PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT

BY
RABIA UMAR
MS CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
 MEASUREMENT
1. Measurment means to describe any
thing or trait in quantitative value.
2. Measurement is the process of obtaining
a numerical description of the degree to
which an individual possesses a particular
characteristic.
 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT

 What does personality

assessment achieve?
 WHY WE MEASURE PERSONALITY?
• Determine workplace suitability
• To be used in combination with intelligence tests to
make decisions about school suitability
• To assist in diagnosis (identifying the nature) of a mental
illness
• To be used to court by forensic (relating to)
psychologists to determine personality of a possible
offender
• Sport psychologists: to help understand their clients
• As part of a research study or to develop tests
 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT
Personality Assessment assists counselors in:
 Understanding the behavior of a particular
individual
 Helps counselor come to a conclusion about
the behavior of individual
 Helps counselor make predictions about a
person’s unique future behavior.
 PERSONALITY TESTS
• A personality test is an assessment
device used to evaluate or measure
aspects of personality, such as factors
(dimensions) and traits
•
Different tests are based on different
•
theorists
Two different kinds or types of
personality tests are: personality
inventories and projective tests
 PERSONALITY INVENTORIES
• Most commonly used form of personality tests
• A personality inventory is a self-report, ‘paper and pencil’
or online test which has a list of questions designed to
assess various aspects of personality are considered to
be ‘objective’ tests because the person giving the test
does not subjectively (personally) interpret what the test-
taker means by their responses. Example NTS, CSS,
ISSB
• The answers given are compared with the answers of
other
 USE OF PERSONALITY TESTS BY
DIFFERENT PROFESSIONALS

 A career counselor administers an inventory

in order to help a person choose a career.
 A psychologist wants to look at symptoms to
possibly diagnose a disorder
 A school counselor implements inventors to
see if a student is suffering from academic
problems.
CONT……

 An employment counselor uses inventories to

see if an individual meets the right
requirements and performance.
 A neurophysiologist administers an inventory
to determine the extent of a possible brain
injury.
 OBJECTIVE TESTS

◼ Objective test involve the administration of a

standard set of questions or statements to which
the examinee responds using a fixed set of
options.
◼ Many objective tests use a true/false or yes/no
response format while others provide a
dimensional scale (e.g. 0= strongly disagree;
1= disagree; 2= neutral; 3= agree; 4= strongly
agree).
 ADVANTAGES OF OBJECTIVE TEST

◼ Objective tests of personality or self-report have had a central role

in the development of clinical psychology.

◼ Firstly, they are economical. After only brief instructions, large

groups can be tested simultaneously, or a single patient can
complete inventory alone. Even computer scoring an
interpretation of these tests are possible.
◼ Second, scoring and administration are relatively simple and
objective.This in turn tends to make the interpretation easier.

◼ A final attraction to self-report inventories, particularly for

clinicians who are disappointed with the problems inherent in
projective tests, is their appearance objectivity and reliability.
 DISADVANTAGES OF OBJECTIVE TESTS

▪ For clinicians who tend to pay attention to mediating variables

such as motives or cognitions, this is a virtue rather than aid defect.

▪ Inventories often provide a single overall score, which may

reflect various combinations of these behaviors, cognitions, and
needs. Therefore, to individuals were achieved the same score may
actually be quite different, even in reference to the personality
traits or construction in question. Thus, the same score on a
measure may have several alternative interpretations.
CONT….
▪ Other difficulties involved a transparent meeting of some
inventories questions, which can obviously facilitate faking on
the part of some patients. Some tests tend to develop heavily on
the patient’s self-knowledge.

▪ In addition, the forced choice approach prevents individuals

from qualifying or elaborating their responses to that some
additional information may be lost or distorted the limited
understanding or even the limited reading ability of some
individuals may lead them to misinterpret question or to answer
questions in a random fashion.
METHODS OF TEST CONSTRUCTION FOR OBJECTIVE TESTS

◼ Content validation: The most straightforward

approach to measure it is for clinicians to decide what it
is they wish to assess and then simply ask the patient
for that information.
◼ Ensuring content validity: Content validation methods
involve (a) carefully defining all relevant aspects of the
variable you are attempting to measure; (b) consulting
experts before generating items;(c) using judges to
assess each potential items relevance to the variable of
interest.
 THE MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC
PERSONALITY INVENTORY (MMPI)

The MMPI back was long the best example of objective test.
Published by Hathway and McKinley in 1943, it is still considered
the greatest self-reported inventory. The MMPI, which has been
used for virtually every predictive purposing imaginable, ranging
from the likelihood of episodes of psychosis to marriage suitability.
 DESCRIPTION: MMPI
◼ The basic purpose was to identify the psychiatric diagnoses
of individual.
◼ The following psychiatric categories were used: hypochondriasis,
depression, hysteria, psychopathic deviation, paranoia,
psychasthenia, schizophrenia, and hypomania. Two additional skills,
masculinity-femininity and a social introversion were added later.
◼ The original MMPI was composed of 550 items to which the patient
answered true, false or don’t know. Only those items that
differentiated a given clinical group from a nonclinical group were
included.
◼ Although the test was originally designed for people aged 16 and
older, the MMPI has been used with individuals considerably
younger. The test was hand scored but it was possible to
completely administer, score, and interpret the MMPI by computer.
 DESCRIPTION: MMPI-2
◼ Original MMPI standardization sample had been criticized for
many years as unrepresentative of the general population.
◼ For restandardization, all 550 items were retained, but 82 were
rewritten. The original meaning of the items were preserved, but
the language was made more up to date. In addition, 154 new
items were added to the top item pool, bringing the total to 704
items. But after adjustments, the final version of the MMPI-2 now
includes 567 items.
◼ It can be administered individually or in groups. It has only one
booklet form. Non-English-language versions of the test are
available.
 MMPI-2 (EXAMPLE QUESTIONS)
1.I like mechanics magazines 11.A person should try to understand
2.I have a good appetite his dreams and be guided by or take
3.I wake up fresh & rested most warning from them
mornings 12.I enjoy detective or mystery stories
4.I think I would like the work of a 13.I work under a great deal of tension
librarian 14.I have diarrhea once a month or
5.I am easily awakened by noise more
6. I like to read newspaper articles on 15.Once in a while I think of things
crime too bad to talk about
7.My hands and feet are usually warm 16.I am sure I get a raw deal from life
enough
8.My daily life is full of things that
keep me interested
9. I am about as able to work as I ever
was
10.There seems to be a swelling in
my throat much of the time
 PROJECTIVE TESTS
◼ Projective tests can be traced to Hermann Rorschach's
(1921), in which he described the use of inkblots as a
method for the differential diagnosis of
psychopathology.
◼ In 1935, Morgan and Murray introduced the Thematic
Apperception Test and carefully described the process of
projection.
 THE NATURE OF PROJECTIVE TESTS
◼ Projective techniques, taken as a whole, but tend to
have the following distinguishing characteristics:

 Require the client to answer questions using pictures, phrases,

or inkblots
 The stimulus material is unstructured.
 The method is indirect.
 There is freedom of response.
 THE RORSCHACH
◼ The Rorschach consists of 10 cards consists of printed
inkblots that are symmetrical from right to left. Five
of the ten cards are black and white and the other five
are colored.
◼ Administration: The clinician hands the first card to
patient and says, " Tell me what you see-what might be
for you. There are no right or wrong answers. Just tell
me what it looks like to you".All the subsequent cards
are administered in order the clinician takes down
verbatim everything the patients says. Some clinicians
also record the length of time it takes the patient to
make the first response to each part as well as the total
time spent on each card.
◼ The clinician also note the position of the card as each
response is given. Following this phase, the clinician
moves to whether what is called the inquiry.
 THE RORSCHACH SCORING TECHNIQUES
◼ Location
It refers to the area of the card to which the patient
responds.

◼ Content refers to the nature of the objects seen.

