Modelling Of Human Leg and Robotic Arm

TARUN SHARMA
RB6803B60
Regd.10802916

Lovely Professional University

Abstract—The intention of this paper is to mid-80’s, the industry recovered and robotics was
introduce to a biological control application
back on track. 
consisting of the modelling and control of a
human leg and robotic arm. Robotic control
systems inspired by animals are enticing to the George Devol Jr, in 1954 developed the multi-jointed
robot designer due to their promises of simplicity, artificial arm, which lead to the modern robots.
elegance and robustness. Neural motor systems in
animals are only meaningful in the context of their However, mechanical engineer Victor Scheinman,
mechanical body, and the behaviour of the system developed the truly flexible arm know as the
can be highly dependent on nonlinear and
dynamic properties of the mechanical part of the Programmable Universal Manipulation Arm
system. (PUMA).
HISTORY OF ROBOTICS In 1950, Isaac Asimov came up with laws for robots

The advent of robotics started in the year 350 B.C. and these were:

when a Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarentum

 A robot may not injure a human being, or
built a mechanical bird, which was called “the
through inaction allow a human being to
pigeon”. This mechanical bird was powered using
come to harm.
steam. With further advancements, Leonardo Da
 A robot must obey the orders given it by
Vinci in the year, 1495 designed a mechanical device
human beings, except where such orders
that looked like an armoured knight. The knight was
would conflict with the first law.
designed to move as if there was a real person inside.
 A robot must protect its own existence as
In 1898, Nikola Tesla designed the first remote-
long as such protection does not conflict with
controlled robot in Madison Square Garden. The
the first or second law (Robotics
robot designed was modelled after a boat.
Introduction. 2001).
The first industrial robots were Unimates developed CL CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
by George Devol and Joe Engelberger in the late 50’s
There are various types of robots, which are used
and early 60’s. The first patents were by Devol but
now in the modern world each having one or several
Eagleburger formed Unimation which was the first
tasks that it performs depending on the intelligence
market robots. Therefore, Engelberger has been
applied to it. However, robots can be classified
called the “father of robotics”.  For a while, the
broadly into two types namely:
economic viability of these robots proved disastrous
and thing slowed down for robotics. However, by  Autonomous Mobile Robots
 Manipulator Robots
 AUTONOMOUS MOBILE ROBOTS
 These are mobile robots provided with the
mechanisms to perform certain tasks such as
locomotion, sensing, localization, and motion
planning. Autonomous mobile robots are
capable of adapting to their environment. The
intelligence provided to them enables them to
be able to sense conditions around their
environment and respond correctly to the
situations. Examples of Autonomous mobile
robots include the autonomous guided vehicle
robots which independent of external human
actions deliver parts between various
assembly stations by following special
electrical guide wires using a custom sensor
MANIPULATOR ROBOTS
 These are robots that perform particular tasks.
They are usually in the form of robot arms
and are normally stationary. In most cases,
they are bolted at the shoulder to a specific
position in the assembly line, and the robot
arm can move with great speed and accuracy
to perform repetitive tasks such as spot
welding and painting. Manipulator robots are
very much unlike the autonomous mobile
robots whereby the intelligence provided to
them does not make them adapt to the
environment in which they are. In most cases,
most manipulator robots are capable of
handling many end-effectors in order to
increase the versatility of their use.
APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTICS
 Robotics is becoming almost very popular in
today’s world and is now applied in several
spheres of the human life. Robotics is applied
in the following areas of life.
MEDICINE
In the medical field, some robots are used
for performing tasks, which are dangerous
and unpleasant to humans. Some of these
hazardous jobs are handling materials such
as blood or urine samples. In addition, some
robots are used to transport materials around
the hospital. Their main sensor for
localization is a camera looking at the
ceiling. The camera detects the lamps on the
ceiling as landmarks.
MILITARY
Robots in the military are used for detecting
enemy equipment, detection and defusing of
bombs. In rescue operations, robots are also
used for searching buildings for fugitives
and deep-water search. Also, during military
attacks, guided missiles are used to blast
specific locations on the earth.
EDUCATION AND RESEARCH
Some robots are designed for demonstration
purposes, which are used for educating the
public. For example, the Howard County
Sheriff's department of Kokomo Indiana, in
1999 used a motor robot with a cop in it to
attract a lot of attention to promote a seat belt
program at a fair and they had the robot with
the cop with his seat belt on.
In space research and the Mars research,
robots are usually sent out with the space
shuttle for them to obtain samples and bring
them back to earth. These robots are usually
controlled from a control room in earth.
ENTERTAINMENT
 Some robots are used for entertainment
