Groundwater Hydrology
Thisd Edition
David Keith Todd
University of California, Berkeley
and
Todd Engincers
Larry W. Mays
Arizona State University
®
WILEY
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Production Management Services Argosy Publishing
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On the Cover: Comal Springs. The highly productive Edwards aquifer, the first aquifer to be desig-
nated asa sole source aquifer under the Safe Drinking Water Act, isthe source of water for more than
| million people in San Antonio, Texas, some military bases and small towns, and for south-central
‘Texas farmers and ranchers. The aquifer also supplies water to sustain threatened and endangered
species habitat associated with natural springs in the region and supplies surface water to users down-
stream from the major springs. These various uses ae in direct competition with ground-water devel-
‘opment and have created challenging issues of ground-water management inthe region.
Photo and description from the USGS website:
hup/watecusgs.gov/pubs/ciclcire1 186.html/gw_effect html
isk id ma i pp:
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PREFACE to the 3rd Edition
Water is essential for life on Barth, and the largest source of fresh water lies under the Earth's surface.
Increased demands for water have stimulated efforts to further develop, and in many cases over develop,
‘our groundwater resources. In addition we have created pollution problems resulting from over develop-
‘ment of groundwater resources and the mismanagement of wastes. As a result investigations of the occur-
rence and movement of groundwater have advanced, drilling equipment has improved, new models have
been developed, techniques for managing groundwater have advanced, and research has extended our
understanding of the resource.
Intended Audience and Introduction
‘This book is intended for a groundwater hydrology course in civil and environmental engineering, geol-
ogy, or hydrogeology. It is appropriate for either a one or two term course atthe junior, senior, or gradu-
ate level
‘The first edition of this book by David K. Todd was published in 1959 and the second edition was
published in 1980, This third edition of Groundwater Hydrology has the same purpose as the previous
‘wo editions, to present the fundamentals of groundwater hydrology in a manner understandable to those
‘most concerned with such knowledge. Few people specialize in the subject, yet, because groundwater is
‘a major natural resource, the subject becomes important for students and professionals in many fields:
water supply, the environment, agriculture, economics, mining, and the law, to name only the obvious
‘ones. Although itis impossible to presenta subject fitted to such a diversity of students the common need
is an understanding of the fundamental principles, methods, and problems in the groundwater field.
‘Thus, this book endeavors to make available a unified presentation of groundwater hydrology.
Since the earlier editions of this book, the groundwater resource field has made tremendous strides,
Awareness of the environment, concems and competition for water supplies, contamination of ground-
‘water, and enhanced regulation of water resources have all focused attention on the subject. As a result
cducational programs, research funding, and professionals actively involved in developing and managing
groundwater have grown dramatically. The National Ground Water Association together with journals
such as Ground Water and Water Resources Research has been instrumental in advancing groundwater
knowledge.
‘New to this edition
‘We have attempted to develop this book, not only as a stand-alone work, but in partnership withthe Inter-
net to serve as a portal to the vast resources on groundwater hydrology that now exist on the Internet.
Hopefully this book will help guide the student, the professional, and the researcher to the general doc-
uments and other publications, program plans, field project details, software, and other information
found on the Internet.vi Preface
Internet References
“Most of the web sites in the book are maintained by government agencies and nongovernmental organi
zations so that they will tey continue in the future. Several end-of-chapter problems throughout the book
are based upon Internet exercises.
+ Example Problems, Case Studies, Problem Sets The most significant change in ths edition has
been the addition of example problems and case studies inthe text, and the addition of problem
sets atthe end of each chapter. For educational purposes these problems enable a student to apply
‘material in the text to realistic everyday situations
+ Modeling with MODFLOW The second most noticeable change has been an entirely new chapter
‘on modeling (Chapter 9) featuring the U. S. Geological Survey MODFLOW model, which has
become the standard modeling tool in the groundwater field. Chief among the new developments in
the groundwater field is the role of computers, not only for organizing data and solving problems but
also in managing groundwater resources on a basin-wide basis for known or anticipated inputs and
outputs,
‘+ New Figures and Photos We have included over 300 new figures and photos. Many of the new
figures and tables within the book have been taken from various Web pages, in particular the U.
