Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Pre-industrial technology:
The craft method of production was used in Europe prior to 1600 and is still in use in many
agrarian and underdeveloped countries. It is characterized by: intensive use of labor, unit
production, little division of function, and is demand driven. There is high variability in products
and procedures which are dependent on the craftsman's skills.
Craft based production methods - a small number of workers perform all tasks required
to convert materials to a finished form. Little standardization of output. Products are produced on
an individual or small batch basis, largely to customer order. Natural or slightly modified
materials are used. There is little use of power in the production process. Training of craftsmen is
by apprenticeship. Young people apprentice themselves to master craftsmen, exchanging their
services for a period of years to learn the trade.
Low productivity ratio - Low productivity per worker was tolerable because of low
labor cost. The agricultural productivity ratio, the total population divided by the number of
persons involved in food and raw materials extraction, in pre-industrial societies was
approximately 2:1. The majority of the population was rural. Fewer than 10% lived in urban
areas.
Control of product quality - Because products were not standardized, the craftsman
assured that each of his products would function as required by making adjustments to the
product before delivering it to the buyer. Individual modification or customization was the rule
and the process tolerated a wide range of individual difference in design and production
techniques. Indeed, it is just this product variation that make crafted items collectibles today.
Control of the product implies that all variances in production are corrected at once by a final
adjustment. Example: if a gunsmith makes a rifle that shoots a little to the left, he bends the
barrel a bit to the right until it shoots straight.
The decline of the craft system of production: The Black Death - The craft system
started its long, slow decline following the outbreak of bubonic plague in Europe in 1347. By the
time the "Black Death" had run its course, nearly 50% of the population of Europe had died, a
total of over 25 million. In some areas the death toll reached 70%. As a result of the plague, the
Church lost much of its influence (since priests died just like sinners), intellectualism flourished,
social unrest increased, and there were widespread labor shortages. Wages tripled within three
years and enterprises which depended upon a ready supply of cheap labor suffered. The serf
system of agriculture disappeared within a century as farms were consolidated and serfs became
"freemen". The wealth of the dead was inherited by the living and the demand for goods
increased.
The Proto-industrial factory: Power applied to production - The low productivity of the
craft system was unable to supply the demand for goods and the emerging merchant class began
to seek other forms of manufacture. The first approach was to reduce the labor intensiveness of
craftwork by the judicious application of power to the productive process. Water wheels and
windmills had been known since ancient times but their use was uneconomical given a large and
cheap labor supply. Powered workshops became more common toward the end of the 16th
century. Water wheels up to 30 ft. tall were used by mills in Germany in 1500. In order to use the
power of such a large wheel, a number of workers had to be gathered in the same location.
Further, only a limited number of streams could provide sufficient water flow on a reliable basis.
Start of specialization - Craft work was disassembled into those portions which could
conveniently make use of power in the production process and those which could not. Garment
making, for example, divided into fabric making, which could use power in the spinning and
weaving process, and the tailoring of clothing, largely a manual craft.
The 18th century factory - About the time of the American Revolution, the factory concept had
evolved to incorporate the steam engine and more sophisticated production technology.
Craftwork was fragmented into still smaller units which could be adequately performed on the
machines of the time. The labor component was high but the skill level was reduced to the point
that the apprenticeship system was no longer necessary.
Main theme of standardization - Every unit of production is identical. The tolerance for human
and manufacturing errors is reduced to the point where the total accumulation of error of all parts
of a product is lower than the maximum allowable error of the completed product. Minimization
of manufacturing errors requires total control of the manufacturing process. Because the final
product is assembled of many components, acceptable quality is achieved by:
Modern factory systems - The convergence of the two trends in manufacture, application of
power to the production process and the standardized parts concept, resulted in the modern
factory system. The system is highly efficient in multiplying human labor by the use of power
and minimizing handwork by the use of interchangeable parts. It provides high quality, mass
produced products at a reasonable cost.
Consequences of the factory system - Most of the concerns of industrial organizations arise
from the technology of the 19th century factory system. The power sources of the time were
large and indivisible. It is not practical to use individual steam engines or water wheels at each
machine. For greatest efficiency, hundreds of workers had to be gathered under one roof to use
the output of a large stationary steam engine. The factory system required the coordination of the
efforts of large numbers of workers performing standardized tasks while keeping individual
variation as small as possible. In essence, the worker became an adjunct to a machine, a cog in
the production process. Efficiencies of production permitted lowering prices, and, in the 20th.
century, decreasing the length of the work day. Both factors served to increase demand and
hastened the conversion to the factory system.
Evolution of the factory system - The factory system is still evolving to accommodate
changes in production technology, legislation, and the physical and social environment. These
changes include:
Divisibility of power sources - the use of small electric motors and gasoline engines
have permitted power sources to be attached directly to machines located in remote areas. There
is no longer a mechanical need to house large numbers of workers in the same area. Workers
may be placed where needed to enhance work flow or distribution. This distribution of workers
makes direct supervision more difficult.
Increased worker expectations - have changed with regard to the role that work fills in
life. In the more affluent countries, quality of working life (QWL) has become an important
consideration. With the internationalization of business, cultural differences in worker values and
expectations have a considerable influence on personnel management decisions.
Short product life cycles - forced innovation creates short product life cycles, requiring
rapid task reassignment and frequent technology changes. The estimated half life of an industrial
skill has dropped from 30 years in 1800 to 10 years in 1900 to about 3 years today, with obvious
implications for frequent retraining, career development, education, personnel selection.
Success of the factory system -The factory system survives because it is the most efficient
method of multiplying human production of goods and services yet devised. In the United States,
only 13% of the population provides all the raw materials and manufactured goods required by
the remainder of the population. Food production requires 2% of the working population, an
agricultural productivity ratio of 50:1. Indeed, the productivity of the factory system is so high
that underemployment is a chronic problem of many developed countries, requiring socially
approved means to increase consumption (advertizing, built in obsolescence, fashion); decrease
the potential labor force (shortened work hours, lengthened vacations, elimination of child labor,
mandatory educational requirements, social exclusion of women, etc.); and underutilize
productive capacity (govt. imposition of environmental and safety considerations, restriction of
competitive activities, etc.).
The factory as a model - Because of the success of the factory system, its basic tenets,
specialization of job function and the use of technology to multiply human labor, spread to other
areas of endeavor, including such diverse fields as agriculture, education and medicine. The
factory system can be considered a model for the workplace in the Western world. Business
offices are "paperwork" factories; schools, "educational" factories; hospitals, "patient care"
factories, etc.
Work in craft based production - Considered in the light of 20th century organizational
psychology, craft systems met many of current criteria for job satisfaction.
1. The work itself was mentally challenging providing satisfaction from successful task
completion.
2. The work permitted individual variation and freedom of expression.
3. Craftsmen could work at their own pace,
financial rewards largely determined by individual effort.
4. Success in craft provided a measure of self esteem.
5. Associations of craftsmen (in some countries) provided a degree of social and economic
support which modern labor unions have only begun to approximate.
Work in the factory system - From the viewpoint of the worker, factory productive efficiency
has been gained by a sacrifice in human values. The factory system implies:
1. Restricted behavior (rules, standardized procedures) approximating forced regression to
a childlike form of behavior.
2. Restricted opportunity for individual expression. Reduction of individual variability requires
performance within narrow range of tolerance.
3. Boredom caused by machine paced work of unvarying nature.
4. Substantial dissociation of reward from effort.
5. Little sense of accomplishment or whole task completion.
6. Success achieved by rising in hierarchy, since skill improvements are limited by job
structure.
7. Social relationships not facilitated by work activity.
I/O Psychology and the factory system - Many of the efforts of psychologists have been
directed to facilitating worker adjustment to the demands of a factory system shaped by 19th
century technology. Most textbooks published prior to 1990 reflect these concerns.