purposes. These robots are designed like
 puppets and could make some funny moves
which amuse people. Olden day robots were
mainly like this. They were being used to
entertain royalties.
INDUSTRY
 In the industry, robots are used to perform
precise and heavy tasks which are very
difficult for humans to perform. Autonomous
mobile robots could be used for carry heavy
components from one place to another using
custom sensor that help them get their precise
positions. Manipulator robots are used to
perform certain tasks such as painting,
welding, screwing and other activities that
would have been difficult to handle using the
human hand. Also, manipulator robots are
used in assembly lines where each robot takes
care of a particular stage of the assembly
process.
The Modeling and Control System
The modeling and control system, which is
the main subject of this Term paper, is
designed to model, configure and control
the intelligent prosthesis in absence of a
patient, for research, developing or testing
purposes. It offers a valuable help in
determining the prosthesis’ movements
precision and reproducibility along with
their conformity to the software modeled
movements.
The system, presented in Fig., consists of a
Software component and specific interfaces
to convert software data to human-like
electric signals.
ROBOTIC ARM
Manipulator is a fancy name for a robot or
mechanical arm; hence it will be used
intermittently with robot arm. A manipulator
is an assembly of segments and joints that
can be conveniently divided into three
sections: the arm, consisting of one or more
segments and joints; the wrist, usually
consisting of one to three segments and
joints; and a gripper or other means of
attaching or grasping. Alternatively, the
manipulator can be divided into only two
sections, arm and gripper, but for clarity the
wrist is separated out as its own section
because it performs a unique function.
Industrial robots are stationary manipulators
whose base is permanently attached to the
floor, a table, or a stand. In most cases,
however, industrial manipulators are too big
and use a geometry that is not effective on a
mobile robot, or lack enough sensors
(indeed many have no environmental
sensors at all) to be considered for use on a
mobile robot. There is a section covering
them as a group because they demonstrate a
wide variety of sometimes complex
manipulator geometries. We will review the
robot arm based on the three general layouts
of the arm section of a generic manipulator,
and wrist and gripper designs. It should be
pointed out that there are few truly
autonomous manipulators in use except in
research labs. The task of positioning,
orienting, and doing something useful based
solely on input from frequently inadequate
sensors is extremely difficult. In most cases,
 the manipulator is teleoperated (remotely
controlled using radio transmission
technology).
DESIGN SELECTION OF THE ROBOTIC ARM
In choosing the materials and the shape for the
fabrication of the robotic arm, the following were
taken into consideration:
 The ease of manufacturing the parts
 The mode of manufacturing
 Ease of assembly
 Strength and durability of the parts
 Weight of robot
 Cost
The principal requirements for power transmission of
robots are:
 Small size
 Low weight and moment of inertia
 High effective stiffness
 Accurate and constant transmission ratio
 Low energy losses and friction for better
responsiveness of the control system.
 Elimination of backlash
Hence, the combination of these factors has greatly
influenced all the choices made in the design selection of the
robotic arm.
MATERIAL SELECTION
In manipulator structures, stiffness-to-weight ratio of
a link is very important since inertia forces induce the
largest deflections. Therefore, an increase in the
Elastic modulus, E would be very desirable if it is not
accompanied by an unacceptable increase in specific
density, γ. The Elastic modulus is an indication of
the material’s resistance to breakage when subjected
to force. The best properties are demonstrated by
ceramics and beryllium but ceramics have a problem
of brittleness and beryllium is very expensive.
Structural materials such as magnesium (Mg),
aluminum (Al), and titanium (Ti) which are light
have about the same E/γ ratios as steel and are used
when high strength and low weight are more
important than E/γ ratios. Factors like ageing, creep
in under constant loads, high thermal expansion
coefficient, difficulty in joining with metal parts, high
cost and the fact that they are not yet commercially
available make the use of fibre-reinforced materials
limited though they have good stiffness-to-weight
ratios. Therefore the materials recommended for use
are
 Al-Li alloys
 Nitinol (nickel-titanium-aluminum)
 Incramute (copper-manganese-aluminum)
 Glass-reinforced Plastic (GRP)
THE GEAR SYSTEM
In this work, we have chosen the bevel, spur and
spiral types of gears. These were readily available
from scrap machines (photocopiers). Spiral gears
have the advantage of high torque amplification
within a relatively small space. The necessary data
for the selection and choice of the gear arrangements
at each joint are:
i. Power transmitted, P = TW
ii. Transmitted speed, ω ( rad/s)
iii. Torque developed , T ( Nm)
iv. Lewis form factor, Y
v. Bending stress, σ ,( ultimate tensile
strength)
 system or functional design as in software
vi. Ultimate tensile strength,
engineering.
σ ut
vii. Factor of safety, n
viii. Module of gear, m
ix. Number of teeth, N

