Crewther and colleagues, in the traditional concentric/eccentric and concentric/
Nosaka and Newton did not measure microscopic mus- accentuated-eccentric groups, respectively. There was
cle damage. More importantly, they did not suggest that no significant difference between groups except for
longer and self-selected repetition durations, respec- (RM)—regardless of the number of repetitions, repetition
tively). Their data showed that there was a similar effort duration, or amount of resistance. However, Shimano
at the termination of each of the eight exercise protocols. and colleagues apparently did not recognize the impli-
According to the size principle, a similar number of cation of their results and claimed that a resistance
motor units were activated at the end of each exercise— load of at least 90% 1 RM should be used for optimal
regardless of the amount of resistance, number of rep- strength gains in previously untrained and resistance
etitions, or repetition duration. This important point was trained individuals. They cited no evidence to support
apparently missed by Hatfield and colleagues. that claim or their misapplication of the size principle.
Hatfield and colleagues (2006) stated in their
Discussion section that the longer repetition duration
would not allow one to train with an appropriate amount Minimal Support for Heavier-is-Better
of resistance, and that maximum or near maximum
force is required for optimal increases in muscular Although not cited by any of the aforementioned authors
strength and hypertrophy. In an attempt to support their who endorsed the heavier-is-better training philosophy,
conclusion, they cited four studies (Shoepe et al. 2003; there is one study by Campos and colleagues (2002) who
Siegel et al. 2002; Schlumberger et al. 2001; Sogaard reported some advantage to a lower repetition protocol.
et al. 1996). Schlumberger and colleagues compared They randomly assigned 32 previously untrained males
single-set and multiple-set protocols in females who (age, ∼ 22 years) to one of three training groups (4 sets
used similar amounts of resistance (6–9 RM). Shoepe and of 3–5 RM, 3 sets of 9–11 RM, or 2 sets of 20–28 RM)
colleagues compared functional properties of muscle or a control group. The three training groups performed
fibers in two groups of males (sedentary versus resist- the leg press, squat and knee extension exercises 2 days
ance trained). Siegel and colleagues simply reported the a week for the first 4 weeks and three times a week for
acute response (power output) to exercise with 30%, the next 4 weeks. Although the authors stated that they
40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80% and 90% 1 RM. Sogaard and selected three practical ranges of repetitions, 20–28 RM
colleagues reported motor unit recruitment patterns is not commonly employed in most resistance training
in six females during concentric and eccentric muscle protocols. Therefore, comparisons are justified only be-
actions of the elbow flexors with a 2 kg load. None of tween the 3–5 RM and 9–11 RM groups. The strength
these studies (Shoepe et al. 2003; Siegel et al. 2002; gain (1 RM) for the squat (∼ 61%) and leg press (∼ 100%)
Schlumberger et al. 2001; Sogaard et al. 1996) claimed or was significantly greater in the 3–5 RM group compared
even suggested that high forces are required for opti- with the 9–11 RM group (∼ 31% and ∼ 80%, squat and
mal strength gains. Nor did any of them support Hatfield leg press, respectively). There was no significant differ-
and colleagues’ (2006) apparently incorrect application ence between the groups for the gains in knee exten-
of the size principle. sion strength (∼ 67% and ∼ 56%, 3–5 RM and 9–11 RM
Hatfield and colleagues (2006) also concluded that groups, respectively). Exercise-induced fiber transforma-
the highest possible force was required to optimize tion (from Type IIB to IIA) was similar for both groups,
muscular performance and tissue adaptations. They and muscle hypertrophy of the three fiber types (Types
cited only one reference to support that claim, which I, IIA and IIB) significantly increased in both groups, with
they noted as reference number 32. However, because no significant difference between groups. The authors
they listed only 31 references, their statement remains did not speculate on why the heavier resistance (3–5 RM)
unsubstantiated. produced more favorable strength gains in the leg press
In another study, Shimano and colleagues (2006) and squat exercises and not in the knee extension
concluded that performing as many repetitions as pos- exercise, and their only comment regarding the simi-
sible in the free weight squat, bench press and arm lar hypertrophic responses in the 3–5 RM and 9–11 RM