◼ Determinants
refer to those aspects of the card that prompted the
patience response.
RORSCHACH INKBLOT CARD
 RORSCHACH INKBLOT CARD

 Common Responses:
  Bat (53%),
  Butterfly (39%)
RORSCHACH INKBLOT CARD
 RORSCHACH INKBLOT CARD
 Common Responses:

 Dog
 Elephant
 Bear
RORSCHACH INKBLOT CARD
 RORSCHACH INKBLOT CARD

 Common Responses:

 Animal skin
 Skin Rug
RORSCHACH INKBLOT CARD
 RORSCHACH INKBLOT CARD

 Common Responses:
 Heads of women or children
 Human head
 THE THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST
◼ The Thematic Apperception Test was introduced by Morgan
and Murray in 1935.
◼ It purports to reveal patience basic personality
characteristics through the interpretation of their
imaginative productions in response to a series of pictures.
◼ TAT is used for the content of personality and the mold of
social interactions.
◼ With the TAT, clinicians are likely to make specific
judgments.
◼ The TAT is less likely to be used to assess the degree of
maladjustments than to reveal the locus of problem, the
nature and needs or the quality of interpersonal
relationships.
 TAT DESCRIPTION
◼ TAT comprised up of 31 cards and among them one is a blank card.
Some are used for boys and men while others are for girls and
women, and some are for both genders. Murray suggested that 20 of
the 31 cards be selected for a given examinee.

◼ ADMINISTRATION. In practice, clinicians typically select

somewhere between 6 and 12 cards for administration to be a
given patient.

◼ Exact instructions used vary from clinician to clinician it goes

something like this: Now, I want you to make up a story about each
of these pictures. Tell me who the people are, what are they doing,
what they are thinking or feeling, what led up to the scene, and how
it will turn out. OK?

◼ Examiner asks client several questions in order to better understand

his/her story
IMAGE SIMILAR TO THE ONES USED IN TAT
IMAGE SIMILAR TO THE ONES USED IN TAT
 SENTENCE COMPLETION TEST
◼ Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) - is a projective
psychological test. It comprises up of 40 incomplete sentences
which the person has to complete as soon as possible but the
usual time taken is around 20 minutes. Responses are usually
only 1–2 words long such as "I regret ..." "Mostly girls...". Test
can be administered both individually and in a group setting. It
doesn't have long set of instructions and can be easily worked out
on a greater population.
◼ ADVANTAGES. The scoring is objective and reliable. It can be
used easily and economically, and it appears to be a good
screening device.
 RISB EXAMPLES

◼ Examples of sentence completion

◼ I wish .
◼ I love .
◼ A husband should .
◼ My nerves are made of .
◼ I hate .
NORMAL AND ABNORMAL PERSONALITY
 NORMALIT Y

▪ The absence of illness and presenceof state of well being

called normality.

▪ A person who gets according to

the ruleand adopt himself according to
thesituation.
 ABNORMALITY

▪ Abnormality is the significant deviation from

commonly accepted patterns of behaviors,
emotion or thought.
 ABNORMALITY DEFINITIONS:

▪ Statistical infrequency:
It does not account for social acceptance e .g. very
high intelligence.
▪ Violation of socialnorms:
Social norms vary from society to society e.g.
violation of religiousrules
▪ Personal distress:
It includes mentally ill or physically defective people.
▪ legal act:
Violation of country’srule.
ACCORDING T O E A R LY THEORIES

▪ Abnormal behavior was evil spirits trying to

get out.
▪ Trephination wasoften used
WHAT I S NORMAL AND ABNORMAL?

A man Abusinessman
barking like a sleeping in his
A man is
dog office
playing
cricket

A man
A man driving
Students are refusing to
a nail through
studying in a eat for
his hand
classroom several days

8
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NORMALIT Y
& ABNORMALIT Y

▪ Normal behavior is socially acceptable while the

abnormal behavior is not acceptable.
CAUSES O F ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

▪ There are three main kinds of causes :

▪ Biological

▪ Psychological

▪ Sociocultural
▪ Biological cause:
-Genetic inheritance
-Physiological changes
-Exposure totoxic
substances
▪ Psychological cause:
-Past learningexperiences
-Maladaptive thoughtpatterns
-Difficulties copingwith stress
▪ Sociocultural:
-Social policies
-Discrimination
-stigma
 GAF
▪ The Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF)
is a numeric scale (0 through 100) used by
mental health physicians.
▪ We can assess someone's normality and
abnormality by the increase of number from 0 to
100. For example on 80 to 90 a person will be
consideard as normal but on 10 to 20 abnormal.
ATTITUDES, VALUES AND
OPINION

1
 DEFINING ATTITUDE
Attitude is a theoretical construct
Cannot be directly observed – inferred from what
people say and do
Behaviour towards objects is dependent upon attitude
towards objects
Attitudes tend to persist unless something is done to
change them
Attitudes can be favourable to very unfavourable.
Attitudes are directed towards some object about which
a person has feelings
HOW MUCH DO YOU SEE OF AN ICEBERG?

5
1
ONLY 10% OF
ICEBERG IS
VISIBLE. THE
REMAINING
90% IS BELOW
SEA LEVEL.

5
2
 KNOWN O

TO OTHERS BEHAVIOR rg
a
n
iz
SEA LEVEL
a
tio
n
a
l
B
UNKNOWN e
h
a
TO OTHERS v
io
r

VALUES – STANDARDS – JUDGMENTS

ATTITUDE
MOTIVES – ETHICS - BELIEFS
5
 Three components of an attitude

The emotional or
feeling segment
of an attitude

The opinion or
belief segment of
an attitude An intention to behave in
a certain way toward
someone or something
 ATTITUDE

➢ Explicit attitudes are conscious beliefs

that can guide decisions and behavior.
➢ Implicit attitudes are unconscious
beliefs that can still influence decisions
and behavior.
 HOW DO ATTITUDES FORM?

➢ Attitudes form directly as a result of experiences.

➢ They may emerge due to direct personal
experience, or they may result from observation.
➢ Social roles and social norms can have a strong
influence on attitudes.
➢ Social roles relate to how people are expected to
behave in a particular role or context.
➢ Social norms involve society's rules for what
behaviors are considered appropriate.
THREE COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE
 Cognitive Component – The opinion or belief segm
an attitude.
 Affective Component – The emotional or feeling
segment of an attitude.
 Behavioral Component – An intention to behave in
certain way towards someone or something.

7
HOW DO ONE LEARN ATTITUDE?
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

 Influences your attitude toward a particular

product. In a television commercial, you see
young, beautiful people having fun in a party
while enjoying a specific cold drink. This
attractive and appealing imagery causes you
to develop a positive association with this.
 OPERANT CONDITIONING

 Imagine a young man who has just started

smoking. Whenever he lights up a cigarette,
people complain and ask him to leave their
surrounding area. This negative feedback
from those around him eventually causes him
to develop an unfavorable opinion of smoking
and he decides to give up the habit.
 OBSERVING THE PEOPLE AROUND

 When someone you admire greatly support a

particular attitude, you are more likely to
develop the same beliefs. Children spend a
great deal of time observing the attitudes of
their parents and usually begin to
demonstrate similar outlooks.
 ATTITUDE CAN BE CHANGED

1. Learning Theory of Attitude Change

2. Elaboration Likelihood Theory of Attitude Change
3. Dissonance Theory of Attitude Change
 1. LEARNING THEORY OF ATTITUDE
CHANGE:
➢ Classical conditioning can be used to create
positive emotional reactions to an object,
person or event by associating positive
feelings with the target object.
➢ Operant conditioning can be used to
strengthen desirable attitudes and weaken
undesirable ones.
➢ People can also change their attitudes after
observing the behavior of others.
2. ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD THEORY OF ATTITUDE CHANGE:

 This theory of persuasion suggests that

people can alter their attitudes in two ways.
1. They can be motivated to listen and think
about the message, thus leading to an
attitude shift.
2. They might be influenced by characteristics
of the speaker, leading to a temporary or
surface shift in attitude.
3. DISSONANCE THEORY OF ATTITUDE CHANGE:

 People can also change their attitudes when

they have conflicting beliefs about a topic. In
order to reduce the tension created by these
incompatible beliefs, people often shift their
attitudes.
 BARRIERS TO CHANGING
ATTITUDES
1. Prior commitment

2. Insufficient information

66
 ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT

 There are numerous scales to measure attitudes.