1. Jobs are studied through work analysis procedures to design optimum procedures
which minimize human variation.
2. Selection techniques are refined so workers
can be chosen who provide maximum output
with minimum supervision.
3. Human motivation is studied to facilitate the
control of behavior or to provide job satisfaction in an inherently frustrating
environment.
4. Leadership is studied to specify individuals
who can control workers in diverse situations.
5. Organizations are designed to maximize communication and control.
6. Workers are evaluated to see if they meet
the criteria imposed by the system.
7. Equipment and work procedures are engineered to facilitate productivity with minimum
involvement of human capabilities.
8. Finally clinical psychologists in the industrial setting, deal with workers unable to make an
adjustment to job stress.
2. PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY - LOGIC AND RATIONALE
Personnel Psychology uses the techniques of the behavioral sciences to staff an organization
with trained, qualified workers.
Benefits to the organization are based on the recognition that, for most jobs, the
variation in individual work related performance is likely to be greater than the range in
compensation, thus it is possible to increase productivity or work quality without incurring
corresponding increases in cost. Since labor costs are the dominant cost of doing business in all
but a few endeavors, suitably staffing an organization may be the single most beneficial step
taken by management in increasing profitability or organizational effectiveness. This situation is
most likely to occur where worker output can vary (sales, management, non-production line
factory work, skilled labor, professions, etc.) but employment costs (benefits, overhead,
investment, etc.) are relatively fixed.
Benefits to the individual worker are based on the assumption that the quality of both
personal and work life are likely to be better if the physical, intellectual and emotional demands
of work are suited to the capabilities and aspirations of the worker.
Staffing the personnel system is a step by step process of identifying organizational needs
for personnel in specific jobs, analyzing characteristics of those jobs that lend themselves to the
development of predictors, specification of charactistics of suitable job applicants, assessment
of job relevant characteristics of candidates, selection of candidates who meet criteria and
subsequent training of successful candidates (where necessary) in organizationally specific
tasks.
Performance differences between workers are caused by the interaction of three sets of
variables:
1. Individual variables - dependent on worker:
a. Intrinsic characteristics - physical abilities, intelligence, personality, age, sex.
b. Background - specific training, prior work experience, education.
c. Motivation - willingness to perform for job relevant incentives.
2. Situational variables - dependent on specific work situation:
a. Physical work conditions - environment, lighting, temperature, hours, shift work.
b. Equipment - age, speed, compatibility with worker skills, automaticity, etc.
c. Procedures - specific work procedures, scope of assignment, suitability for equipment, etc.
3. Organizational and social variables - dependent on organization and society:
a. Supervisory style - authoritarian to participative, span of control, worker or task oriented.
b. Incentives - form of "implicit" bargain; economic, social, status incentives.
c. Social environment - company "culture", unionization, work grouping.
d. Culture - work values, acceptance of authority, individual vs. group, work vs. family, etc.
Measurement criteria. Quantification of performance differences is desirable to match
individual workers with jobs requiring various patterns of skills and personal attributes.
Measurement requires comparison of performance with a standard or criterion. Several
categories of job related behavior are used as criteria. These include:
1. Performance criteria - where job related behavior can be directly measured. (sales, units
produced, speed of performance, quality of output, etc.).
2. Cost criteria - these criteria refer to the expense incurred in providing a worker at a given
position and are used when performance can not be directly measured. They include:
a. Tenure - turnover, time in grade, training and replacement cost, etc.
b. Attendance - absences, lateness, cost of substitutes, etc.
c. Accidents and health costs – number and cost of accidents, illnesses, insurance.
d. Disciplinary costs - altercations, fights, worker-mgt. conflict, grievances.
3. Physiological criteria - used in situations where considerable work stress occurs such as
police, air traffic control, emergency medical, etc. Include: stress level, heart rate, anxiety tests.
4. Status criteria - prior work related accomplishments such as degrees, promotions, salary,
"credentials", etc.
5. Subjective criteria - ratings of performance and other attributes by knowledgeable persons.
Qualification of criteria. While almost anything can be used as a standard against which to
measure performance, useful (and legal) criteria share three characteristics. These are:
1. Relevance. The criterion must be relevant to the particular job for which a potential worker is
being evaluated. Thus a measure of typing skill is suitable for a position as typist. Beauty, sex,
and age are not relevant criteria.
2. Freedom from contamination. Differences in measured performance must be due only to
variation in the attribute being evaluated. If typing speed is used as a criterion of typing
performance, differences in test score should be due only to the skill of the typist, not to
differences in typewriters, lighting levels, or complexity of test materials.
3. Reliability. The criterion should be stable. Yardsticks should not be made of rubber. Identical
performance on successive administrations should result in (nearly) identical scores.
Definitions: Any action performed by a worker in the course of his/her work is a task. All of
the tasks performed by a single worker define the worker's position. There are as many positions
in an organization as there are workers. All similar positions constitute a job, which is usually
described by a single job title. A group of related jobs progressing from entry level through
senior level and occupied by individuals during the course of their employment is a career.
Division of work into JOBS - An individual entrepreneur performs all of the tasks
necessary to carry out the functions of a business. As the business grows and others are hired, the
work must be divided into specific jobs. Several approaches to job design are used. Real
organizations employ a mix of strategies.
Job design by TOP DOWN satisfaction - Bases work allocation on the premise that
organizations are run to suit the needs of their dominant members. Top members keep work
functions which give them maximum satisfaction, pass down less satisfying tasks to lower
members. The result is that lowest members have the least satisfying jobs. This approach is
usually followed during the formative years of most organizations when activities overlap and
work is ill defined, and at the upper levels of mature organizations.
Efficiency as a criterion of job design - Modern industrial practice uses efficiency as the
primary criterion of job design. Productivity or man hours of input for each unit of output is used
as the yardstick. There are several objections to using efficiency (productivity) as the sole job
design adequacy criterion. These include:
1. Productivity is a contaminated criterion - it may well depend as much on capital
investment per position or on work procedures as on worker performance.
2. Workers protest dehumanizing job designs passively by lowering output or actively
by labor unrest or sabotage. Turnover is higher. Dissatisfied workers increase overall costs to the
organization, either to cope with lower productivity or to increase hiring and replacement costs.
Job satisfaction criterion of job design -The HUMAN RELATIONS movement offered job
satisfaction as an alternate criterion, operating under the assumption that satisfaction correlates
with productivity. Unfortunately research has failed to demonstrate a significant correlation
between the two, other than in the reduction of turnover.
Combined efficiency-satisfaction criteria - The optimal job design would permit employees to
gain important personal satisfactions in direct proportion to the degree of productive, efficient
work. (This is, in effect, a return to the craftwork approach.) Most modern theorists have adopted
this conjoint criterion. The consensus of current theory is that a job must be structured to:
1. Allow a worker to feel personally responsible for a meaningful portion of his/her work.
2. Provide outcomes which are intrinsically meaningful or otherwise experienced as
worthwhile to the individual.
3. Provide feedback about what is accomplished.
4. JOB ANALYSIS AND THE JOB DESCRIPTION
Job analysis is the collective name for the techniques by which existing jobs are studied to
derive a job description. Techniques include:
1. Observation techniques - ranging from unstructured observation, through checklist aided
observation, to formalized time and motion analysis. Observation is essentially looking at work
being performed.
2. Interrogation techniques - ranging from unstructured interviews, through structured
interview, to position analysis questionnaires. Interrogation involves asking how the job is
performed.
3. Documentation techniques - study of old job descriptions, archival material, personnel
records, equipment manuals, Dictionary of Occupational Titles, job descriptions of other
companies, etc. Documentation techniques involve reading information about the job.
