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UNIT I
Robotics| Introduction
A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to
move material,parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable
programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks
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Advantages of Robots
Robots can work in hazardous environments such as radiation,
darkness, hot and cold areas even in ocean bottoms without life
support, comfort.
Robot usage can increase productivity, safety, efficiency, quality
and consistency of products.
Robots need no environmental comforts like lighting, air
conditioning, ventilation and noise protection.
Robots can work continuously without tiring or boredom
Robot have repeatable precisions at all times.
They can work more accurate than humans in every environment.
Robots can perform multiple tasks at a time but human can
perform single task at a time.
Disadvantages of Robots
Though it is more accurate than humans but it lacks the capability
in responding to emergency situations
Inappropriate or wrong responses may cause several loss to the
work environment.
The replacement of human workers with robots may cause
economic hardship in the society
Its initial installation, training, and other peripherals were very
costly.
Only trained personnel were able to operate this.
Robots have very limited capability in real-time response because
they will work with the stored programs it can’t work beyond that.
History of Robotics :
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Much of the work in robotics, however, was done in the 20th century both in
fiction and in real life. In 1921, a Czech writer Karel Capek coined the term
"Robot" in his play "R.U.R" (Rossum's Universal Robots). The word robot is of
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Czech origin meaning “forced work”. Rossum’s Universal Robots is the first time
the term “robot” is used officially.
Isaac Asimov gave us the three laws of robotics which can also be used to define
what is a robot and what is not. As surprising as it might seem, he wasn’t a
scientist by any standards, he was a writer who wrote numerous short stories on
robots in 1940s and 1950s. He is also admired for coining the term “Robotics”.
The "Three laws of robotics", which is defined by Isaac Asimov is:
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The design of the Unimate combined the playback features of numerically
controlled devices (e.g., milling machines) with the servocontrolled capabilities of
the telecherics developed by Goertz.
Two years later, in 1962, General Motors installed the first Unimate on one
of its assembly lines in a die-casting application.
By the mid 1960s, the new field of robotics sparked the formation of several
centers of research into this area and the related topic of artificial intelligence (AI)
at such institutions as MIT, Stanford University, Stanford Research Institute
(SRI) International, and the University of Edinburgh in Scotland. In 1967,
General Electric Corporation produced a four-legged vehicle (under a
Department of Defense contract) that required simultaneous control of the
appendages by a human operator.
A year later, SRI demonstrated an “‘intelligent” mobile robot that had
some vision capability (using a TV camera), an optical range finder, and touch
sensors . The device also had the ability to understand and react to verbal
commands in English. Because it moved in a highly irregular and jerky
manner, it was given the name “Shakey.”
Through history of robotics, the 1970s, other intelligent robots
emerged. Freddy and Freddy II were able to assemble wooden blocks and put
rings on pegs using its video camera 3-DOF and 5-DOF mechanisms. Assembling
the parts using manipulators was not that impressive, but the use of cameras to
identify objects was fascinating.
Genghis was created by scientists at MIT in 1989.It was one of the first
examples of cheap robots. Another great feature of it was its behavioral algorithm
which makes the robot behave like a real insect.
Self-driving cars arrived in the 21st century, but they still have a long
way to go due to some legal and ethical issues.The new generation of robots
like Robonaut 2 are the first humanoid robots in the history of robotics, that are
used in space to help astronauts.
The French shipbuilding company of Chantiers du Nord et de la
Méditerranée successfully tested a marine mobile robot in early 1984. Intended
for cleaning the sides and bottoms of large ships, this remarkable device has
already been used by Renault to paint the walls of a large gas tank. Although it
would appear from this brief chronolog that the Japanese are ‘“Johnny-come-
latelies,” such is not the case. In fact, as early as 1968, Kawasaki Heavy
Industries was granted a license from Unimation to manufacture their robots.
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The robot industry grew so rapidly that in 1971, the Japan Industrial Robot
Association (JIRA) was founded. It is interesting to note that despite all of the
research activity in the United States, the Robotic Institute of America (RIA),
now called the Robotic Industries Association, an organization primarily for
manufacturers and users of robots, was begun only in 1975.
An even more revealing Statistic is found in Joseph F. Engelberger’s
excellent book entitled Robots In Practice [3]. At the time of its publication
(September 1980), the author listed nine Japanese, nine European, and only
four American companies manufacturing robots.
Components of Robot
Four major components in common: (1) a manipulator or arm (the
“mechanical unit”), (2) one or more sensors, (3) a controller (the ‘“‘brain’’), and
(4) a power supply. Let us briefly describe each of these in turn.