8. Geological Survey. These items not only provide specific information but serve as samples of
«graphics and tabulations available on the Internet making the style of this book mote variable than
that of most textbooks.
+ References References have been updated and selected on the basis of significance and avail-
ability
+ Metric and US. Units Both metric and U. S. customary units have been used in the example
problems. Metric units are used in keeping with their growing acceptance in the United States as
well asin recognition of the wide use of this book throughout the World. U. S. customary units
have also been used because ofthe continued use by many in the United States.
‘Student and Instructor Resources
‘The website for the book, located at www.wiley.com/college/todd, includes resources for both students,
‘and faculty: corrections tothe book, updates on changes in web addresses and new web pages used in the
book, and other updates on material inthe book that are of value to students and faculty. These resources.
are also included on the author's website at www.public.asu.edu/-lwmays/. Larry Mays can be contacted
at mays@asuedu
For instructors who have adopted the book for their course, a complete Solutions Manual for all
homework problems in the text is available for download. Selected figures from the tex, in PowerPoint
format, are also available for easy creation of lecture slides. Visit the Instructor Companion Site portion.
of the book's website to register for a password for these assets available only to instructors,
For instructors who have adopted the book for their course, a complete Solutions Manual forall
‘homework problems in the text is available for download. Selected figures from the text, in PowerPoint
format, are also available for easy creation of lecture slides. Visit the Instructor Companion Site portion
‘of the book’s website to register for a password for these assets available only to instructors.
Acknowledgements
We are indebted to personnel of the U. S. Geological Survey for their numerous excellent publica-
tions on so many aspects of groundwater from which we have borrowed freely. We are deeply indebted
to Sukru Ozger who prepared many of the problems and their solutions forthe solutions manual. Students
at Arizona State University have been exposed to advanced drafts of this new edition and offered severalani-
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Preface vil
constructive comments. We want to thank the reviewers Scott Wolcott of Rochester Institute of Technol-
ogy, Rameshwar Singh of San Jose State University, Rao S. Govindaraju of Purdue University, Albert J
Valocchi ofthe University of Iinois at Urbana-Champaign, Jeffrey D. Caulfield ofthe University of Mis-
sour at Rolla, and Mark Widdowson of Virginia Tech. for their helpful comments and suggestions
David W. Abbott, Maureen Reilly, and Dan Rothman, PE. provided useful reviews of selected chapters.
David Keith Todd Larry W. Mays
Piedmont, California Scottsdale, ArizonaContents
Introduction 1
LL Scope 1
1.2 Historical Background 2
121 Qanats 2
1.22 Groundwater Theories 2
1.23. Recent Centuries 4
1.3 Trends in Water Withdrawals and Use 5