Job descriptions are documents that contain information about the job sufficient to specify the
requirements for personnel to fill that job. The most important types of information are tasks,
duties, skills, knowledge and abilities. Job descriptions are used for organizational decision
making, personnel actions including hiring and promotion, wage and salary determination,
equipment and work design, and training. Most job descriptions include:
1. The job title and location within the organizational hierarchal structure, including
relationships to other jobs.
2. An exact description of the work. Scope of duties and responsibilities. Explicit and implicit
requirements.
3. Specific knowledge, skills, and experience required of the job holder.
4. Personal characteristics required (initiative, alertness, perceptual abilities, physical abilities,
etc.)
5. Standards of productivity and performance required. Methods of evaluation.
6. Working conditions, including, equipment, techniques, environment, etc.
7. How the position is attained, including selection and training procedures, prior job
requirements, etc.
5. EMPLOYMENT AND THE LAW
Assumptions: The U.S. government has always operated under two, often conflicting,
philosophies in the regulation of employment. The first of these, equality under the law,
attempts to assure equal opportunity for all citizens in hiring, promotion and pay. Examples are:
civil rights and fair employment laws, equal pay laws. The second, preferential treatment,
attempts to satisfy social objectives by treating selected groups differentially. Examples are:
veteran's priorities in employment and education, affirmative action programs. Conflict occurs
when preferential treatment and employment equality concerns converge in a personnel action.
The issue is generally resolved in the courts. Example: U. Calif. Regents vs. Bakke (1978)
Personnel ratings: Ratings are (subjective) assessments of job relevant characteristics made
for ranking individuals prior to taking some personnel action. They are judgments of how much
of a particular characteristic or trait the person being rated possesses. To be effective, ratings
must be reliable and valid. Reliability implies that the rating must be repeatable. Successive
ratings of the same individual should give similar scores. Independent ratings of a given
individual by several raters should also agree. Validity implies that the ratings reflect the "true"
variable being rated. The rating and an independent assessment of the actual job relevant
characteristic or performance should agree.
Rating systems: Several types of rating systems are used to facilitate making judgments and
increase reliability. These include:
1. Rating scales - require assessment of characteristic or trait on a numerical or multiple
step scale. Example: female beauty on a 10 point scale; ice skating skill on a 6 point scale, etc.
Best when there are accepted standards.
2. Personnel comparison systems - one individual is compared with another individual
or group of individuals.
a. Rank order - group of individuals are ranked in terms of rated trait or
characteristic. This is a good, quick system for groups of 10 or fewer, but rankings are
reliable only for first and last few ratees.
b. Paired comparison - each individual is compared with one other, the best is
selected, the bests of adjacent pairs are compared, and so on. In this way a ranking can be
derived. The paired comparison approach is extremely reliable but is very time
consuming for large numbers of personnel since the number of comparisons grows
exponentially. Comparisons = N(N-1)/2. i.e. 45 comparisons for 10 ratees, 190
comparisons for 20 ratees.
c. Forced distribution - ratees are allocated into fixed groups according to a
predetermined system. In college this is called "grading on a curve". In a large class, for
example, 10% are given a grade of A, 20% are given B, 40% get C, 20% receive D, and
10% get F. Judgments are grouped in broad categories.
Distortion and error in ratings: All personnel judgments are subject to error resulting from
the rater's inability to be perfectly objective. The halo effect results from a rater's tendency to be
overly influenced by one characteristic of a ratee, and letting the judgment on that characteristic
sway the judgment on all other characteristics. Example: a pretty candidate for a job as secretary,
is judged less critically on job relevant characteristics than less pretty candidates.
Stereotyping is exhibited when the rater lets one characteristic of an entire group
influence judgments of job relevant behaviors of any member of that group. Example: if a rater
feels that women (as a group) make poor executives, then any female candidate for an executive
position will be rated poorer than a man of equal qualifications. Stereotyping is illegal if the
judgment is based on any prohibited criterion, but pervasive nevertheless.
The Contrast effect is the tendency of the rater to compare each individual with the one who
came before. If the first candidate is good, the present candidate will seem poorer by comparison,
and viceversa.
Constant error is the tendency of the rater to concentrate ratings on one end or the other
of a scale, i.e. lenient or strict.
Range restriction is the tendency to use only the central part of a scale, excluding high
or low ratings. Both of these numerical errors can be nullified by normalizing rater's scores.
Control of rater bias is best handled by careful construction of rating scales and training of raters.
7. PERSONNEL TESTS
Personnel tests - A test is a sample of behavior, observed under controlled conditions, used
to predict future behavior. The use of tests in personnel selection assumes behavioral
constancy; that is, that behavior remains relatively constant over time. In personnel work, tests
are used to measure psychomotor abilities (physical and perceptual characteristics), job specific
abilities (skills such as driving, typing, etc.), cognitive abilities (mental skills and intelligence),
personality, and interests (vocational preferences).
Test reliability - reliability is measured by the correlation of one test score with a second
test score. Several types are:
1. Stability: same group, different times. Example: typing test score today, typing
test score tomorrow, same person.
2. Equivalence: different groups (same general population), same time. Example:
test score, two Baruch psych. classes.
3. Internal consistency: all parts of the test should be consistent. Example: first
half should correlate with second half.
Test validity - test scores should correlate with independent determinations of the
characteristic to be measured. Several types are:
1. Content validity: measures agreed upon representative sample of behavior
which defines content area. Experts define sample of job behavior. Examples: skills
measured in driving test; job sample test; actor's audition.
2. Construct validity: attributes which underlie desired behavior. Examples:
intelligence and SAT scores underlie college success; physical strength and endurance
underlie success as a sanitation worker.
3. Criterion related validity: test scores are correlated with the actual
performance of workers on the job.Criterion related validations of selection tests hold up
best in court tests.
a. Predictive validity - an applicant sample is tested, hired without
reference to the test, test scores correlated with job performance of the same
sample at a later date.
b. Concurrent validity - presently employed sample tested, test scores
correlated with present job ratings.
Relationship of reliability and validity- A test can never have a higher validity than its
reliability since it can never have a higher correlation with any other measure than with itself!
Tests with validities lower than 0.5 have low predictive efficiency and should be combined with
other measures in a selection battery. Tests with validities lower than 0.2 probably should not be
used in personnel selection at all.
Personal attributes measured - tests for the following attributes are listed in declining
order of reliability and validity:
1. Physical characteristics, performance - size, speed, perceptual ability,
strength. Examples: eye test, running speed.
2. Skills and job related performance - Examples: typing test, driving test.
3. Achievement test - measures skill learned after fixed period of exposure to
content material. Example: school tests.
4. Aptitude test - uses aptitude test score in given area to predict future
performance in same area. Example: use of school grades to predict college performance.
Note - achievement and aptitude tests are similar. The prediction is different. Example:
SAT
5. Intelligence test - an intelligence test is a generalized aptitude test used to
predict overall intellectual performance.
6. Interest test - a measure of vocational likes and dislikes, often used to predict
satisfaction with a vocation.
7. Personality test - used to predict patterns of response to life situations. Since
daily mood swings alter responses on personality tests, test reliability tends to below.
This may be due to poor test design and/or to subject variability.
8. TYPES OF TESTS USED IN SELECTION
Cognitive abilities - tests of cognitive abilities measure one or more of the following mental
abilities:
1. Thinking flexibility and speed.
2. Fluency or variety of thinking.
3. Inductive reasoning.
4. Associative (rote) memory.
5. Memory span.
6. Number facility.
7. Perceptual speed.
8. Deductive reasoning.
9. Spatial orientation and visualization.
10. Verbal comprehension.
12. Visual memory.
General validity of cognitive tests - Cognitive tests are best at predicting ability to learn and
perform jobs requiring moderate to high levels of mental functioning. On average such tests have
validity coefficients of 0.40 with learning criteria and validities of 0.30 with job proficiency
criteria. Thus they are useful, but not sufficient, instruments for selection and should be
combined with other measures in a test battery. The Differential Aptitude Test and the Otis
Test of Mental Ability are group administered examples of cognitive tests. Reliable individually
administered intelligence tests such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) are
sometimes used in executive selection but are costly for general use.