 Here are a few of the most common
1. Thurstone
2. Likert
3. Guttman
4. Semantic Differential
 THURSTONE (1928)

 Was intended to create a validated measure for

assessing attitudes
➢ Specify the attitude to be measured
➢ Collect a variety of options
➢ Calculate scale value of each statement
➢ Eliminate statements due to irrelevancy
➢ Select ≈ 20 statements evenly across scale
 THURSTONE (1928)

➢ Although this measure was the first to

apply principles of scaling to attitudes
(Whitley, 2002), its popularity has
diminished.
➢ These scales are less valid than Likert
scales (of the same length) and take much
longer to construct (Whitley, 2002).
 LIKERT

➢ Most widely used scale

➢ Most direct and the easiest way to measure
attitudes (Feldman, 2001)
➢ Scored based on the sums of their responses
(Whitely, 2002)
 GUTTMAN
➢ Uses a gradation of attitudes, from least to
most extreme (Feldman, 2001).
➢ Based on the premise that you endorse all of
the items up to a point, and none after that
point (Feldman, 2001).
➢ Primarily useful when the attitude being
assessed follows a stepwise sequence.
▪ Rarely used for this reason, most
behaviors are not stepwise sequences
 SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL

➢ Allows the targeting of an evaluative

component of the attitude, as well as
accessing broad concepts, rather than
specific ones (Feldman, 2001)
➢ Rate the concept on sets of adjective pairs;
for instance, good-bad, strong-weak (Whitley,
2002)
➢ Scored by adding up item values
➢ (Whitley, 2002) have developed a large listing
of pairs that have been tested and can be
used for this task.
 CHANGING ATTITUDE DURING JOBS
INTRODUCTION TO THE CONCEPT OF VALUES
 WHAT ARE THE MAJOR JOB ATTITUDES?

Job Satisfaction
A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation
of job characteristics
Job Involvement
Job involvement refers to the psychological and emotional
extent to which some one participated in his/her work,
profession, and company. It is a desirable feature that makes
people spend energy and do their best in their work
and organizational roles.
Psychological Empowerment
Belief in the degree of influence over the job, competence,
74
meaningfulness, and autonomy
CONT….
Perceived Organizational Support (POS)
Degree to which employees believe in organizational values
their contribution and cares about their well-being.
Higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved in
decision-making and supervisors are seen as supportive.
High POS is related to higher performance.
Employee Engagement
The degree of involvement, satisfaction and
enthusiasm for the job.
Engaged employees are passionate about their work and
company.
OUTCOMES OF JOB SATISFACTION
Job Performance
Satisfied workers are more productive and
satisfied.
The causality may run both ways.
Organizational Citizenship Behaviors
Satisfaction influences OCB through perceptions
of fairness.
Customer Satisfaction
Satisfied frontline employees increase customer
satisfaction and loyalty.
Absenteeism
Satisfied employees are moderately less likely to
miss work.
 CONT….
Turnover
Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.
Many moderating variables in this relationship.
Economic environment and tenure
Organizational actions taken to retain high
performers and to weed out lower performers
Workplace Deviance
Dissatisfied workers are more likely to unionize,
abuse substances, steal, be late, and withdraw.
 VALUES
 Values are the guiding principles of life that contribute to the
all round development of an Individual.
 Values are the deeply held beliefs about what is good, right,
and appropriate. Individual’s values may be derived from the
society, religion, or self.
 Values promote self development
Any human activity, thought or idea, feeling, sentiment or
emotion, which promotes self development of an individual,
constitutes a value.
 FIVE HUMAN VALUES

 The five human values can be found in all cultures, all societies
and in all religions.
1. Truth is what we speak

2. Right conduct is what we practice

3. Love is what we live

4. Peace is what we give

5. Non-violence is the fruit.

 THE NEED OF VALUES
1. To guide the human beings in the right path, to inculcate the
concept of universal brotherhood and to achieve the absolute
values of truth, goodness and beauty.
2. To give direction and firmness to life and bring joy, satisfaction and
peace of life to preserve our culture and heritage and to develop
morality and character.
3. To bring the behavioral changes towards positivism.
4. To promote the peace and harmony in the individuals and in the
society.
5. To bring quality of life and sustainable development in the society.
 VALUES

Attributes of Values

Content Attribute – that the mode of conduct is

important
Intensity Attribute – just how important that content
is.
Value System
A person’s values rank ordered by intensity
Tends to be relatively constant and consistent
IMPORTANCE OF VALUES

Provide understanding of the attitudes,

motivation and behaviors
 Influence our perception of the world
around us and represent interpretations
of “right” and “wrong”
Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are
preferred over others
 CLASSIFYING VALUES

Terminal Values
Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a
person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime
Instrumental Values
Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving
one’s terminal values

People in same occupations or categories tend to hold

similar values
But values vary between groups
Value differences make it difficult for groups to negotiate
and may create conflict
 Organizational Behavior
84
CONT….
 VALUES

Values differ across cultures.

Hofstede’s Framework for assessing
culture – five value dimensions:
Power Distance
Individualism vs. Collectivism
Masculinity vs. Femininity
Uncertainty Avoidance
Long-term vs. Short-term Orientation
 HOFSTEDE’S FRAMEWORK: POWER
DISTANCE
The extent to which a society accepts that power in
institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.
Low distance
Relatively equal power between those with
status/wealth and those without status/wealth
High distance
Extremely unequal power distribution between those
with status/wealth and those without status/wealth
HOFSTEDE’S FRAMEWORK: INDIVIDUALISM

Individualism
The degree to which people prefer to act as
individuals rather than a member of groups
Collectivism
A tight social framework in which people expect
others in groups of which they are a part to look
after them and protect them
HOFSTEDE’S FRAMEWORK: MASCULINITY

Masculinity
The extent to which the society values work roles
of achievement, power, and control, and where
assertiveness and materialism are also valued
Femininity
The extent to which there is little differentiation
between roles for men and women
HOFSTEDE’S FRAMEWORK: UNCERTAINTY
AVOIDANCE
The extent to which a society feels threatened by
uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to
avoid them
High Uncertainty Avoidance:
Society does not like ambiguous situations and tries to
avoid them.
Low Uncertainty Avoidance:
Society does not mind ambiguous situations and
embraces them.
 HOFSTEDE’S FRAMEWORK: TIME
ORIENTATION
Long-term Orientation
A national culture attribute that emphasizes the
future, thrift, and persistence
Short-term Orientation
A national culture attribute that emphasizes the
present and the here and now
 HOFSTEDE’S FRAMEWORK: AN
ASSESSMENT
There are regional differences within countries
The original data is old and based on only one
company
Hofstede had to make many judgment calls while
doing the research
Some results don’t match what is believed to be true
about given countries
Despite these problems it remains a very popular
framework
 By
Rabia Umar
MS Clinical Psychology
Sensation
Detecting stimuli from the body or environment

Perception
Organizing sensations into meaningful patterns

Stimulus
Form of energy that can affect senseorgans
 Any experience that takes place through a sense organ is called
Sensation.
 Sensation is also called as the gate ways of knowledge, because
all our knowledge is based upon the functioning of sense organs.
 Sensation is the simple and most elementary process, which
creates the desire to work for something and how to know
something based on previous experiences.
 It is purely sensory knowledge, which does not have any
relationship with any knowledge or awareness.
 A sensation does not help us acquiring complete knowledge.
 The impressions received through the sense organs are
called sensations– Mathur.
 A sensation is an elementary cognitive experience – Dr.
Jalota.
 Sensations are first things in the way of consciousness-
James
 Sensation is defined as the simplest of all conscious
experience – Duglas and Halland.
 Sensation is the process of receiving, translating and
transmitting information to the brain from the external
and internal environment – Huffman.
We can divide easily the sensation
process into five categories on the basis
of sense organs.
1.Visual Sensation
2. Auditory Sensation
3. Olfactory Sensation
4. Taste Sensation
5. Tactual Sensation
Eye