14 Utilization of Groundwater 9
15 Groundwater in the Hydrologic Cycle 13
15.1 Hydrologic Cycle 13,
1.52 The Groundwater System in the Hydrologic Cycle. 15,
16 Hydrologic Budget 20
LT Publication Sources. 27
1.7.1 Intemet Resources. 27
1.72 US. Geological Survey Publications 27
173. Publications — 29
18 DataSources 29
18.1 NWISWeb Data forthe Nation 30
182 RealTime Data 31
Problems 32
References 33,
Example Publications of Organizations and Government Agencies 34
2 Occurrence of Groundwater 35
21 Origin and Age of Groundwater 35
22 Rock Properties Affecting Groundwater 36
221 Aquifers 36
222 Porosity 37
223° SoilClassifiction 40
2.24 Porosity and Representative Elementary Volume 41
225. Specific Surface 42
23. Vertical Distribution of Groundwater 45
24 Zone of Aeration 46
24.1. Soil-Water Zone 46
24.2 Inermediate Vadose Zone 46
243. Capillary Zone 47
244 Measurement of Water Content 49
245 Available Water 50
25 Zone of Saturation 50
25.1 SpecificRetention 50
252 SpecificYield 50
2.6 Geologic Formations as Aquifers 52
26.1 Alluvial Deposits 52
262 Limestone 53
263 Volcanic Rock 55
264 Sandstone 55X Contents
265. Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks 55
266 Chay 55
2.7 ‘Types of Aquifers 56
27.1 Unconfined Aquifer 56
212 Confined Aquifers 56
273 Leaky Aquifer 57
274 Wdealized Aquifer 57
28 Storage Coefficient 58
2.9 Groundwater BasinsRegional Groundwater Flow Systems 59
29.1 High Plains Aquifer 59
29.2 Gulf Coastal Plain Aquifer System 61
210 Springs 67
210.1 What Are Springs? 67
2.10.2. Edwards Aquifer—Discharge of Springs 70
2.11 Hydrothermal Phenomena 73
211.1 Thermal Springs 73
2.11.2 Geothermal Energy Resources _ 75
2.12 Groundwater in Permafrost Regions 76
2.13 Groundwater inthe United States 77
Problems 83
References 84
3. Groundwater Movement 86
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
3.10
Darcy’sLaw 86
3.1.1 Experimental Verification 86
3.1.2 Darcy Velocity 89
3.13 Validity of Darcy's Law 90
Permeability 91
3.2.1 Intrinsic Permeability 91
3.2.2 Hydraulic Conductivity 91
3.2.3 Transmissivity 92
3.24 Hydraulic Conductivity of Geologic Materials 92
Determinat 94
33.1 Formulas 94
33.2 Laboratory Methods 95
33.3. TracerTests 98
334 AugerHole Tests 99
33.5 Pumping Tests of Wells 100
Anisotropic Aquifers 100
Groundwater Flow Rates 103
Groundwater Flow Directions 105
36.1 FlowNets 105
3.6.2 Flow in Relation to Groundwater Contours 106
3.63 Flow Across WaterTable 112
3.64 Flow Across a Hydraulic Conductivity Boundary 114
3.65 Regional Flow Patters 115
Dispersion 119
37.1 Concept 119
3.2. Dispersion and Groundwater Hydrology 121
Groundwater Tracers 122
General Flow Equations 122
Unsaturated Flow 125
3.10.1 Flow Through Unsaturated Soils 126
3.10.2 Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity 128
ail
3.12
Prot
Rele
a\s
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
4.10
Prob
Refe
53
SA3.103 Vertical and Horizontal Fiows 133,
3.1 Kinematic Wave 133
3.12 Infiltration: The Green-Ampt Method 134
Problems 140
References 142,
4 Groundwater and Well Hydraulics 146
Contents xi
4.1 Steady Unidirectional Flow 146
4.1.1 Confined Aquifer 146
4.12 Unconfined Aquifer 147
4.13 Base Flow toa Stream 149