Mechanical ability tests - Mechanical ability tests take two forms. The first is a cognitive
abilities test in which the test content is restricted to mechanical and physical science
information. Such mechanical comprehension tests are useful for selecting personnel whose
interests and knowledge lean toward things mechanical. The Bennett Test of Mechanical
Comprehension is typical of this group. The second form of mechanical ability test requires the
demonstration of actual skill in manipulation, assembly, or disassembly of standardized objects.
It is a generalized work sample test. The validity of both types of test average 0.35 for learning
mechanical skills and 0.20 for predicting job proficiency.
Psychomotor and physical abilities tests - Psychomotor and physical abilities tests measure the
following:
1. Reaction time
2. Movement speed and precision
3. Limb coordination and flexibility
4. Static and explosive strength
5. Manual dexterity and steadiness
6. Endurance and stamina
7. Balance
The validity of physical and psychomotor tests is highest for simple tasks which utilize these
abilities in a nearly "pure" form. These skills often comprise a portion of the underlying abilities
hypothesized in construct validation approach to the development of selection tests. Typical tests
are the Purdue Pegboard and the Stromberg Dexterity Test.
Perceptual tests - Visual and auditory abilities are critical to many jobs. Tests in these areas are
used both as absolute criteria and as performance predictors. Specific visual abilities tested
include acuity, color discrimination, and depth perception. Auditory tests include monaural and
binaural hearing loss and frequency range. Typical of this group are the Snellen Visual Acuity
Test and the Ortho-Rater Visual Test.
Job specific tests - Work sample tests and job specific tests examine knowledge and abilities
used on the job by requesting the applicant to perform a portion of the job under standardized
conditions. Driving, typing, and lifeguard tests fall in this category. So too do qualification tests
for pilot's licenses and in basket tests for executives. Job specific tests have a relatively high
validity but are limited to areas where job relevant behaviors can be easily sampled.
Personality tests - Personality tests used in business are primarily questionnaires which ask the
individual to identify the behavior most typical of his/her response in a given situation.
Assuming that the respondent is not trying to deceive, the principle of behavioral consistency
suggests that a similar behavioral pattern will be exhibited in the future. A variety of behavioral
models have been proposed, but most personality tests attempt to predict dominance, aggression,
compliance, social consideration, impulsiveness, persistence, etc. Typical group administered
personality tests include the Edwards Personality Preference Schedule (EPPS) and the
California Psychological Inventory (CPI). The validity of personality tests is low for most jobs
except those where social interaction is critical, i.e. salespersons. Clinical personality tests such
as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) and projective tests such as the
Rorschach Ink Blot and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) are used on occasion but
have very low validity. The legality of non-job relevant questions on personality tests is currently
under review by the U.S. Supreme Court.
Interest Inventories - Interest inventories request the person being tested to indicate the strength
of interest or liking for job related activities, hobbies, recreations, situations, etc. Patterns of
interest exhibited by successful job incumbents are then matched against the pattern elicited by
the testee. The assumption is that individuals will like (and be satisfied with) jobs where their
interest pattern matches that of successful persons already in the job. Interest tests are useful for
predicting tenure and turnover. Since skill or ability is not measured, no prediction can be made
of job success. Typical interest inventories are the Strong- Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII)
and the Kuder Preference Test.
Faking of tests - Test faking is more likely in employment situations, where there is a strong
motivation to get the job, than in clinical situations. Since every candidate tries to appear as good
as possible, the effect of faking can be minimized by developing scoring norms specifically for
the job situation, rather than using clinical or national test norms. Some tests include faking
scores which identify typical response patterns of fakers. In a sense, the successful faker is
demonstrating a good knowledge of the behavioral characteristics required for a job. If he/she
can play the same role after employment, chances for success are good. If you can fake sincerity,
you've got it made.
9. BIOGRAPHICAL DATA
Biographical data - Biographical data (biodata) is personal, background, educational, and
occupational information about candidates secured from application forms or Biographical
Information Blanks (BIB). Additional sources of biodata are interviews, references, educational
transcripts, police and military records, and credit checks. An extensive survey of the literature
shows that biodata and tests are the two best predictors of job performance. Biographical
data from whatever source are subject to the same legal restrictions as other selection criteria.
The Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection prohibit discrimination on grounds of race,
color, religion, sex, age, or national origin. While it may be legal to collect personal information,
it is illegal to use this information for selection.
Application forms and BIBs - The application form requests factual personnel data (name,
telephone number, address), educational data (schools attended, graduation dates, courses taken,
degrees), employment data (past employers, positions held, salary, duties), miscellaneous job
related data (hobbies, languages, skills not shown elsewhere), and references (job references,
personal references, academic references). The BIB may ask for similar data but usually requests
additional detail. Both forms can be "scored" in a manner similar a test and items or groups of
items can be validated as predictors using criterion validation techniques. If a group of responses,
often called a dimension, correlates with job success, than that group can be used as a predictor.
Accuracy - Biodata can be faked. Experts differ on how much outright lying occurs since, if the
applicant is good at it, it never will be detected. Most applicants are truthful on easily verifiable
information, such as last employer or schools attended; however, inaccuracies occur on items
hard to verify. Salaries are often inflated, bonuses and extra compensation being included in base
pay. Job titles are inflated as well. Janitors become "maintenance engineers". The hardest errors
to detect are errors of omission. Jobs where the employee would not receive a favorable
recommendation vanish from the work history. The same is true for periods of unemployment,
jail terms, etc. A fair estimate is that 75% of all applications contain some factual errors.
The interview is not a conversation - Both parties try to appear as desirable as possible while
trying to elicit information from the other that the other does not want to reveal. The interviewer
tries to ascertain the real "persona" of the candidate, the candidate's true goals, and why the
candidate left the last job. In turn the candidate tries to persuade the interviewer to reveal why
the job is vacant, what the real advancement potential of a new employee is, the "climate" of the
organization, and the true economic facts surrounding salary negotiations.
Interview format and process - Interviews can be entirely unstructured: "Tell me about
yourself."
Semistructured: "Let's talk about what you learned on you past job." Structured: "Please
answer the following questions . . . " The more structured the interview, the higher the interrater
reliability. On the other hand, a highly structured interview reveals little that could not be learned
at lower cost through a well designed application blank. The weighting given to information
elicited in an interview is time dependent. Information presented early tends to be weighed more
heavily and influence the perception of later information. It is best to present favorable
information early. Typically, the interviewer judges a candidate based on the early information,
perhaps during the first 5 or 10 minutes.
Applicant variables - Age, sex, race, attractiveness affect favorableness of the interview
outcome, although most interviewers base much of their rating on the perceived competence of
the candidate. Verbal and communications skills are probably the dominating applicant variable
in determining outcome.
Situational variables - The most significant situational variable is the contrast effect.
Applicants tend to be judges in comparison to the one who came before. If a good candidate
preceded the current candidate, the current candidate is judged poorer in comparison and vice
versa. Candidates seen early in the morning or very late in the day also tend to be judged poorer.
There are reports of a "Monday -Friday" effect which works against candidates seen on those
days.
Interviewer variables - Many interviewers have stereotypes of "ideal" candidates that they use
as their standard in judging actual candidates. If a real candidate possesses characteristics similar
to that of the stereotype, he/she fares better. Interviewer set implies that an interviewer tends to
have a disposition to evaluate all candidates with a similar bias, either seeking negative
information, or seeking positive information.