Components of Robot
A robot as a whole consists of the following elements which are
integrated together to form a whole.
Manipulator
End effector
Actuators
Sensors
Controller
Processor
Software
Power Supply
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Manipulator
The manipulator is the main body of the robot which consists of the
links, the joints, and other structural elements of the robot.
End Effector
This part is connected to the last joint (Hand) of a manipulator that
generally handle objects, lift parts, makes connections to other
machines, or performs the required tasks.
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Generally, the hand of a robot has provisions for connecting speciality
end effectors specially designed for a purpose. The end effector is not to
be same for all applications, depends on the need designs of end
effectors may get vary.
A welding torch, paint spray gun, glue laying device, parts handlers are
some of the end effectors used in robots.
Actuators
Actuators are the energy conversion device used inside a robot. The major function of
actuators is to convert energy into movement.
Sensors
Sensors provide real time information on the task environment. Robots are equipped with
tactile sensor it imitates the mechanical properties of touch receptors of human
fingerprints and a vision sensor is used for computing the depth in the environment.
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Sensors are used to collect information about the internal state of the
robot or to communicate with outside environment.
These sensors are integrated with robots every part where the actuations
need to be done depends on the signal, feedback or process.
Every action for outside environment is by the signal of the sensors only.
It may be touch, tactile, vision and so on.
Mostly these sensors will get information and sends that to controller
that will make required process to do
Controller
Controller is like human cerebellum; it does not have the power of brain
but it controls all the motions. Through controller only all the motions of
the robot were processed.
This controller gets the necessary inputs from all sensory items do the
motions of the coordination, actuator or joints links. Without controller,
we cannot do the exact robot operations.
For example, we want to move a robot arm for picking and placing an
object from one place to other in that we need to change the motion of
the arm from 90⁰ to 45⁰, controller sends the signal to actuator for
rotation of 45⁰ after reaching the point it picks the object as the sensor
sends the feedback signal to the controller so again it will move to home
position of 90⁰. Like this controller makes every action in the robots.
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Processor
Processor is considered as the brain of robots. It calculates all the
motion, it calculates how much speed was needed for moving to the
destination point, checks the coordination points for the function.
Software
Mainly three group of software are used in robots. They are
Operating system, robotics software and applications-oriented programs.
Operating system is used to operate the processor.
Power Supply
The working power to the robot is provided by batteries,
hydraulic, solar power, or pneumatic power sources.
Classification of robots
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Based on coordinate system
Based on control system
Co-ordinate System
A coordinate system defines a plane or space by axes from a fixed point
called the origin. Robot targets and positions are located by measurements along
the axes of coordinate systems. A robot uses several coordinate systems, each
suitable for specific types of jogging or programming.
The Robots are mostly divided into four major configurations based on their
appearances, sizes, etc. such as:
Cylindrical Configuration,
Polar Configuration,
Jointed Arm Configuration, and
Cartesian Co-ordinate Configuration.
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Cylindrical Configuration:
Advantages:
Increased rigidity, and
Polar Configuration:
The polar configuration robots will possess an arm, which can move up and
down. It comprises of a rotational base along with a pivot. It has one linear & two
rotary joints that allows the robot to operate in a spherical work volume. It is also
stated as Spherical Coordinate Robots.
Advantages:
Long reach capability in the horizontal position.
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Disadvantages:
Vertical reach is low.
The arm in these configuration robots looks almost like a human arm. It gets
three rotary joints and three wrist axes, which form into six degrees of freedoms.
As a result, it has the capability to be controlled at any adjustments in the work
space. These types of robots are used for performing several operations like spray
painting, spot welding, arc welding, and more.
DOF is related to robotics arms , is an independent joint that can provid
freedom of movement for the manipulator either in a rotational or
translational(linear) sense.
Advantages:
Increased flexibility,
Huge work volume, and
Quick operation.
Disadvantages:
Very expensive,
Difficult operating procedures, and
Plenty of components.
These robots are also called as XYZ robots, because it is equipped with three
rotary joints for assembling XYZ axes. The robots will process in a rectangular
work space by means of this three joints movement. It is capable of carrying high
payloads with the help of its rigid structure.The joints are perpendicular to one
another. It is mainly integrated in some functions like pick and place, material
handling, loading and unloading, and so on. Additionally, this configuration adds a
name of Gantry Robot.
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– end point robot, limited sequence robot, bang-bang robot
– No control over the motion at the intermediate points,
only end points are known
Servo Control
The motion of robotic arm is controlled according to the feedback given
to the controller. The servo control robots are classified further as follows :
– Controlled path
Point-to-point: these robots are most common and can move from one specified point to another
but cannot stop at arbitrary points not previously designated.