Ear

Nose

Tongue

Skin
Sl. Sense Knowledge
Type of Sensation Senses
No. Organ gaining

1. Visual Sensation Eye Sight 83%

2. Auditory Sensation Ear Hear 11%

Olfactory
3. Nose Smell 3.5%
Sensation

4. Taste Sensation Tongue Taste 1.0%

5. Tactual Sensation Skin Touch 1.5%

 The main elements of the sensation process are
given below:

Quality: The nature of each sensation is different

from other. Every type of sensation has got its own
special quality or characteristics. This quality of the
sensation helps us to distinguish one from other. For
example, green sensation of eye, cold sensation of
skin.
Intensity: Sensation differs in respect of its intensity.
If two sounds are created at once, one will be the
intenser than other. It is differs in same type of sense
or among the different types of sensations.
Extensity: Extensity refers the extension in
space. Each sensation has its extensity. The
vaster the stimulus, the more extensive the
sensation. The extensity is not true for all the
types of sensation, but restricted to certain.
Duration: Every sensation has its duration or
lasts for certain time. The auditory sensation of
aero plane sound is more extensive than the
sound of the calling bell.
Clarity: Every sensation has got clarity. The
sensation which lasts for longer period
becomes clearer than the sensation lasts for
shorter period.
When things come into contact with any of
our sense organs, we feel sensation. When
brain comes to know the form of these
sensations, it comes to know the stimulus
fully. This cognitive experience of the brain
is called perception.
Perception is the process by which an
organism interprets sensory input so that it
acquires meaning.

Perception = Sensation + Meaning (interpretation).

Perception is the process of getting to
know objects and objective facts by use
of senses – Woodworth.
Perception refers to the complex
processes which begin with the
stimulation of a sense organ and end
with an interpretation of the resulting
neural activity by the organism i.e. with
the meaning of the stimulus – James A.
Dyal.
All knowledge of the world is ultimately
obtained thorough sensory experiences.
Sensation alone is meaningless and it will
not result in acquisition of knowledge.
Sensation is to be followed by application
of mind. Then it results in perception.
In other words we can say that the first
response to a stimulus is sensation and
perception is the next response following
sensation.
Perception is meaningful.
Perception is selective.
Perception is based on sensation.
Perception is preventive and representative
process of mind.
Perception needs observation / experience.
Perception makes use of images.
Perception is both analytic and synthetic.
In perception sensory data gets enriched.
There are several factors involved in
perception. They are categorized under
two types namely,
External and
Internal factors.
Similarity: Similar elements
tend to be perceived as
belong together and they
are viewed as wholes.
Stimuli that have the same
size, shape and colour
tend to be perceived as
parts of the pattern.
 Proximity: When objects are
close to each other, the
tendency is to perceive them
together rather than separately.
Even if the individual items do
not have any connection with
each other they will be grouped
under a single pattern or
perceived as a meaningful
picture.
 Continuity: Anything which extends
itself into space in the same shape,
size and color without a break is
perceived as a whole figure.
 For example, several dots from a
curved line, an individual may
perceive the figure as two different
continuous lines irrespective of the
factors like proximity and similarity
of the dots. Thus, the whole figure is
organized into a continuum though
the dots are unconnected.
Inclusiveness: The pattern which
includes all the elements present
in a given figure will be perceived
more readily than the other
figures.
The hexagonal figure formed by
all the dots may be perceived
more readily than the square
formed by the four middle dots.
Single dots at either end act as a
fence or enclosure within which
all the other elements are
included.
Closure: Closed areas more readily form in
group. The illusion of figure was caused by
closure which did not allow the attention to
dwell on by gaps, so that the figures
appeared organized.
Familiarity: An organisation with which the
person is aquatinted, is perceived easily
and with enthusiasm. Seeing a familiar
picture quiz, we at once understand its
reality and solution and the remaining
figure forms no obstacle in this. But if the
aquatinted person is affected by some
other part of the picture, he will be
incapable of recognizing it, not
withstanding his familiarity.
Mental Set: Mental set has a by no means
insignificant effect upon the organization of the
sensation. One of the causes of mental set is
habit. For example, a philosopher looks at the
truths of the universe, while a trader is always
involved in worthy things.
Reinforcing Factors: These include good figure.
The supplementing of the incomplete is a mental
tendency, which diverts our attention from gaps
and presents a whole. The idea of good figure is
explained by the picture, in the description of
closure.
 A manager is primarily concerned with the
achievement of organizational objectives.
Perception affects the behavior of employee.
So facts necessarily may not always be
accepted. Thus understanding human
perception is important in understanding and
controlling the behavior. There are five major
areas which require special attention so far as
the perceptual accuracy is concerned.
 Managers in the organization need to know
whether or not members share similar or at
least compatible perceptions. If people are
not misunderstanding each other, if they are
not working with preoccupied minds and
having positive approach then the
interpersonal relations can be strengthened.
 Misperceptions usually lead to strained
relations and may even result in open conflict
among people.
 Selection is based on tests, interviews and review of the
applicants background. Managers perception should not be
biased. Selection of the employees also depends upon how a
candidate is taking the question. His answers will be
accordingly.
 If the candidate is taking the questions in the same manner as
it is asked then he will be in a better position to answer it in a
positive manner. Perceptual difference totally changes the
meaning of the response which sometimes results in major
problems.
 Appraisal is highly affected by the accuracy of
a managers perception. In most of the cases
promotions, transfers, increments,
continuation of the employees etc. depends
upon the perceptual process of the boss.
Performance appraisal is related with the
performance of the employees and must be
based on objective criteria. But irrespective of
this fact, it is dependent upon the subjective
criteria e.g. personal likes and dislikes of
superior.
 While judging the level of effort of a person
the manager appraises the qualitative aspect
of an employees performance. If he perceives
them as putting in sufficient efforts and
being sincere then he would rate them high in
spite of their not achieving targets and vice
versa. Manager must be careful while judging
this aspect.
 With proper application of perception the
loyalty level can be increased. If the
employees think that management is not
taking any undue advantage from them,
management is understanding them, then
they will perceive it as their own organization
and switching over of jobs will be decreased.
It is quite possible that the same object
may be perceived differently by different
people or by the same person on different
occasions.
There are two errors of perception namely
illusion and hallucination.
A wrong perception is called illusion.
A state in which errors of perception are
immediately confirmed by experience is
called an illusion.
In illusion we take a wrong meaning of
the stimulus present before us. It is
related with the stimulus.
 For example, at dim light the rope that we
find on the way is taken for a snake. Error
may result from inadequate stimulation,
poorly functioning sense organs or incorrect
interpretation of sensations.
 Illusion regarding distance
 Illusion regarding size and shape of the things
 Illusion regarding colour
 Illusion regarding movement and speed
Irregular or unusual conditions in the
external world
Defects in sensory organs
Anticipation expectation and suggestions
Interest and habits
Previous experience and present
selfishness
Present aptitudes
Hallucination is false perception. Here, a
person experiences of the stimulus even in the
absence of it.
A hallucination is a mental state in which a
person begins to perceive something in spite
of the absence of any external stimulus.
For example, at night a person may see a ghost
when practically there is no stimulus either in
the form of a human figure or anything
resembling it. This is a case of hallucination.
There is no stimulus in hallucination and
memory image is taken for perception.
There are two kinds of hallucinations.
Visual Hallucination: A hallucination which
occurs in the sphere of vision is called a
visual hallucination, and it means seeing an
object which is not in front of eyes at all.
Auditory Hallucination: The hallucination
which occurs in the sphere of hearing is
called auditory hallucination. For example,
while sitting in solitude or loneliness, we may
suddenly feel, that someone is calling us,
through, in reality no one has called us.
More but vague and irrelevant continuous
thinking
Excessive imagination or day-dreaming
The will and desire in the unconscious
mind
Hysteria / madness, schizophrenia and
other related mental diseases.
 Perception: A single unified awareness
derived from sensory processes while a
stimulus is present.
 Reality: The state of things as they are or
appear to be, rather than as one might wish
them to be.
 In other words, perception is defined what we
are seeing and reality is defined as what is
happening.
 Bottom-up approach, also called ‘direct approach’,
was proposed by Gibson. According to this approach,
objects exist whether they are perceived or not; for
instance, the door of your house exists whether you
perceive it or not, and it retains the properties of a
door whether someone perceives it as a door or not.
 Therefore, the properties of the target are
perception-independent. In other words, we perceive
the world directly through our sense organs and
inferences are not involved. This thinking is also
referred to as naive realism or direct realism. The
strongest argument in favor of this is our ability to
perceive something fast and accurately.
 Gibson’s theory was largely based on his observation of pilots
in World War II. Many argue that this was a unique situation
and the theory cannot explain several real-life situations. For
example, when a door is ajar and only the rectangular frame
falls in the eye, we still perceive it as a door through which we
can enter and exit. Illusions are another case in point and
what falls on our sensory organs is not what we perceive.
 This approach accepts that there are several
inputs and intermediary thinking/inferences
other than the physical stimuli, which falls on our
sensory organs that affect perception. This
approach is also called ‘constructivist’ or indirect
approach, and Gregory has been its dominant
proponent.
 Although this approach sounds very logical, it
too faces several inadequacies. For example, if
perception is the result of inferences, then how
can a new born baby perceive, since a neonate is
not capable of inferring?
 However, a neonate does perceive and show preference for
shape constancy, mother’s voice, and normal features rather
than scrambled features, even 5 minutes after birth. This
makes it difficult to explain perception solely through an
indirect approach.
 It is defined as a driving force that initiates and directs
behavior.
 Motivation is a kind of internal energy which drives a person
to do something in order to achieve something.
 It is a temporal or dynamic state within a person which is not
concerned with his/her personality.
 Derived from Latin word movere, which means to move .
 Stephen P. Robbins --- “the willingness to exert high levels of
effort towards organizational goals”
 NEED:-- a physiological or psychological imbalance leads to
creation of need.
 DRIVES (MOTIVES):-- propel individuals to attain their goals
or satisfy their need.
 INCENTIVES:-- anything that can mitigate a need and
decrease the intensity of a drive
 Intrinsic motivation is the natural tendency to seek out and
conquer challenges as we pursue personal interests and
exercise capabilities. When we are intrinsically motivated, we
do not need incentives or punishments because the activity
itself is rewarding.
 On the other hand, if we do something in order to earn a
grade, avoid punishment or for some other reason that has
very little to do with the task itself, then it is known
as Extrinsic motivation.
 Primary Motives:
Primary motives are essential for survival. They must be
satisfied first before we can take up any other activity. Primary
motives come to action when the physiological balance of the
body is upset. This balance is called homeostasis.
 Primary motives include hunger/thirst, respiration, sleep and
proper temperature.
➢ When an organism experiences hunger or thirst, certain
biological changes occur in the body. Once the
hunger/thirst is fulfilled, the physiological balance or
homeostasis is restored.
➢ Itis the drive for air or oxygen. If oxygen supply is not
there even for a moment, it may result in brain damage,
loss of memory and loss of control on one’s body.
➢ Itoccurs usually at regular intervals for a person. Lack of
sleep or inadequate sleep over long periods can result in
confusion, attention deficit, muscle tremors and increased
sensitivity to pain. The metabolism rate drops during sleep
regenerating energy.
Human life has not only just biological aspect but also social
aspect. Hence human behavior is activated by the following
social motives.
1. Achievement motives
2. Affiliation motives
3. Aggression motives
4. Power motives
5. Curiosity motives.
These are called social motives since they develop as a result
of relationships with people.
 They refer to a drive towards some standards of excellence.
People with high-level achievement motives prefer tasks that
would promise success and are moderately difficult. David C
McClelland has found that while high achievers tend to
succeed, low achievers tend to avoid failures.
 High achievers challenge failures and work harder while low
achievers accept failures and go for less difficult tasks. High
achievers prefer personal responsibility and like to get
feedback about their works.
 Children whose parents have accepted their independence
tend to become high achievers, while those of overprotective
parents tend to become low achievers. Children learn by
copying the behavior of their parents and other important
people in their lives who serve as models. The parental
expectations also develop achievement motivation in children.
 Man cannot exist in isolation. The need to
be with other people is known as affiliation
need. This need is revealed through one’s
attraction to others through friendship,
sociability or group membership. They
make more local phone calls, visits and
seek approvals of others.
 Need to rely on others which is called
dependency motive is one form of the
need for affiliation. When little children are
frightened, they seek others to comfort
them. This kind of experience in early life
makes one seek the friendly company of
others when faced with anxiety and fear.
 Intense frustrations after high
expectations, verbal and nonverbal
insults, fear and anxiety can trigger
aggression. Television and cinema
depicting violence can make youngsters
model themselves to aggressive
behavior.
 Social learning (modeling), classical
conditioning and instrument
conditioning are the ways in which
hostile aggression may be learned.
 Social power is defined as the ability of an
individual to produce intended effect on
the behavior or emotions of other people.
Persons with power motives will be
concerned with having impact, influence
and reputation.
 They exercise their power by joining
political parties, voluntary organizations,
and associating themselves with prominent
and popular men. They select jobs which
have an impact on others and dominate
weaker sections of the society. They often
try to convince others, play more
competitive sports and tend to drink more.
 Almost all individuals have a desire to have some standing
position among the people of his society or group. Nobody
likes to be considered inferior. Efforts to achieve a rank in
the hierarchy of the group are present not just in human
beings, but even among birds and animals.
Measurement of motives and
theories related to motivation