Progress of learning - Generally most learning occurs during the earliest trials. Less and less is
learned in succeeding trials or training sessions. After a long period of training it tales many
hours of practice for marginal improvements in performance. In learning a sport, golf or tennis,
for example, an individual can learn to play a passable game in a dozen or so sessions. To play
well takes several years. To play at the professional level takes a lifetime of dedication.
Individuals rarely show a smooth relationship between proficiency and trials. In learning a
complex task, there occur periods when no apparent improvement occurs. These plateaus last
until there is some reorganization of the individual's approach to the problem. The implication of
the non-linear relationship between learning time and proficiency is that jobs and prodedures
should be designed to require levels of skill obtainable early in the course of learning. (i.e. a 75%
skill level may be obtainable in half the time of a 90% skill level.)
Personnel training - In business training is given in one or more of the following categories:
Orientation training - information about general company policies, activities, and factors
extrinsic to the job. Serves to socialize new employee within context of the company and to
relieve initial anxieties.
Task (or job) training - sometimes called skills training, serves to convey knowledge of job
related skills. Task training also upgrades skills when new equipment or procedures are
introduced.
Attitude training - serves to influence employee attitudes with regard to company or task.
Location of training - where training takes place is largely determined by the number of people
to be trained and the risks, both economic and physical, of inserting semi-trained personnel into
the work flow. Training can take place:
On the job (OJT) - training that occurs while the individual is performing job tasks. Training is
usually provided by a co-worker or direct supervisor. It is efficient if small numbers are to be
trained and the semi-trained worker does not pose and undue risk to himself or others. OJT has a
negligible start-up cost but is costly if large numbers are to be trained because of the loss in
productivity of the trainer and the low productivity of the trainee.
Off the job - training which occurs in an off line situation, generally in a formalized or school
setting. Designated trainers (teachers) train new workers using specialized training materials.
May be used for all forms of training including management development. Off the job training
has a high start-up cost but becomes efficient when large numbers are to be trained. The off the
job training location may be outside the control of the organization (i.e. colleges).
Vestibule training - is an archaic name for off line training done in a situation which simulates
and gradually leads into on line work. It is usually employed when inserting a semi-trained
worker into the work situation would entail an economic or practical risk by slowing down
production or exposing other workers to danger. The "vestibule" mimics the work situation but
work is performed at a slower pace in a more regulated manner. Vestibule training is related to
simulation, with the difference that the vestibule trained worker is doing real work while
simulation mimics work.
Rational need theories - are based primarily on the classical philosophy of Hedonism, rational
need theories suggest that the mainspring of human activity is a self interested desire to seek
comfort and pleasure and avoid discomfort and pain. The search for satisfaction arises out of
conscious purpose. It is assumed that man is a rational being who knows what he wants and is
responsible for his actions. The concept of economic man (man works to maximize wages and
avoid getting fired) is at the base of almost all motivationally oriented mechanisms (wage
policies, advancement policies, etc.) in the business world. The theory is attractive to business
because it prescribes a single approach to motivation, the greater the economic reward, the
greater the effort. The major liability of the theory is the evidence that man does not always act
to maximize economic reward. Economic incentives appear to have a short term effect on
influencing effort. Regardless of theoretical merit, this is the approach to motivation
overwhelmingly adopted in practice!
Emotional or instinctive theories - suggest that behavior stems from inborn tendencies not
always under the control of the individual. Man may not understand the causes of behavior.
Instincts include such factors as search for security, sex, survival, and have been expanded to
include emotional needs as well. The theory assumes that behavior is directed by unconscious
drives manifested in terms of emotional promptings to action. The concept of emotional man
assumes that man can be motivated by offering a social environment which satisfies needs for
"security", "love", "belongingness", etc. The basic problem in the use of these theories in
business is the cataloging of social and instinctive needs and the manipulation of the work
situation to maximize the worker's emotional return. The practical manifestation of the theory are
social programs and benefits packages aimed at security, human relations, etc. Many
management policies such as employee counseling, participative management, etc. are
emotionally directed. The main liability of this approach is the inability to determine
unconscious needs and provide suitable means of satisfying those needs. In addition,
management tends to single out those emotional areas most convenient to satisfy rather than
those relevant to deep seated needs. It is more likely to provide a health insurance program or
sponsor a company picnic than permit worker participation in company planning or control of
work activities. Often deficits in emotional satisfaction are paid for by higher economic rewards
(combining two theories).
Motivational hierarchy theories - assume that both physical and emotional needs are
important in motivating behavior. Needs can be ranked on a scale and the most important needs
must be satisfied before the others become influential. The individual must satisfy physical needs
before social needs become important, social needs before egoistic needs become important.
Needs may act in concert, any given behavior may result from the interaction of several needs.
The most well known of the hierarchy theories was proposed by Maslow. He suggested that
needs are ranked in order with physiological needs being the most basic, followed by safety,
social, esteem, and self actualization needs. Physical and safety needs require constant external
satisfaction and relate to economic or hedonistic theories of motivation. Social and egoistic needs
tend to be self satisfying and are related to emotional need theories. Lower levels of need must
be satisfied before higher levels become operative. The basic strategy of employing this theory is
to find the need level relevant to the individual and attempt to develop a reward package to
satisfy those needs, allowing for change as lower level needs are replaced by higher level needs
over time. An alternative theory developed by Alderfer combines Maslow's 5 levels of need into
three groups. These are existence needs (physical, safety), relatedness needs (social, and some
esteem), and growth needs (esteem, self actualization). This has come to be known as the ERG
theory.
Two-factor motivational need theories - assume that the factors producing job satisfaction and
motivation are separate and distinct from those producing job dissatisfaction. The opposite of job
satisfaction is not dissatisfaction but is simply no job satisfaction. Individuals are motivated on
the job by those factors which satisfy their egoistic and individualistic needs (achievement,
recognition, responsibility, advancement, etc.). They are dissatisfied by factors which fail to
satisfy social and security needs (company policy, salary, work conditions, relations with
supervisors, etc.). Decreasing the dissatisfyers does not produce satisfaction, merely an absence
of dissatisfaction. Satisfaction can be produced by restructuring the job to permit the worker to
exercise greater responsibility, provide more opportunity for recognition and advancement, and
provide opportunity for growth and learning. The most well known proponent of two-factor
theory is Herzberg. It is a theory beloved by management practitioners because of its
prescriptive nature. It tells a manager exactly what to do in a given situation. Although it may
not always work, it relieves the anxiety of indecision.
Equity theory - as proposed by Adams, assumes that outcome and input in a work situation
should be equitable. If an individual believes that he/ she is appropriately compensated for the
effort expended in a job, then the situation is equitable. If the person feels underpayed, a state of
dissatisfaction occurs and the individual attempts to restore balance by improving the
outcome/input ratio, either by trying to increase compensation or by reducing effort. If the person
feels overpayed, the dissatisfaction is resolved by bringing effort into accord with pay or
changing the belief to justify the pay.
Dimensions of job satisfaction - Locke classified various events or conditions (work and work
related situations) and agents (people) that are considered relevant to job satisfaction. Workers
develop attitudes about these aspects of the job.
Events or conditions:
1.Work - nature of the work itself, its intrinsic interest, opportunity for learning, difficulty,
amount, chances for success, control over work flow, etc.
2. Rewards - pay, promotion, recognition.
3. Context of work - working conditions including hours, equipment, environment, quality of
work space, location; benefits, pensions, insurance, vacations, etc.
Agents:
1. Self - values, skills, abilities.
2. Others in company - supervisors style and influence, technical skills, administrative skills;
coworkers competence, friendliness, helpfulness, technical skill, etc.