curl exercises using 60%, 80% and 90% 1 RM resulted groups was that it was interesting. Campos and coll-
in similar levels of perceived exertion in previously un- eagues (2002) concluded: “It has often been accepted
trained males and resistance trained males. The practical that improved strength/power results from high inten-
application of these results and those of the aforemen- sity/low volume training, whereas low intensity/high
tioned study by Hatfield and colleagues (2006) is that volume training maximizes muscle hypertrophy. Based
the perceived effort and therefore the recruitment of on data from the present investigation, this may not be
available motor units is similar when a set of repe- entirely true. Indeed, data from the present investiga-
titions is continued to the point of maximal effort tion suggest low and intermediate RM training induces
Practical Application 6
4
The correct interpretation of the size principle and its
2
practical application should help dedicated trainees
understand what constitutes a proper stimulus for resist- 0
ance training and how to apply that stimulus. That is, No significant Significant
the size principle does not support the popular resistance difference difference
training recommendation to use a maximal or near Fig. Twenty resistance training studies reported no significant
maximal resistance. The size principle and interpolated difference in strength gains compared with only one study
twitch studies support the contention that if maximal that reported a significant difference as a result of training with
a heavier resistance.
motor unit activation is desired, a maximal or near
maximal effort at the end of a set of repetitions—
regardless of the amount of external resistance—will If the size principle was correctly applied, effective
elicit maximal motor unit activity. Effective resistance resistance training may appeal to a larger proportion
training does not require the use of a maximal or near of the population. This would include competitive and
maximal force to stimulate the available motor units recreational athletes as well as those in the general
and produce significant increases in muscular strength. population who perceive resistance exercise as the lift-
The preponderance of studies strongly suggest that ing of very heavy weights and therefore potentially
effective resistance training simply requires the selec- dangerous. Because some people may have a fear of
tion of a desired range of repetitions (e.g., 3–5, 6–9, injury—that need not exist—the heavier-is-better percep-
10–12 RM), which is based on a personal preference tion may actually be a deterrent to resistance training,
rather than a specific goal, and a progression of the which deprives those most in need of health-related
resistance to stay within the desired range of repetitions benefits. These potential health-related benefits include
(Carpinelli et al. 2004). Very high RMs (e.g., loads lighter the prevention of osteoporosis, falls, fractures and dis-
than 20 RM) or an extensive time under load (e.g., longer ability, changes in risk factors associated with cardio-
than 2–3 minutes) may involve mechanisms of fatigue vascular disease, some cancers, diabetes (improvements
that are not conducive to stimulate optimal increases in glucose tolerance and insulin resistance), enhanced
in muscular strength. Despite the plethora of opinions lipid profiles, elevated resting metabolic rate, decreased
in the resistance training literature, the specific mecha- resting blood pressure, reduced back pain and subse-
nisms of fatigue and exactly what constitutes an optimal quent disabilities, and greater functional ability (Winett
stimulus for strength gains are unknown. If a maximal— & Carpinelli 2001)—all in addition to muscular hypertro-
or near maximal—effort is applied at the end of a set of phy and strength gains.
repetitions, the evidence strongly suggests that the dif-
ferent external forces produced with different amounts
of resistance elicit similar outcomes. Acknowledgments
If the heavier-is-better training philosophy is truly
valid, as claimed by the majority of resistance training Special thanks to Sandee Jungblut, M.S., Arty Conliffe,
experts, the training studies would overwhelmingly B.A., Richard Winett, Ph.D., and Robert Otto, Ph.D. for
support that concept. In fact, the preponderance of resist- their critical conceptual and editorial feedback on the
ance studies reported no significant difference in strength preparation of this manuscript—and to Rocco Carpinelli
gains as a result of training with heavier loads (Figure). for his inspiration.
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