By
Rabia Umar
MS Clinical Psychology
Measurement of motives
 How are motives identified?
 How are they measured?
 How do researchers know which motives are
responsible for certain kinds of behavior?
Cont….
 These are difficult questions to answer because motives
are hypothetical constructs
 They cannot be seen or touched, handled, smelled, or
otherwise actually observed.
 For this reason, no single measurement method can be
considered a reliable.
 Instead, researchers usually rely on a combination of
various techniques to try to establish the presence
and/or the strength of various motives.
Cont…
 The methods employed for the measurement of motives
may be classified as
1. Direct
2. Indirect
3. Experimental
depending upon the nature of the adopted measures of
technique.
1. Direct methods:
 In this method required information about the motives
of an individual is gathered directly from the primary
source.
 The subject and his natural behavior are assessed by
directly asking him to account for his own behavior.
 The major techniques or methods included in this
category may be named as questionnaire, inventories,
motivation scale, check list, interview, etc.
2. Indirect methods:
 The material to which the subject is exposed in the
indirect measures of motives consists of fairy ambiguous
stimulus situations.
 Based on the mechanism of projection, subject is
expected to provide clues on his hidden or true motives
by responding to these unstructured stimuli.
Cont…
 The interpretation of these clues by the experimenter
may then help in the assessment of the subject’s true
motives.
 All the projective techniques like Rorschach’s inkblot
test, TAT test, sentence completion technique, word
association technique, role playing, etc. fall in the category
of indirect methods of measuring motives.
3. Experimental methods:
 Experimental methods of measuring motives consist of
the measures involving objective observations under
controlled conditions.
 For ascertaining the real motives, here the experimenter
first makes some tentative hypotheses and then tests
them in the laboratory for arriving at some objective
reliable and valid conclusions.
 Motivational researchers measure motivation in
terms of observable responses. They can be
cognitive responses such as the speed of recall
or quality of perception.
 We can also measure affective responses
through analyzing self-reports of subjective
experience and behavioral dimensions such as
performance on tasks.
 Motivation is also often measured in relative
terms. The current state of motivation can be
compared to previous or subsequent levels of
motivation or to motivation in a different goal
state, as in salient versus non-salient goals.
 For example, if we are offered a membership card, we
might be more motivated to exercise now than before,
and we might be more motivated than another person
who did not receive the same.
 Here is a list of some of the most commonly used
assessments of motivation that combine cognitive,
affective, and behavioral measures of motivation:
 Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS) designed to help
identify the motivation behind a target problem
behavior (Durand & Crimmins, 1988; 1992)
 The Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS) used for the
Assessment of Situational Intrinsic and Extrinsic
Motivation. The SIMS is designed to assess the
constructs of intrinsic motivation (Guay,Vallerand, &
Blanchard, 2000)
 The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) is a new measure of
intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and motivation
in sports (Pelletier, Tuson, & Fortier, 1995)
 General Procrastination Scale (Lay, 1986)
 Achievement Motives Scale is a short questionnaire
revised by Lang and Fries (2006)
 Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction &
Frustration Scale that addresses both need
satisfaction and frustration.
 Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg)
 Need for Cognition Scale contains statements
regarding a person’s enjoyment in thinking and
solving complex problems (Cacioppo & Petty,
1982; Cacioppo et al., 1996)
 Meaning in Life Questionnaire (Steger et al.,
2006)
Theories of motivation
 Motivation is a huge field of study. There are many
theories of motivation.
 Some of the famous motivation theories include the
following:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Abraham Maslow is among the most prominent
psychologists of the twentieth century.
 His hierarchy of needs is an image familiar to most business
students and managers.
 The theory is based on a simple premise: Human beings have
needs that are hierarchically ranked-Maslow, A. H. (1943).
 There are some needs that are basic to all human beings and
in their absence nothing else matters. As we satisfy these
basic needs, we start looking to satisfy higher order needs.
 In other words, once a lower level need is satisfied, it no
longer serves as a motivator.
Cont…
Physiological needs
 The most basic of Maslow’s need are physiological
needs.
 Physiological needs refer to the need for food, water, and
other biological needs.
 These needs are basic because when they are lacking, the
search for them may overpower all other urges.
 Imagine being very hungry, at that point all your behavior
may be directed at finding food.
 Once you eat, though, the search for food ceases and the
promise of food no longer serves as a motivator.
Safety needs
 Once physiological needs are satisfied, people tend to
become concerned about safety needs.
 Are they free from the threat of danger, pain, or an
uncertain future?
Social needs
 On the next level up, social needs refer to the need to
bond with other human beings, be loved, and form lasting
attachments with others.
 In fact, attachments, or lack of them, are associated with
our health and wellbeing.
 Desire for interpersonal attachments is fundamental
human motivation.
Esteem needs
 The satisfaction of social needs makes esteem
needs more salient.
 Esteem need refers to the desire to be respected by
one’s peers, feel important, and be appreciated.
Self-actualization
 Finally, at the highest level of the hierarchy, the need
for self-actualization refers to “becoming all you are
capable of becoming.”
 This need manifests itself by the desire to acquire new
skills, take on new challenges, and behave in a way that
will lead to the attainment of one’s life goals.
Arousal theory
 The arousal theory of motivation suggests that
each individual has different arousal level that is
perfect for them.
 Theory also suggests that we tend to seek for
our own stimulation in order to maintain our
optimal level of arousal.
 For instance, we go to night out with friends at a
club or someplace where we can get our arousal
elevated again when we’re down. But, arousal
levels don’t always drop and there’s a good
chance that energy levels are too elevated.
 In those cases when you’re too pumped up, taking
a nap or going for a relaxing walk might help you
soothe your arousal level again.
Cont…
 The key assumption of the arousal theory is that “Every
action we perform is pursued by our motivation to maintain
an ideal balance”.
 We tend to perform actions that drop our arousal level
when we feel over stimulated and we seek out activities
that get our blood pumping when our arousal level is
below the optimal level.
Cont…
 When we’re bored, we might engage in
invigorating activities like motorcycle racing
or dancing in order to reach that level of
arousal balance. But, it’s not to say that every
individual requires or fancies the same sorts
of activities. They might get their energy
pumped up by exercising.
 Likewise, we tend to relax our body and
mind with actions like sleeping or listening
to music when we are over aroused.
Maintaining the right balance keeps our
arousal level optimal, and in lots of ways also
keeps us healthy both psychologically and
physiologically.
Psychoanalytic Theory of Motivation
 This theory which has been explained by Sigmund Freud,
deals with unconscious motivation. According to Freud,
the inborn tendencies called instincts influence our
behavior.
 There are two groups of instincts with opposite nature:
a. Life instincts (Eros)
b. Death instincts (Thanatos)
Cont…
 Life instincts (Eros):
These instincts have the life energy called Libido-which
motivates the individual towards constructive activities
like love, sympathy/helping others, etc.
 Death instincts (Thanatos):
Motivate the individual for destructive activities like
murder, suicides, aggression, attack, etc.
 Freud has emphasized that the unconscious
motives play more dominant role in
determining our behavior, than conscious or
preconscious.
 He pointed that our actions are determined
by our unconscious motives.
 According to him, our unconscious
mannerisms, slips of tongue and phobias are
the result of these hidden motives.
 These hidden motives may also drive the
people towards various psychosomatic