3. Others outside company - customers; family members; others.
Evaluation of job related attitudes - The composite attitude of job satisfaction is formed by
evaluating individual attitudes about job dimensions. A variety of approaches to the evaluation
process have been suggested. It is likely that any or all of them can be used. These are:
Comparison processes - The individual compares his/her view of each dimension with that of
other individuals on similar jobs. Pay, for example, is evaluated in comparison to how much
someone else makes. Thus a ditch digger who makes $10 per hour is satisfied if the digger in the
next ditch makes only $8 per hour, while a baseball player who makes three million a year is
dissatisfied if another player with equivalent statistics makes four million.
Instrumentality theory - The individual judges each aspect of the job by how well it leads to
valued outcomes. Thus if a job provides the opportunity for advancement it is considered good,
regardless of how bad the conditions are in reality. The medical intern working 80 hour weeks
values his/her position because it leads to a desirable life style as a high earning specialist.
Conversely the worker in a dead end position may be dissatisfied in spite of good conditions.
Social influence - The attitudes of others, either co-workers, family or friends influence the
judgment of the job. If others are impressed, envious, etc. a job is likely to be judged desirable.
There is a fairly stable popular opinion about the social influence and prestige of various jobs
(Supreme Court Justice at the top, garbage man near the bottom) that is only roughly related to
pay and working conditions. As an example, most corporate lawyers have an income many times
that of a Federal Judge, yet most would accept a judgeship if it was offered because of the social
influence and prestige.
Job satisfaction and work behavior - There is little evidence that job satisfaction influences
work behavior except in two areas. Turnover correlates negatively with satisfaction. Low
satisfaction means high turnover since dissatisfied workers are likely to take the first opportunity
to switch jobs. Absenteeism correlates with job satisfaction but the relationship is complex.
Dissatisfied workers are likely to be absent a lot, but so are very satisfied workers. Indeed, the
possibility of unpenalized absences may be a cause for job satisfaction.
14. LEADERSHIP
Definition of leadership - Leaders are individuals who influence group members in task
relevant activities. To exert this influence, a leader performs all or most of the following
functions: planning group activities, coordinating group actions, directing behavior, allocating
resources, and evaluating results. Individuals are leaders to the extent that they can actually
influence the behavior of others. Popularly, the success or failure of an organization is attributed
to its leader.
Types of leaders - Leaders are classified according to the method by which they obtain their
position.:
Nominal leaders - are leaders in name only. They obtain their position through a formal
or traditional process but have little actual authority conferred on them by the organization.
The Queen of England is a nominal leader, the figurehead of the British Empire. Nominal leaders
can control the actions of others but they do so through influence and example since they cannot
normally use the power of the organization to reward and punish behavior.
Appointed leaders - achieve power through a formal process (election, appointment,
succession) which places some or all of the control mechanisms of the organization in their
hands. Examples are: the U.S. President, military officers, business CEOs, college professors. By
using the power of the organization to reward or punish behavior, appointed leaders can
influence behavior is a direct fashion. The strength of this control is largely a function of the
invested power.
Emergent leaders - are individuals who are perceived by followers as having leadership
characteristics through force of personality, superior knowledge, and/or physical presence.
Power of emergent leaders is a function of the belief of followers that their personal well being
depends on obeying the leader's requests. Examples are: religious and cult leaders (Joan of Arc),
maverick political leaders (Adolph Hitler), leaders of street gangs, and occasional military
leaders. After gaining sufficient strength, emergent leaders often consolidate their position by
seizing control of organizational power and behave as appointed leaders.
Leader effectiveness - Effectiveness is measured by assessing leader responsibility for the group
achieving its objectives. Effectiveness is evaluated against a variety of criteria. Using a baseball
manager as an example of an appointed leader, the following criteria would apply:
Performance of work group - Objective measures of overall team success. Team
standing in league.
Judgment by superiors - Owner thinks coach does an effective job regardless of
won/lost record.
Judgment by peers - Other managers in league asked for opinion. Voted "manager of
year" by peers. Judgment by subordinates - Players judge on basis of leadership, fairness,
resource allocation, etc
.
Research approaches to leadership - Several approaches to the study of leadership have been
offered. Organizations are studied to determine formal relations of leaders and followers. The
traits of leaders themselves are examined to isolate common factors. Behaviors characteristic of
leaders are cataloged for use in training future leaders.
Position or organizational theories - suggest that leadership resides in the position. Every
organization has prescribed behaviors for incumbent leaders and for followers. The leader
induces compliance by invoking the authority of the organization. Roles are thus defined by the
structure of the organization. Research is directed toward the appropriate specification of
leader and follower responsibility, defining the leadership position in such a way as to insure
maximum organizational effectiveness. This approach assumes that leadership is insensitive to
the characteristics of the individual occupying a specific position. It is the position which
defines the behavior. Static and/or stable organizations have a vested interest in such theories
since such organization outlive many changes in personnel. Specific examples are governmental
and bureaucratic organizations, military organizations, formal religious organizations. Research
on position and organizational theories is usually performed by political scientists and
organizational theorists.
Person and trait theories - suggest that personal characteristics or traits of the leader,
regardless of how he/she achieves the position, induce followers to follow. Research efforts are
directed to uncovering the traits effective in a leadership role. The approach assumes that a
leader is "born" with specific traits, hence training efforts are considered fruitless and attention
is directed toward selection. The person approach is currently unpopular in egalitarian societies
since it smacks of elitism. It is often discouraged by social scientists and businessmen who have
a vested interest in believing that leadership can be taught. To date, the research evidence on
person and trait theories suggests a weak relationship between personal characteristics and
leadership. Ghiselli and Campbell suggest that specific traits may appear in specific situations.
Further, the true relationship may have been masked by an averaging effect since most studies
pool leaders working in a variety of situations in defining traits. (i.e. like averaging the physical
characteristics of jockeys, basketball players, and skeet shooters in a search for a typical athlete.)
Research on trait theories is usually performed by developmental, clinical, and personnel
psychologists whose professional focus is on the individual.
Process and behavioral theories - assume that leaders lead by effectively performing specific
behaviors relating to task organization, personal relations, motivation, direction, and resource
allocation. If these behaviors can be identified, they can be taught. The process approach
suggests that the leader's role is one of situational diagnosis, followed by application of a
learned appropriate behavior. The leader is, in effect, an actor playing the "role" of leader. It
makes little difference if the individual is "born" to play the role or learns it through experience.
(General Omar Bradley, who served with General George Patton in WW II, said that actor
George C. Scott played a more impressive General Patton, in the movie "Patton", than the
general was in real life.) Research is directed both toward situational diagnosis and identification
of specific trainable behaviors. Most current efforts in leadership research follow the process
approach. Behavioral theories are further divided into several groups:
Behavior dimension theories - suggest that leaders can orient their behavior into employee
centered or task centered dimensions. Most prominent of these theories is the one proposed by
Fleishman and Hemphill. Based on a Leader Opinion Questionnaire, leader behavior was
characterized as initiating structure (task oriented) or considerate (employee oriented). In the
blue collar industries studied by Fleishman, considerate leaders proved the most effective. A
similar approach, the Managerial Grid, was offered by Blake and Mouton. On this grid,
managers were rated on a scale of 1 to 9 on both their concern for people and their concern for
production. The best managers had high ratings on both scales.
Situational moderator theories - place a heavy emphasis on diagnosis of the nature of the
situation in specifying appropriate leader behaviors. Leaders must evaluate the needs and
capabilities of their subordinates, the structure of the situation, and, in some theories, their own
leadership style, in choosing a leadership strategy.
Leadership theory and practice - Managers assigned the task of choosing or developing
leaders in their own organizations do not subscribe wholeheartedly to any of the above theories.