42 Steady Radial Flow toaWell 152
42.1 Confined Aquifer 152
42.2 Unconfined Aquifer 156
42.3 Unconfined Aquifer with Uniform Recharge
43° WellinaUniformFlow 161
44 Unsteady Radial Flow ina Confined Aquifer 163
44.1 Nonequilibrium Well Pumping Equation 163
44.2 Theis Method of Solution 168
4443 Cooper-Jacob Method of Solution 167
444 Chow Method of Solution 169
445 Recovery Test 170
45. Unsteady Radial Flow in an Unconfined Aquifer 172
4.6 Unsteady Radial Flow ina Leaky Aquifer 177
4.7 Well Flow Near Aquifer Boundaries 180
47.1 WellFlow Near a Stream 180
4.7.2 Well Flow Near an Impermeable Boundary 186
4.73. Well Flow Near Other Boundaries 189
4.74 Location of Aquifer Boundary 191
48 Multiple Well Systems 192
49. Partially Penetrating Wells 195,
4.10 Well Flow for Special Conditions 198
Problems 198
References 204
5 Water Wells 206
159
5.1 Test Holes and Well Logs 206
5.2. Methods for Constructing Shallow Wells 206
52.1 DugWells 208
522 Bored Wells 209
523 DrivenWells 211
5.24 Jetted Wells 212
5.3 Methods for Drilling Deep Wells 214
53.1 Cable Tool Method 218
53.2 RotaryMethod 20
533 AirRotary Method — 220
534 Rotary-Percussion Method 221
53.5 Reverse-Circulation Rotary Method 222
54 Well Completion 222
S41 WellCasings 222
542 Cementing 223
543 Screens 223
544 Gravel Packs 226Contents
55 Well Development 228
35.1 Pumping 228
552 Surging 228
55.3. Surging with Air 228
554 Backwashing with Air 228
555 Hydraulic Jeting 230
556 Chemicals 231
55.7 Hydraulic Fracturing 231
558 Explosives 231
56 Testing Wells for Yield 232
5.7 Pumping Equipment 232
57.1 Total Pumping Head 232
57.2. Pumps for Shallow Wells 232
54.3 Pumps for Deep Wells 232
58 Protection of Wells 234
58.1 Sanitary Protection 234
582. Frost Protection 236
583. Abandonment of Wells 237
59 Well Relabilitaion 237
5.10 Horizontal Wells 239,
5.10.1 Inflation Galleries 239
5.102 Horiontal Pipes 240
5.103 Collector Wells 240
SIL Characteristic Well Losses 242
S11 Well Losses 242
5.11.2 Evaluation of Well Loss 243
5.12. Specific Capacity and Well Eficiency 248
5.13. Slug Tests 250
5.13.1 Definition 250
5.13.2 Design Guidelines 250
5.133 Performance of Slug Tests 251
5.1344 Methods for Analyzing Slug Test Data 253
5.14 Slug Tests for Confined Formations 255
5.14.1 Cooper, Bredehoef, and Papadopulos Method 255
5.142 Hvorslev Method 259
5.15. Slug Tests for Unconfined Formations 261
5.15.1 Bouwerand Rice Method 262
5.15.2 Dagan Method 268
5.153 KGS Model 271
5.16 Slug Tests for High Conductivity Formations 272
5.17 Well'Skin Effect 273,
Problems 273
References 716
6 Groundwater Levels and Environmental Influences 279
6. Time Variations of Levels. 279
6.1.1 Secular Variations 279
6.12 Seasonal Variations 280
6.1.3. Short-Term Variations 280
62. Stwamfiow and Groundwater Levels 284
621 Bank Storage 285
622 Base Flow 286
623. Base Flow Recession Curve 289
63 Fluctuations Due to Evapotrnspication 29163.1. Evaporation Effects 291
63.2 Transpiration Effects 291
63.3 Evapotranspiration Effects 292
64 Fluctuations Due to Meteorological Phenomena 295
64.1 Atmospheric Pressure 295
642 Rainfall 297
643 Wind 298
644 Frost 298
65 Fluctuations Due toTides 299
65.1 OceanTides 299
65.2 EathTides 302
66 Urbanization 303