disorders like chronic headaches, insomnia,
gastric troubles, etc.
INTELLIGENCE
 Intelligence
 Meaning and definition of Intelligence.
 Some established facts of intelligence.
 Misconception about intelligence.
Meaning and definition of Intelligence
 Intelligence is a general capacity of an individual
consciously to adjust his thinking to new requirements. It
is a general mental adaptability to new problems and
conditions of life. (Stern).
 Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an
individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to
deal effectively with his environment.
 What is Intelligence ?
 This general ability consist of a number of specific
abilities :
❑ Adaptability to a new environment or to change in the current
environment
❑ Capacity for knowledge and the ability to acquire it
❑ Capacity for reason & abstract thought
❑ Ability to comprehend relationships
❑ Ability to evaluate & judge
❑ Capacity for original and productive thought
Some established facts of intelligence
 The relation of intelligence with nature and nurture:
Intelligence is the product of heredity and environment.
Both are equally important.
 Distribution of intelligence: individual difference is
present. A majority are average, few are bright and few
are dull.
 Growth of Intelligence: as per the age. It reaches its
maximum at 16 to 20 years. There after horizontal
growth continues.
Cont…
 Intelligence and racial or cultural difference: It is not a
birth right of a particular race or group. The bright and
the dull can be in any race, caste, culture. The difference
may be due to influence of environment.
 Misconception of intelligence
 Intelligence is not knowledge though acquisition of
knowledge depends to great extent and vice versa.
 Intelligence is not memory: Even without memory
Intelligence is possible.
 Intelligence can be seen in both normal and abnormal
behavior/ in delinquency etc.
 Theories of intelligence
 It helps to understand the structure of intelligence.
 The theories are grouped into mainly two types.
1. Factor theories.
2. Cognitive theories.
 Factor theories
 Unitary Theory or Monarchic Theory.
 Anarchic Theory or Multifactor Theory.
 Spearman’s two factor theory or Eclectic Theory.
 Thurston’s Group Factor Theory.
 Unitary Theory or Monarchic Theory
 Intelligence consists of one factor.
 It believes on universal fund of intellectual competency
which can be used in all aspects.
 Intelligence can be utilized in any area of the life.
 It has some draw backs such as some situation it does
not suit well.
 A child may have good intelligence of Math but may be
poor in Civics.
 The Unitary theory stand rejected.
 Anarchic Theory or Multifactor Theory
 Propagated by Thorndike.
 This theory considers intelligence a combination of
numerous separate elements or factors.
 According to him, the mind is a host of highly
particularized and independent faculties.
Cont…
 The theory maintains that from a man’s ability to do one
kind of work we can infer absolutely nothing as to his
ability to do another kind of works.
 If a boy is good in literature, we can judge absolutely
nothing about his ability to study Chemistry.
 There is certain positive relationship between these
factors still.
Spearman’s two factor theory or Eclectic
Theory
 This as a very popular theory.
 According to Spearman intelligence is the ability to think
constructively.
 Spearman (1927) proposes that intelligence consists of two
abilities, viz. ‘G’- general ability and ‘S’- special ability.
 General factor or ability works in conjunction with special
ability.
 In all intellectual activities of the human being along with
general ability, there will also be a special ability which is
related to such action.
Spearman’s two factor theory or Eclectic
Theory
 E.g, An individual’s performance in Hindi is primarily due
to his general intelligence and partly to some kind of
specific ability in language. (g+s1).
 The ability in Math will be due to (g+s2)
 Thurston’s Group Factor Theory
 Louis Thurston came out with the group factor theory
(1937) saying that Intelligence is a cluster of abilities.
 These mental operations then constitute a group.
 He pointed out that there were Seven Primary Mental
Abilities and later on added two more.
 Thurston’s Group Factor Theory
 Verbal comprehension Factor: words and
ideas
 Verbal fluency Factor: rapid producing
words, sentences
 Numerical Factor: arithmetic ability
 Perceptual speed Factor: rapid recognition
of words and letters.
 Inductive reasoning Factor: reasoning from
the specific to the general
Cont….
 Spatial visualization Factor: It is involved in visualizing
shapes, rotations of objects, and how pieces of a puzzle
fit together
 Memory Factor: ability to recall
 Deductive Reasoning : Ability to use the generalized
results correctly
 Problem solving ability factor : Ability to solve problem
independently.
Cognitive theories
 Cognition theories
 These theories are otherwise called process-oriented
theories. They focus on intellectual processes; the
patterns of thinking and reasoning in people, used to
solve problems.
 These theories consider intelligence as a process which
helps to deal with problems and to find out the answers.
They are called cognitive theories because of their focus
on fundamental cognitive processes.
Cont…
 The important theories are:
1. Cattell and Horn’s Theory
2. Information Processing Theory of Intelligence
3. Jensen’s Theory of Mental Functioning
 Cattell and Horn’s Theory
 Cattell (1971) and Horn (1978) have proposed this theory in
which they have distinguished two types of intelligence.
 Fluid intelligence:
a. This is an innate, biologically or genetically determined
capacity and not influenced by education or training.
b. This capacity helps the person in learning and problem
solving.
c. This is the ability which is useful in understanding and
adjusting to strange situations.
d. This ability develops fully in people by the end of an
individual’s adolescence.
 Cattell and Horn’s Theory
 Crystallized intelligence:
a. It is a learned or acquired capacity.
b. It is influenced by environmental factors like education,
training, culture, knowledge and learned skills.
c. This ability can be observed in the behavior of a person
while dealing within culture, traditions in society, his
knowledge in worldly affairs, through the skills in handling
machinery, tools, etc.
d. Generally it continues throughout life. Though both types
of intelligence are independent, they are interrelated.
 Information Processing Theory of Intelligence
 This theory was proposed by American Psychologist Robert
Sternberg (1984).
 He distinguished between information processing
components and meta-components. Components are the
steps to solve a problem and the meta-components are the
basics of knowledge that one has to know to solve the
problem.
 The information processing is like a process of solving a
problem by an individual in which he proceeds to solve a
problem which he comes across, gathers the necessary
information and makes use of this information for
completing that task.
 Information Processing Theory of Intelligence
 The steps are
• Identifying the relevant information (encoding)
• Drawing the necessary inferences (inferring)
• Establishing relationship between past and present
experiences (mapping)
• Applying the inferred relationship (application)
• Justifying the correct solution (justification)
• Provide the correct solution (response).
Jensen’s Theory of Mental Functioning
 Arther Jensen (1969) proposed this theory.
 According to him, the functioning of one’s mind
depends upon the type and degree of
intelligence one possesses.
 Jensen splits intelligence into two types of
abilities- associative abilities and cognitive
abilities.
 Associative ability is the capacity to learn,
identify, discriminate, remember and reproduce
the learnt information and experiences.
Cont…
 Cognitive or conceptual ability is concerned with higher
order thinking, reasoning, analyzing and problem solving.
 According to Jenson associative abilities are related to
biological maturation and the cognitive are dependent on
education and culture, leading to more individual
differences.
Extremes of intelligence
 Mental retardation
 A generalized disorder appearing before adulthood, it is
usually characterized by significantly impaired cognitive
functioning and deficits in two or more adaptive
behaviors.
 Mental retardation
 Condition of limited mental ability
 Individual has a low IQ , usually below 70
 Individual has difficulty adapting to everyday life
 Exhibits the above characteristics by age 18
 Several ways to classify degrees of mental retardation, the one adopted
by most school systems uses IQ scores to categorize retardation as:
a. Mild
b. Moderate
c. Severe
d. Profound
 Mental retardation may have an organic cause , or it may be social and
cultural in origin
 Type of mental retardation IQ range