The equations below show the relationship between

these parameters. They led to the selection of the
gears.

i. Gear diameter, d=mN

ii. Pitch line velocity,

We employed the top-down approach in the design of

πdω
V= the robot arm project and fig. below shows how the
60
various modules were integrated to arrive at the
p
= entire system.
iii. Transmitted load, Wt V
6 A block diagram model of the robot arm control is
= shown in fig The feedback sensors are opt couplers
iv. Velocity , KV 6+V
located on the robot joints which send feedback
Wt
F= information to the microcontroller on the robot’s
v. Face width,
K V MY σ P
position. The actuators are the stepper and dc motors
at each joint.

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF THE

ROBOTIC ARM

In the design of systems, there are generally two

methods of approach namely:

 Top-down method
 Bottom-Up method

The top-down method is usually applied in designing

a system from the scratch while the down-top method
is used for reverse designing of an already existing
 MECHANICAL ARM ELECTRONIC HARDWARE SOFTWARE

SYSTEM INTEGRATION

ROBOT ARM/ MANIPULATOR

Command + Controlled
E[n] Controller U[n] Actuator System to be Controlled

Input R[n] - Output Y(t) -

Feedback Sensor
MODELING OF HUMAN LEG

Due to their high power output with regard to their

low coast pneumatic appears to be of great interest in
robotics the mathematical dynamic model of leg is
high non linear and time variant due both to coupling
effect and compressibility of air.

The leg was to have femur-tibia proportions similar

to a cockroach. However, the leg motion was not
cockroach like at all. This configuration was much
more like a biped leg with planar motion and four
degrees of freedom. Due to this humanoid
configuration, the joints and links are referred to as
the hip, knee, femur and tibia. The leg was to be
able to alternate between swing and stance and carry
a load. BPA were used to drive the two rotational
joints, and an air cylinder was used to drive the
prismatic vertical degree of freedom at the hip. This
way, a regulator could be used to supply a known
pressure to the air cylinder, and cause the leg to lift a
known force. The leg was designed so that if desired,
the cylinder could be placed in a control loop and
position control could be performed. The leg was
mounted to a trolley that rolled along a track to allow
for forward motion of the robot. Early in testing it
was noticed that the leg was much stronger than
originally anticipated, so a 10 lb counterweight and
friction roller were added to keep the rollers on the
track and the speed down. The four degrees of
freedom were the un actuated linear trolley motion on
the track, the vertical linear motion dueto the air
cylinder ,the rotational hip motion , and the rotational
knee motion . A 50 conductor twisted pair ribbon
cable connected the leg to the controller. This
included all valve signals, sensor power, and sensor
signals. To reduce noise and interference, the sensor
power and valve signals were separated from the
sensor signals by using either side of the ribbon cable
.

The free channels also provide a way to easily

implement more sensors in the future. The air was
supplied to the leg through a 10mm umbilical hose
that was connected to a 100 gallon tank.