67 Earthquakes 306
68 Extemal Loads 308
69 Land Subsidence and Groundwater 308
69.1 Lowering of Piezometric Surface 311
69.2 Hydrocompaction 315
69.3 Dewatering of Organic Soils 317
694 Sinkhole Formation 317
695. Crustal Uplift 319
69.6 Monitoring of Land Subsidence 319
(6.10. Effects of Global Climate Change on Groundwater 321,
Problems 324
References 325
7 Quality of Groundwater 329
741 Natural Groundwater Quality 329
72 Sources of Salinity 330
73. Measures of Water Quality 335,
74 Chemical Analysis 337
74. Concentrations by Weight 337
742 Chemical Equivalence 338
743 Toa Dissolved Solids by Electrical Conductance 339
744 Hardness 339
15 Graphic Representations 340
76 Physical Analysis 345
7.7 Biological Analysis 345
78 Groundwater Samples 345
719 Water Quality Criteria 346
79. Drinking Water Standards 346
79.2 Industrial Water Criteria 346
79.3 ligation Water Criteria 347
7.10 Changesin Chemical Composition 348
TAL Dissolved Gases 349
712 Temperature 351
7.13. Saline Groundwater 354
Problems 356
References 357
8 Pollution of Groundwater 359
8.1 Pollution in Relation to Water Use 359
8.2 Municipal Sources and Causes 361,
82.1 SewerLeakage 361xiv
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
8.10
al
Contents
8.2.2 Liquid Wastes 361
82.3 Solid Wastes 362
Industrial Sources and Causes 364
83.1 Liquid Wastes 364
83.2 Tankand Pipeline Leakage 364
833° Mining Activities 364
834 Oil-Field Brines 366
Agricultural Sources and Causes. 367
84.1 Irrigation Retum Flows 367
84.2 Animal Wastes 367
843 Fentlizersand Soil Amendments 367
844 Pesticides, Insecticides, and Herbicides 368
Miscellaneous Sources and Causes 368
85.1 Urbanization 368
85.2 Spills and Surface Discharges 370
853. Stockpiles 370
854 Septic Tanks and Cesspools 370
85.5 Roadway Deicing 370
85.6 Saline Water Intrusion 371
85.7 Interchange through Wells 372
85.8 Surface Water 372
Attenuation of Pollution 373
861 Filtration 373
86.2 Sorption 373,
863 Chemical Processes 374
864 Microbiological Decomposition 374
865 Dilution 374
Distribution of Pollution Underground 375
87.1 Hanford Site in Richland, Washington 377
‘Mass Transport of Pollutants 378
8.8.1 Transport Processes 378
88.2 _Advection-Dispersion Equation for Solute Transport in Saturated Porous Media 382
883 Analytical Procedure 384
8.84 Transport of Reactive Pollutants 385
Monitoring Groundwater Quality 386
Remediation of Contaminated Groundwater 392
8.10.1 Remediation Goals 392
8.10.2 System Design 394
8.103 Hydraulic Containment of Groundwater 304
8.104 Groundwater Extraction Systems 396
8.105 Treatment of Contaminated Groundwater 396
Conventional Pump-and-Treatment Systems 401
8.11.1 Pump-and-Treat Remediation Suategies 401
8.11.2 Characterizing Sites for Pump and Treatment Design 403
8.11.3 Capture Zone Analysis 406
8.114 Extraction/Injection Scheme Design 407
Problems 407
References 409
9 Groundwater Flow Modeling Techniques 413
9
92
93
94
Why Develop Groundwater Models? 413
‘Types of Groundwater Models 414
‘Steps in the Development of « Groundwater Model 415.
‘Simulation of Two-Dimensional Groundwater Systems 415
9.4.1 Governing Equations 415
a
98
99.
9
94
Ret
0
102
102
104
10s
106
10796
91
98
99
9.10
9.