Mild 55-70
Moderate 40-54
Severe 25-39
Profound Below 25

Classification of Metal Retardation Based on IQ

 Mental Retardation
Organic retardation
Mental retardation caused by a genetic disorder or by
brain damage
❑Down syndrome
❑Fragile X syndrome
Most people who suffer from organic retardation have
IQs between 0 and 50.
 Mental Retardation
 When no evidence of organic brain damage can be found,
cases of mental retardation are labeled cultural-familial
retardation.
➢ Individuals with this type of retardation have IQs
between 55 and 70.
➢ Psychologists suspect that these mental deficits often
result from growing up in a below-average intellectual
environment.
 Giftedness
 People who are gifted:
o have above-average intelligence (an IQ 130 or higher)
o have a superior talent for something
o Usually believed to be an innate, personal aptitude for
intellectual activities that cannot be acquired through
personal effort.
Cont…
 Ellen Winner (1996) described 3 criteria that characterize
gifted children, whether in art, music or academic domain.
o Precocity
Extremely talented
o Marching to their own drummer
learn in a qualitatively different way than ordinary children
o Passion to master
are driven to understand the domain in which they have
high ability
INTELLIGENCE AND
THINKING
 LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE

• It’s the ability to use the

words effectively when
writing or speaking.
• It can be improve by reading
the best authors of the
language and having a
dictionary near when is
reading.
PROFESSIONAL PROFILES:
Political or religious leaders, poets or
writers.
 LOGICAL- MATHEMATICAL
INTELLIGENCE
• It is the ability to make numerical
calculations, formulate and verify
hypotheses and use the scientific
method.
• It can be improve by solving
abstract problems, doing mental
calculations and with numeric
games, among other.
PROFESSIONAL PROFILE:
Economist, accountant, engineer,
mathematician, scientist
 SPATIAL OR VISUAL
INTELLIGENCE
 It is the ability to present
ideas visually, create mental
images, perceive mental
details, draw and make
sketches.
 It can be improve by doing
artistic activities, mental
maps, visualization,
metaphors and graphics.
 PROFESSIONAL
PROFILES:Artist,
Photographer, Architect,
Designer.
 MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE

• It’s the ability to listen, sing,

play instruments as well
analyze sound in general.
• It can be improve by singing,
playing instruments, listening
to music, attending concerts,
etc.
PROFESSIONALS PROFILES:
Singer, composer, musician
 BODILY KINESTHETIC
INTELLIGENCE
• It’s the ability to do activities
that require strength, speed,
flexibility, hand eye
coordination and balance.
• It can be improve with manual
activities, theater, dance,
relaxation and sports
PROFESSIONAL PROFILES:
Sculptor, surgeon, actor, model,
dancer, sportsman.
INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE

• It’s the ability to set goals,

evaluates skills and personal
disadvantages and control own
thinking.
• It can be improve with
individualized instruction, self-
esteem activities, individual
projects and meditation.
PROFESSIONAL PROFILE: mature
individuals who are self-aware
INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE

• It’s the ability to work with

people, help people
indentify and overcome
problems.
• It can be improve with
cooperative learning,
tutorials, board games and
theater materials
PROFESSIONAL PROFILE
administrator, teacher and
psychologist.
Measurement of intelligence
 Measurement of intelligence
 The intelligence test can be classified as follows:
Intelligence test