In most instances potential leaders are selected from the pools of candidates who have exhibited
leadership talents during their formative years. Biodata is scanned for election to school office,
leadership in team sports, and participation in public exposure activities (debate, drama). The
leadership area is narrowly defined (business, military, church) and the behaviors specific to
success in those areas are studied for trainable components. The organization is configured to
endow leaders with suitable position power to enforce their decisions, but the decisions
themselves are limited by the narrow scope of the defined area. In this sense, leadership can be
taught. In the broader social environment, however, the situational range is so great, the structure
so imprecise, and the needs of potential subordinates so varied, that no general theory of
leadership has proven effective. Leaders emerge, as they have always done, driven by internal
forces that are yet unknown.
The systems concept - The basic concept of ergonomics is the human-machine system. Such a
system is an interacting combination of people and machines, possibly connected by a network
of communications, intended to accomplish a specific purpose. The purpose might be
transportation, health care, air defense, education, business, etc. Most systems are adaptive using
feedback of results to modify the relationship of humans and machines to improve performance.
Typically systems get information or raw materials through an input subsystem; process the
information (or raw materials); and output the processed information or materials. In the
ergonomic sense, business can be considered a closed loop information and materials processing
system whose primary purpose is to maximize profits.
Executive role: Decision making function essential to allocation of system resources and
administrative activities. Examples are analysis of data, alternative routings of communications
or transport, design functions, management, medical diagnosis, writing a report. In the Executive
role, the human decides upon a course of action to be taken. Research in this area explores ways
in which humans interpret and process information and make decisions.
Administrative role: Performs specific functions and controls equipment to accomplish desired
ends. Examples are data input, vehicle control, computer operation, taking a temperature, typing
a report. In the Administrative role, the human performs an act, generally physical or sensory in
nature, which controls or assists the system in meeting its goals. Research in this areas studies
best ways of presenting information to humans through displays and best ways of transmitting
information from humans to machines through controls. Most "knob and dial" research in
ergonomics is directed toward facilitating the administrative role.
Support (maintenance) role: Maintenance of the system's readiness to function. Examples are
the repair of equipments, supply of raw materials and resources, financing, personnel support.
Unscheduled operations involving both decision and action directed toward system readiness. In
the Support role, the human maintains the system's function. Research centers on strategies for
diagnosis and identification of equipment (and human) malfunction.
Allocation of system functions - Most systems tasks can be performed by people or by
machines. The basic objective of function allocation is the optimization of system objectives
while staying within the parameters of cost, efficiency, safety, availability, reliability, set by the
environment within which the system must operate. Some function allocations are set by policy,
i.e.only the doctor can prescribe drugs, some by the unavailability of hardware for specific tasks,
i.e. no reasonably priced computer can interpret human speech. Machines and humans differ in
capabilities as follows:
Human superiority: (areas in which humans outperform machines)
Sensation of low levels of stimuli, vision, taste, complex sound within human spectral limits.
Pattern recognition including vision and speech interpretation. Detection of stimuli in noise.
Storage of large amounts of imprecise information in a small volume. Recall of pertinent
information.
Utilize experience in decision making.
Unprogrammed action in emergencies.
Reason inductively, generalizing from observations. Solve novel problems. Think creatively.
Adapt physical response to wide variations in operational requirements. Mobility in rugged
terrain.
Reliable performance for long periods. (But poor monitoring behavior.)
Machine superiority: (areas in which machines outperform humans)
Wide sensory spectral range. Rapid response to input signals. Measure sensation with extreme
accuracy.
Reason deductively. Logical decision making. (But poor at subjective evaluations and
estimates.)
Monitor prespecified events. Perform multiple activities simultaneously.
Store and retrieve coded information in large quantities. Process data accurately.
Exert considerable physical force in controlled manner. Perform repetitive activities reliability.
Fatigue resistant.
Survive in extreme environments if properly designed. Maintain unvarying performance over
time.
Human/machine trade-offs: The decision between fully automatic, mixed, and manual
allocation depends on:
Capabilities - sophistication of equipment, human abilities, available personnel, training time,
etc.
Cost - relative equipment and labor costs, cost of capital, accounting methods, etc.
Convenience - surplus capacity of equipment or personnel, design effort, use of available
facilities, etc.
Constraints - legal requirements, union contracts, social requirements, safety, environment, etc.
Social values - worker job satisfaction, psychological needs, ethical standards, prestige, etc.
Considerations in system design - The successful design of equipment for human use requires
consideration of mobility and muscle strength, sensory capabilities, intellectual abilities, training
requirements, body dimensions, and the effects of the working environment on overall
performance. At first approximation, it is useful to think of the human as another system
component, with specific limits and capabilities, subject to environmental stress and overload.
By designing the human-machine system within the limits of this component, we can assure
overall system effectiveness. Design takes place in three distinct phases:
Study phase: Establishment of system requirements and constraints.
1. Determine job which human-machine system must perform.
2. Determine the overall requirements and restrictions to which the design must conform.
3. Determine the operating conditions of the human-machine system.
4. Establish the relationships between the new design and existing equipments.
5. Specify the functions which must be performed by the human-machine system.
Evaluation phase: Compare results of design effort with constraints and requirements.
Aids to human-machine system design and evaluation - Accurate and precise information
exists about human body dimensions, physical strength, sensory capability, intelligence, and
other measurable aspects of human performance. From this data, handbooks have been prepared
describing appropriate controls, displays, and environmental conditions necessary to assure best
performance under a variety of conditions. The factors to be considered in equipment design are:
1. The type, speed and accuracy of required operator performance.
2. The frequency and extent of use of each individual display and control.
3. The criticality of each display and control with respect to equipment function.
4. The sequence of control use.
5. The standardization requirements for minimum maintenance costs and maximum flexibility
of use.
6. Allowable system down time for repair and maintenance.
7. Number and type of personnel using the equipment.
8. Physical size, strength, and other characteristics of expected operators.
9. Safety. OSHA requirements.
10. Environmental control.
11. Cost and scheduling.
Ergonomics and human error - Human error has been established as the major cause of system
failure and/or accidents. Human error is any deviation from a previously established, required, or
expected standard of human performance that results in an unwanted state of events (time delay,
difficulty, problem, incident, malfunction, accident, or failure). Payne and Altman (1962)
proposed that errors be characterized in terms of the "behavioral components" that reflect the
basic types of human behavior that generates them. Input behaviors are errors of sensory or
perceptual input. Mediation behaviors are decision or information processing errors, including
lack of information or training. Output errors are errors in making physical responses. The
input-mediation-output model of this classification system corresponds to a common sequence of
psychological functions that are basic to all behavior. Human error occurs when any element in
this chain of events is broken such as failure to perceive a stimulus, inability to discriminate
among various stimuli, misinterpretation of the meaning of stimuli, not knowing what response
to make to a particular stimulus, physical inability to make a required response, and responding
out of sequence. Identifying the source of errors in terms of the input-mediation-output behaviors
permits direct access to the literature of human performance.
Situational and individual variables - It is frequently difficult to isolate the real causes of
specific errors even though the actual behaviors have been observed. It is reasonable to
hypothesize that all errors should be attributed to either situational variables, individual
variables, or a combination of both. Broadly speaking, situational variables can be lumped into
categories involving task characteristics, equipment characteristics, organizational structure and
procedures, and environment. They are, to a large extent, specific to each situation, but in general
they may be related to the assigned duties, equipment used, time of the day, work conditions,
ambient environment, etc. Individual variables involve age, perceptual skills, intelligence,
physical skills, health, education, experience, personality, and aptitudes. Both types of variables
mediate human performance. The situational variables provide a framework within which the
individual variables operate. In effect both sets of variables influence the probabilities of
successful or faulty performance.
Accident Statistics and Costs - Accidents have been called the "twentieth century disease".