In choosing a cam radius, there was a trade off
between maximum joint torque and joint range of
motion. The maximum force output of an actuator
was about 15 lb. Based on the 2” diameter cam
design, a quick calculation revealed that more force
output was needed from the actuators. The decision
was made to simply double-up the actuators so that
each joint used four actuators instead of two.
Therefore, the maximum force output of each
“actuator” was roughly 30 lbs. The range of motion
of these actuators was about 1.4”. With a 1” moment
arm, this equates to a 1.4 rad angular range of
motion, or about 80°. This range of motion was
sufficient for the desired excursions of the leg. Thus,
the 2” diameter cam and doubled-up actuator design
was implemented. To achieve this 80° joint range of
motion, the actuator free length needed to be set to
the optimum value. By increasing or decreasing the
free length of the actuator from the optimum length,
the range of motion decreased. Either one actuator
was fully taught before the other one was able to
fully contract, or when one was fully contracted the
other
had not been stretched to its maximum length. The
optimum length was 3.15”, half the range of motion.
Actually setting the actuator free length to this value
was not as easy as calculating it. The total tendon
length was determined, and marks were placed on the
tendon at the appropriate points. The leg was placed
at the desired free angle, and the tendons were
wrapped around the distal segments and tightly tied.
The beauty of this configuration was that changing
the resting angle was as simple as untying and retying
the tendons at the desired rest configuration.
Appendix C contains all the mechanical drawings for
the leg.
ROBOTICS IN THE FUTURE
Today, robots are doing human labor in all kinds of
places. Best of all, they are doing the jobs that are
unhealthy or impractical for people. This frees up
workers to do the more skilled jobs, including the
programming, maintenance and operation of robots.
Robots that work on cars and trucks are used for
welding and assembling parts, or lifting heavy parts -
the types of jobs that involve risks like injury to your
back and arm or wrist, or they work in environments
filled with hazards like excessive heat, noise or
fumes-dangerous places for people. Robots that
assemble and pack cookies or other foodstuff do so
without the risk of carpal tunnel injury, unlike their
human counterparts.
In the health industry, robots are helping to research
and develop drugs, package them and even assist
doctors in complicated surgery such as hip
replacement and open heart procedures. And the
main reason robots are used in any application is
because they do the work so much better that there is
a vast improvement in quality and/or production, or
costs are brought down so that companies can be the
best at what they do while keeping workers safe.
The changes in future robots that will revolutionalize
our way of living will occur in a subtle fashion. It
will happen when we wake up one morning thinking
about the past and realize that the things we take for
granted are exceptionally different than they were
when we were younger. In time, just as innovations
like the light bulb and telephone elevated life, as we
know it to new standards, so will robotics incorporate
itself in our everyday lives.
Discussed below are the various ways the field of learn just about anything, the ability to reason, the
robotics can affect our lives as proposed by the ability to use language and the ability to formulate
Robotics Industries Association. original ideas. Roboticists are nowhere near
achieving this level of artificial intelligence, but they
Virtual Travel - People will be able to visit each other
have had made a lot of progress with more limited
without traveling. They will do this by taking control
AI. Today's AI machines can replicate some specific
of a robot at their desired vacation destination, and
elements of intellectual ability.
use the Internet to transmit all the sensory
information back and forth. What will this mean? Conclusion
Doctors will make "house calls" again. Long distance
After making this term paper i had conclude that
relationships will never be the same.
control system plays very -very important role in the
Housekeeping by Choice - The physical modelling of human leg and robotic arm , while
environments we live in will take care of themselves. combining application of robotics and control system
Machines will do the routine chores around the helps us to determine various method or various
house. We will choose when it is time for the movements of leg and arm by use of open loop and
extraordinary. Our houses and apartments will keep close loop control system. Leg and arm are the two
themselves swept and scrubbed clean. There will be systems of robot without which a robot can’t do
no piles of laundry, and your basic dinner will be anything therefore these are well assembled
moments away. Machines will not have replaced us. accordingly with higher efficiency.
But they will give us the opportunity to build on the
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
routine and create the unusual, brilliant, or just In this important PART of my term paper I would
different. like to express my gratitude to all those who gave me
the possibilities to complete this term paper I
want to thank the department of B.TECH
Artificial Intelligence - Perhaps the most dramatic
(ECE) of LOVELY PROFESSIONAL
changes in future robots will arise from their UNIVERSITY for giving me guideline to
commence this term paper and to do the necessary
increasing ability to reason. The field of artificial
Research work. I have further more thank to Mr.
intelligence is moving rapidly from university Gopal Krishan in completion of Nobel work, who
gave me such guideline and encouraged me to go
laboratories to practical application in industry, and
ahead with my term paper.
machines are being developed that can perform
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/Howstuffworks%20%20How%20Robots%20Work%20.htm
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Ultimate AI would be a recreation of the human
thought process -- a man-made machine with our
intellectual abilities. This would include the ability to