94.2. Finite Difference Equations 417
943 Solution 419
944 Case Study 419
‘Three-Dimensional Groundwater Flow Model 420
95.1 Derivation of Finite Difference Equations 420
952 Simulation of Boundaries 427
953 Vertical Discretzation 427
954 Hydraulic Conductance Equations 429
MODFLOW-2000 Description 431
9.6.1 Model Introduction 431
9.62 Space and Time Discretization 432
9.63 External Sources and Stresses 433,
9.644 Hydraulic Conductance—Layer-Property Flow Package (LPF)
9.65 SolverPackages 440
9.66 Telescopic Mesh Refinement 440
Case Study: Using MODFLOW: Lake Five-O, Flora 444
9.1.1 Finite Difference Grid and Boundary Conditions 444
97.2 Model Calibration and Sensitivity Analysis 444
9.73 Model Results 448
Particle Tracking—MODPATH 449
98.1 Whats Particle Tracking? 449
9.8.2 Particle Tracking Analysis—An Application 449
Example Applications and Input of MODFLOW 450
Solute Transport Modeling—MOC3D 455
9.10.1 Solute Transport Equation 455
9.102 MOC3D Model 456
Groundwater Modeling Software Support 459
9.11.1 US. Geological Survey 459
9.112 U.S. EPA Center for Exposure Assessment Modeling (CEAM)
9.113 Intemational Groundwater Modeling Center (IGWMC) 459
9.114 Processors for MODFLOW 459
Problems 460)
References 461
10
10.1
102
103
104
105
106
107
Management of Groundwater 464
Concepts of Basin Management 464
10.1.1 Managing Groundwater Resources 465
Groundwater Basin Investigations and Data Collection 466
102.1 Topographic Data 467
10.22 Geologic Data 468
102.3 Hydrologic Data 468
Yield 469
103.1 Alternative Basin Yields 469
10.3.2 Evaluation of Perennial Yield 471
CConjunctive Use and Watershed Management 473
Groundwater Management: Water Laws and Policies 477
105.1 Water Law and Policy 477
10.5.2 Arizona's Groundwater Management Code 477
1053 Texas GroundwaterLaw 478
‘Case Study: Groundwater Management: Examples 479
106.1 Edwards Aquifer Management 479
10.62 High Plans Aquifer: Conjunctive Water Use on the High Plains
Groundwater Management Using Models 481
10.7.1 What Are Groundwater Management Models? 481
436
459
480
Contentsxvi Contents
10.7.2 Optimization Methods 482
10.7.3. Types of Groundwater Management Models 482
108 Groundwater Management Modeling: Hydraulic Management Models 484
10.8.1 Steady-State One-Dimensional Problems for Confined Aquifers 484
10.8.2 Steady-State One-Dimensional Problems for Unconfined Aquifers 486
10.8.3 Steady-State Two-Dimensional Model for Confined Aquifers 487
10.84 Transient One-Dimensional Problem for Confined Aquifers 489
10.8.5 Steady-State Two-Dimensional Problem for Unconfined Aquifers 490
10.9 Policy Evaluation and Allocation Models: Response Matrix Approach 492
10.10 Optimal Control Groundwater Management Modeling 495,
10.11 Case Studies: Groundwater Management Modeling Applications 496
10.11.1 Optimal-Control Model for Barton Springs-Edwards Aquifer, Texas 496
10.11.2 Heuristic Optimization-Simulation Model for Groundwater Remediation Design:
N-Springs Site, Hanford, Washington 497
10.11.3 Groundwater Management Model Using Response Matrix Approach:
‘Santa Clara-Calleguas Basin, Califomia 499
Problems S04
References 506
11__Surface Investigations of Groundwater 509
111 Geologic Methods 509
112 Remote Sensing $10
113 Geophysical Exploration 512
114 Electrical Resistivity Method 513.
115 Seismic Refraction Method $17
11.6 Gravity and Magnetic Methods 520
Problems 520
References S21
12 _ Subsurface Investigations of Groundwater 523,
121 Testing 523
12.1.1 Geologic Log 524
12.12 Driling-Time Log 525
122 WaterLevel Measurement 526
123 Geophysicel Logging 527
124 Resistivity Logging 529
125. Spontaneous Potential Logging 533,
12.6 Radiation Logging 533
126.1 Natural-Gamma Logging 533
12.62 Gamma-Gamma Logging 534
1263 Neutron Logging 535
127 Temperature Logging 535
128 Caliper Logging 536
129 Fluid-Conductivty Logging 537
12.10 Fluid-Velocity Logging 537
12.11 Miscellaneous Logging Techniques 538
1211.1 Television Logging 538
12112 Acoustic Logging 538
12.113 Casing Logging $39
12.12 Other Subsurface Methods 539
12.13 Case Study: Oasis Valley, Nevada 539
Problems S41
References 54513._ Artificial Recharge of Groundwater 547
IB.L Concept of Artificial Recharge $47
13.2. Recharge Methods $48
13.2.1 Methods 548
13.22 Recharge Rates 556
133 Wastewater Recharge for Reuse 559