They are the leading cause of death in developed countries between ages of 1 and 30. They are
also the leading cause of military casualty (i.e. more accident casualties than combat casualties).
Most accident statistics define a ratio (injuries per period of exposure), but the definition of
injury is imprecise. Injuries have been defined as any injury, any lost time injury, an injury with
> 24 hr. lost time, an indury with > 72 hour lost time, hospitalization, or death. Periods of
exposure are similarly loosely defined. They may be man-hours worked, 1,000,000 man-hours
worked, man-years worked, 100,000 man-years worked, etc. Transportation accidents utilize
hours of exposure, distance travelled, etc. Often used statistics are:
Frequency rate = disabling injuries x 1,000,000 / employee hours worked.
Severity rate = days lost x 1,000,000 / employee hours worked.
Average lost time = Severity rate / Frequency rate.
Operational definition - "An accident may be defined as that class of events which involves low
level of expectedness, avoidability, and intention. Accidents possess high unexpectedness, low
avoidability, low intention." Suchman (1961) Generally we define as accidents only events of
above class which result in physical injury to persons or property. Common usage lumps
situations in which intentional or negligent acts cause harm in the class of accidents (although
courts may find differently).
Concept of "cause" - Cause is a legal rather than scientific concept, essential for attributing
blame or damages. Hume (1739) stated "We are never able, in a single instance, to discover any
power or necessary connection, any quality to bind the effect to the cause and render one an
infallible consequence of the other. We only find that one does actually, in fact, follow the
other." Causation implies high probability of events occurring in specific sequence, i.e. "smoking
gun" theory. Typical concept of accident (Heinrich axiom) "The occurrence of an injury
invariably results from a sequence of factors, the last being the accident itself. The accident is in
turn invariably caused or permitted directly by the unsafe act of a person and/or a mechanical or
physical hazard." Accident investigators and boards of inquiry search for "proximate" causes, the
last identifiable event before the accident, in order to establish culpability.
Official statistics - Fatalities, disability, medical care, clinic visits, lost time (all post accident
measures).
Unofficial statistics - Mishaps, unsafe acts, unsafe conditions, errors, critical incidents (all
"accident like" events)
Behavioral models - Behavioral models focus attention on particular aspects of the human, and
as such are useful, but to achieve a full understanding of the accident process, they must be used
in conjunction with a more global approach. Some behavioral models proposed are:
Human error model: Theory proposes that most accidents can be traced to an erroneous human
act. Peters (1962) operationally defines human error as any deviation from a required standard of
human performance that results in an unwanted state of events (delay, malfunction, difficulty,
accident, etc.). Several workers classify human behaviors in terms of input components,
mediation components, and output components and suggest that the omission, insertion,
sequencing, and quality of performance of these behaviors are accident antecedent factors. Rook
(1962), Payne and Altman (1962). The model is useful primarily because psychological literature
is organized in the way proposed. Accident investigations rarely present information which can
be analysed in terms of specific and discrete human acts.
Decision models: Model proposes that most accidents result from faulty decisions rather than
failures in perception or action. In every sequence of events leading to an accident, the individual
must make a series of decisions about perceptions, actions, and the consequences of those
actions. Whenever a decision must be made in the presence of danger a degree of risk enters.
Factors affecting risk are the amount of uncertainty of outcome and the absolute danger of the
situation. The theory suggests that different persons at different times will take higher risks and
be more liable to accidents. Risk taking has been shown to be a significant factor in industrial
accidents. By appropriate personnel selection, training, and behavior modification techniques,
accidents may be reduced. Fell (1976), Zeitlin (1976), Christensen (1980)
Accident Proneness model: proposes a group of persons possess a personal idiosyncrasy of
relativenesspermanence predisposing the individual to a greater rate of accidents. Some
statistical evidence to support. Weak explanatory concept which cannot account for majority of
accidents. Farmer and Chambers (1926), McCormick and Tiffen (1974)
"Systems" models- Systems models treat the human element, equipment, environment, and
sometimes even management policy as interrelated elements of a man-machine system.
Accidents are viewed as "extreme value" outputs. Each part of the system affects the
performance of the other, the human in the system being treated as a complex and poorly
understood part. System theory's great advantage is that it permits powerful mathematical tools
to be used in predicting system state from given sets of inputs. Concepts of feedback from
system output to input to change system response parameters are incorporated. Systems
components can be overloaded by excessive response demands. Concepts of human information
processing overload, response lag, distribution of errors, etc. are easily handled in a systems
theory. The theory recognizes the interaction and feedback involved in the complex accident
process and also recognizes the probabilistic nature of the chain of events resulting in an
accident. The liability of this approach is that it requires physical definition of all parts of the
system and their interactions, definitions which are not, and may never be possible, in the life
sciences. Since humans are the least understood component, systems theories rarely consider
human behavior in all of its complexity. Attractive theory for engineers, whose response to
above problem is to design humans out of the system, whether appropriate or not.
Reduction of equipment hazards - The sequence of priorities in reducing equipment hazards is:
Elimination of injury producing agents: When possible the equipment should be reengineered
to eliminate the portion that can cause injury. Sharp edges should be rounded, protruding parts
depressed, external rotating machinery eliminated. The ultimate goal is to design workplace
equipment that can cause no harm to workers of minimal training.
Guard injury producing agents: All injury producing agents that cannot be eliminated should
be equipped with guards that prevent users from inadvertent contact. Saw blades should be
shielded, moving belts covered, etc. The equipment should be designed that it will not work if
the guards are removed or the operator is using it improperly.
Warning of danger: Operators should be warned of hazards that cannot be eliminated or
guarded against. Warning of injury or life threatening dangers should be prominently displayed
on the equipment. Directions for safe use should be similarly displayed and included in operating
instructions. Warning levels are danger, implying high probability of death or injury; warning,
implying significant probability of injury or damage; and caution, implying some hazard in use.
Environmental hazards - A high percentage of industrial injuries arise from work in hazardous
environments. Indeed, the most frequent injury on many jobs is falls from high places. Human
performance decreases as conditions deviate from the ideal "shirtsleeve" environment, although
it is possible for an individual to gain some degree of acclimatization to extremes after several
weeks of exposure. Cold is easier to deal with since protective clothing can permit activity to
-40° F. The main effect of cold is to decrease manual sensitivity and dexterity. The performance
decrement at -30° F is 20%, at -40° F is 80%. High temperature is more troublesome. The
maximum temperature at which heavy physical work is unimpaired is 80° F. Efficiency
approaches 0% when the temperature exceeds 110° F. Both strength and precision essential to
safety are likely to be decreased when temperature extremes deviate from normal. Fatigue
increased quickly. Where it is not possible to modify extreme environmental conditions, it may
be possible to manage the work force to achieve a reasonable degree of effectiveness by:
Selection of personnel who have a high tolerance for the specific working conditions;
Acclimatization before requiring full effort;
Work schedule modification to minimize the effect of physical stress;
Procedure modification to minimize requirements for continuous high level human
performance;
Assessment of worker physical well being on a regular basis to identify hazard likely
conditions.
Screening and selection of personnel - The concept of accident proneness has lost favor in
recent years, but it is a fact that some workers simply have more accidents than others. While
plain bad luck may be a factor for some, for many of the others there exists a combination of
physical characteristics, personality, attitude, etc. which makes accidents more likely.
Identification of these workers can reduce workplace accidents by excluding them from
potentially hazardous job situations or retraining them to exhibit safer patterns of behavior in
dangerous situations. The practical difficulty in screening and selection of personnel is the
maintenance of safety records across industry. Without such records, individuals cannot be
identified nor can a new employer be apprised of their accident likely behavior. However the
technique has proven cost effective where common insurance carriers maintain such records for
specific industries (maritime industry, oil exploration) and are willing to share their experience
with employers.