Individual test Group test

(Verbal/Non-verbal) (Verbal/Non-verbal)
 Individual Verbal test
 The test involve the use of language and
administered to an individual at a time.
 An example for this is Stanford-Binet Scale.
 French Psychologist Alfred Binet (Father of
intelligence) has constructed this scale.
 This test contains 30 items arranged in order with
increasing difficulty.
 At age 3 Point out nose, eyes and mouth.
 At age 7 what is missing in the unfinished picture.
 The test is for people from 2 to 20 years.
 The scores are used to calculate IQ.
 Individual Performance test
 In this test the contents and responses are in the form of
performance.
 Language is not used at all.
 The performance in these activities are tested.
 Some of them are;
• Block building
• Cube construction
• To fit the blocks in the hole
• Tracing a maze
• Picture arrangement:
 Individual Performance test
 These test try to emphasize the significance of
performance.
 It is evaluated by number of attempts and the duration
taken to complete the test.
 Individual Performance test
 Another commonly used individual performance test is
Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence test.
 It has two versions such as WISC (Wechsler Intelligence
scale for children) and WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale).
 This is sometimes referred as both verbal and performance
scale simultaneously.
 The scale consists of 11 subsets, 6 are verbal and 5 are
performance.
 The scores are added to calculate the IQ.
 Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence test
❑ Verbal Scale:
• Test for General Information
• Test for general comprehension
• Test for arithmetic reasoning
• Test for distinction between similarities
• Test for digits span
• Test for vocabulary
❑ Performance Scale:
• Digit symbol test
• Picture completion test
• Block design nest
• Picture arrangement test
• Object assembly test.
 Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence test
 Some questions are
1. Consider all numbers from 1-60, in sequence. If you add any two
consecutive numbers, will the result be: Odd, Even, It depends
2. When the letters are rearranged in ANGRIATEN, you get the name of a:
State, Country, Continent, Planet, Ocean.
3. The number, “three thousand, eight hundred, sixty- eight,” when written
backward, is read, “eight thousand, six hundred, eighty-three.” True or False
 Group Verbal Tests

 The tests which necessitate the use of

language and are applied to a group of
individuals.
 Some of the common tests are:
• Army alpha test (developed during World
War I
• C.I.E verbal group test of intelligence
• The group test of general mental ability.
 Group Non Verbal Tests
 These tests do not use language and applied to a group.
 Some of the common tests are Army Beta test, CIE Non
verbal group test etc.
• Advantages of group tests:
❖ can be administered to very large numbers simultaneously
❖ simplified examiner role.
❖ scoring typically more objective.
❖ large, representative samples often used leading to better
established norms
 Disadvantages of group tests
 Examiner has less opportunity to obtain cooperation and
maintain interest
 Not readily detected if examinee tired, anxious, unwell.
 Examinee’s responses are more restricted
 Normally an individual is tested on all items in a group test
and may become boredom over easy items and frustrated or
anxious over difficult items.
 Individual tests typically provide for the examiner to choose
items based on the test takers prior responses, moving onto
quite difficult items or back to easier items. So individual
tests offer more flexibility.
 Verbal Vs Non verbal test
❑ Advantages of performance test:
• Useful for those without language.(Illiterate, foreign language,
problems with sense organs, etc.
• Good to understand skill in mechanical jobs etc.
❑ Disadvantages of performance test:
• Cannot predict academic ability.
• Very costly.
• Less reliable as chance of success are more.
• Good for mental ability but not good enough for
abstractions and concepts.
Mental Age and Intelligence
Quotient
 Mental Age and Intelligence Quotient
 Mental age is a concept related to intelligence.
 It looks at how a specific child, at a specific age, performs
intellectually, compared to average intellectual performance
for that physical age, measured in years.
 The physical age of the child is compared to the intellectual
performance of the child, based on performance in tests and
live assessments by a psychologist.
 Scores achieved by the child in question are compared to
scores in the middle of a bell curve for children of the same
age .
 Mental Age and Intelligence Quotient
 An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a total score derived
from one of several standardized tests designed to assess
human intelligence.
 This term was initiated by the German Psychologist William
Stern.
 IQ is a score obtained by dividing a person’s mental age
score, obtained by administering an intelligence test, by the
person’s chronological age, both expressed in terms of years
and months.
 The resulting fraction is multiplied by 100 to obtain the IQ
score.
Cont….
 There are two means of doing it.
1. According to Stanford Binet Scale:
I.Q = Mental Age(MA)/Chronological Age (CA)x 100
2. According to Wechsler scale:
I.Q = Attained or Actual Score/Expected mean score for age x
100
THINKING
Definition
 Thinking is a mental process which allows beings
to model the world, and so to deal with it effectively
according to their goals, plans, ends and desires.
 Thinking involves the manipulation of information, as
when we form concepts, engage in problem
solving, reason and make decisions.
 Thinking is a higher cognitive function and the analysis of
thinking processes is part of cognitive psychology.
 Thinking process
The processes of thought are as follows:
1. Understanding the formation. Understanding, formed
through the three stages as follows:
a. Analysis of the characteristics of similar objects. These objects
we look at the elements - elements one by one. For example, or
set up a human sense.
b. Comparison - compare these features to be found traits - traits
which are the same, which is not the same, which is always there
and which ones do not always exist where the essential and
which are not essential.
c. Abstraction, that is set aside, dispose, traits that are not
essential, capturing the essential characteristics.
Cont…
2. Opinion Formation- Formation of opinion is to put the
relationship between two terms or more. The opinions
expressed in the language called the sentence, which
consists of basic sentence or the title or subject and
predicate. Furthermore, the opinion can be divided into
three kinds:
a. Affirmative or positive opinion, the opinion which
declares a state of something, for example Franzel was
clever.
b. Negative opinion, which clearly explains the absence of
anything thing else on the nature of things: For example
Mikkha is ugly and so skinny.
c. Modalities, the possibility of something on the nature of
things: for example it might rain today, Miles might not
come. And so on.
Cont…
3. Conclusion withdrawal or Establishment Decision -
The decision is the result of the act makes sense to form a
new opinion based on the opinions that already exist.
There are three kinds of conclusions, ie
a. Inductive inference the decisions taken from the opinion,
opinion toward a particular public opinion.
b. Deductive conclusions decision drawn from the general
to the specific, so in contrast to inductive decision.
c. Conclusion analogical decision that is obtained by
comparing or customize with specific opinions that already
exist.
Stages of thinking
 1. Sensory Motor Stage
 Lasts from birth until the age of 2 years. At this stage,
infants build an understanding of the world by
coordinating the experiences of sensors (such as seeing
and hearing) with physical motor actions, the so-called
sensory motor. At the beginning of this stage, the
newborn has a little more than a reflex patterns.
 2. Pre-operational stage
 Lasted roughly from age 2 to 7 years. At this stage, children begin
to describe the world with words and pictures. Symbolic thinking
beyond the simple relationship between the sensor information
and physical action. However, even preschoolers can symbolically
depicts the world, according to Piaget, they are still not able to
implement what is called "surgery"-an internalized mental actions
that allow the children to do mentally what was previously done
physically.
 3. Concrete operational stage

 Lasted roughly from ages 7 to 11 years.

 At this stage children can carry out operations,
and logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought as
far as thought can be applied to the specific exa
mples or concrete. For example, concrete operati
onal thinking can not imagine the steps necessary
to solve an algebra problem, which is too vague to
be considered at this stage of development.
 4. Formal Operational Stage
 It appears from the age of 11-15 years.
 At this stage the individual beyond the real world,
concrete experiences and think in abstract and more
logical.As part of a more abstract thinking,
adolescents develop a picture of an ideal state.They
can think what kind of parents the ideal and compare
their parents with this ideal standard.They began to
prepare for the possibilities for the future and in
awe of what they can do. In solving the problem, the
formal operational thinker is more systematically,
develop hypotheses about why things happen like
that, then test this hypothesis by way of deductive
reasoning.
Difference between creative thinking and
imagination
❑Creativity is generally considered as the
ability to create something using
the imagination .
❑Creativity is the act of creating
something in the real world.
❑ While imagination deals with
'unreal‘ thoughts that are free from the
confines of reality.