13.4 Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT) Systems 560
134.1 What Are SAT Systems? 560
1342 Operation of SAT Systems $63,
13.43 Modeling SAT Systems 565
135. Recharge Mounds 567
135.1 Perched Groundwater Mounds 567
1352 Steady-State Equations for Groundwater Mounds
135.3 Hantush Equation 570
1346 Stormwater Infiltration Basin Mound Development 576
136.1 Potential Flow Model fora Trench S76
13.62 Potential Flow Model for Circular Basin S78
13.63 Mound Growth 580
13.64 Mound Recession 582
137 Innovative Approaches $83,
1321 Wildwood, New Jersey 583
13.22 Orange County, California 584
13113 Long Island, New York 584
1374 Orlando, Florida 584
1375 Dayton, Ohio $84
138 Induced Recharge 584
Problems 585
References 986
14 Saline Water Intrusion in Aquifers 589
14.1 Occurrence of Saline Water Intrusion 589
14.2 Ghyben-Herzberg Relation Between Fresh and Saline Waters
143. Shape of the Fresh-Salt Wate Interface 592
144° Structure ofthe Fresh-Salt Water Interface 596
145 Effect of Wells on Seawater Intrusion 597
14.6 Upconing of Saline Water 600
147 Fresh-Salt Water Relations on Oceanic Islands 603
148 Seawater Intrusion in Karst Terains 605
149 Control of Saline Water Intrusion 606
14.10 Examples of Seawater Intrusion 608
14.10.1 Long Island, New York 608
14.102 Southern California 608
Problems 611
References 612
Appendix A 615
Appendix B 619
Appendix C 620
Index 625
Contents xvii
590Chapter 1
Introduction
Groundwater hydrology may be defined as the science of the occurrence, distribution, and
‘movement of water below the surface of the earth. Geohydrology has an identical connotation,
and hydrogeology differs only by its greater emphasis on geology. Utilization of groundwater
dates from ancient times, although an understanding of the occurrence and movement of sub-
surface water as part of the hydrologic cycle is recent.
‘The US. National Research Council (1991) presented the following definition of hydrology:
Hydrology is the science that eas the waters ofthe Earth, their occurence, circulation, and
distribution, their chemical and physical propetes and their reaction withthe environment,
including the relation o living things. The domain of hydrology embraces the ul life history
of water on Barth
Section 1.5 describes in further detail the concepts ofthe hydrologic cycle.
‘The importance of groundwater (hydrology) in the hydrologic cycle has been the subject of
extensive technical research and publishing by many investigators over the past decades. Many
‘of these publications are introduced inthis book. Also, many books written on the subject ofthe
fate of water have caught the attention of the general public, especially those interested in saving
‘our resources. These include books by Carson'® and de Villiers* among others.
1.1 SCOPE
Groundwater (ceferred to without further specification) is commonly understood to mean water
‘occupying all the voids within a geologic stratum. This saturated zone is to be distinguished
from an unsaturated, ot aeration, zone where voids are filled with water and air. Water con-
tained in saturated zones is important for engineering works, geologic studies, and water sup-
ply developments; consequently, the occurrence of water in these zones will be emphasized
here. Unsaturated zones are usually found above saturated zones and extend upward to the
‘ground surface; because water here includes soil moisture within the root zone, itis @ major
cconcem of agriculture, botany, and sol scence. No rigid demarcation of waters between the two
zones is possible, for they possess an interdependent boundary, and water can move from zone
to zone in either direction. The interelationships are described more fully in Chapter 2.
Groundwater plays an important part in petroleum engineering. Two-fluid systems,
involving ol and water, and thee-fluid systems, involving gas, ol, and water, occur frequently
in development of petroleum. Although the same hydrodynamic laws gover flows of these
systems and groundwater, the distinctive nature of water in petroleum reservoirs ses it apart
from other groundwater. Major differences exist in water quality, depth of occurrence, and
methods of development and utilization, all of which contribute toa separation of interests and
1