Controlled path: is a specialized control method that is a part of general category of a point-to-
point robot but with more precise control. The controlled path robot ensures that the robot will
describe the right segment between two taught points. Controlledpath is a calculated method and
is desired when the manipulator must move in the perfect path motion.
Continuous path: is an extension of the point-to-point method. This involves the utilization of
more points and its path can be arc, a circle, or a straight line. Because of the large number of
points, the robot is capable of producing smooth movements that give the appearance of
continuous or contour movement
Point-to-Point Control
• Only the end points are programmed, the path used to
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connect the end points are computed by the controller
• user can control velocity, and may permit linear or piece wise linear motion
• Feedback control is used during motion to ascertain that
individual joints have achieved desired location
• Applications
• pick and place type operations
• hole drilling
• spot welding
• component insertion
• machine loading
Continuous path control:
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The Workspace of a Robot
By definition, the workspace of a robot is a specification of the reachable
configurations of the end-effector. The workspace of a robot has nothing to do with a
particular task.
Example: Suppose a planar robot arm below where the lengths of two links are not equal:
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The robot arm has two revolute joints, and the lengths of the links are as follows:
l1=15.6cm
l2=9.2cm
The workspace of this robot, if we do not impose any limitations on the joint angles
(both angles can be freely changed from 0 to 360 o), can be visualized like the figure
below:
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This figure shows the workspace of a 2R planar robot arm with no limits on the joint angles. The lengths of the links
The circle with a radius of l1 – l2 is the area that the robot end-effector cannot reach.
If the lengths of the two links are equal, that is l 1 = l2 then the robot’s workspace
can be visualized as follows
This figure shows a 2R planar robot arm’s workspace with no limits on the joint angles. The lengths of the links are
equal.
Note: The workspace is the reachable configurations of the end-effector of the robot.
θ1∈[0o,180o]
θ2∈[0o,150o]
Then the workspace of the 2R planar robot with limitations on the joint angles will be as
the following figure:
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The shaded area shows the space that the end-effector of the robot can reach.
Think about the farthest points that you can reach with your fingertips. Those points are
the outer boundary of your reachable workspace (points you can reach with at least one
orientation). However, the dexterous workspace is a subset of the reachable workspace
that are points that you can reach while you are able to move your joints as usual (you
can reach those points with all orientations).
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Work envelope
It is the shape created when a manipulator reaches forward, backward, up and down.
These distances are determined by the length of a robot's arm and the design of its axes.
Each axis contributes its own range of motion.
work envelope is the range of motion achieved by the robot manipulator. The
shape and volume of the work envelope are determined by the robot arm’s length and
what type of joints it possesses. Each joint contributes its own range of motion, whether
in a linear movement along one or two axes or a rotary or revolutionary movement in
three-dimensional space. As a result, work envelope shapes may be rectangular, cubic,
cylindrical, polar, or revolute, among others.
A work envelope is generally defined as how far the robot arm’s end-effector
mounting plate can reach vertically, horizontally, and backward. The dimensions do not
include the additional reach granted by tools attached to the robot wrist. Any
unreachable area beyond the work envelope is referred to as a dead zone.
For instance, do you need a robot that can handle large components? If so, you need a
large-scale machine with a longer manipulator. On the other hand, your operation may
require tasks in a contained space involving tiny objects. This calls for a more diminutive
robot able to work with greater dexterity.
Keep in mind that 6-axis robots offer the most complex range of motion of any industrial
robot. This makes them a popular choice for manufacturing automation across various
industries.
Robot Working Envelopes
Different Robot configurations generate characteristic working envelope shapes. This working
envelope is important when selecting a Robot for a particular application since it dictates:-
Care should be exercised when interpreting the working envelope of a Robot, for a number of
reasons.
a. the working envelope refers to the working volume which can be reached by some point
at the end of the Robot arm, this point is usually the centre of the end effector mounting
plate. It excludes any tools or workpiece which the end effector may hold.
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b. There are often areas within the working envelope which cannot be reached by the end of
the Robot arm. Such areas are termed dead zones.
c. The maximum quoted payload capacity can only be achieved at certain arm spans this
may not necessarily be at maximum reach.
1. Cartesian Configuration
The working envelope of the Cartesian configuration
is a rectangular prism. There are no dead zones within
the working envelope and the Robot can manipulate its
maximum payload throughout the working volume.
2. Cylindrical Configuration
The working envelope of this configuration is as its name suggests a cylinder. The
cylinder is hollow, since there is a limit to how far the arm can retract, this creates
a cylindrical dead zone around the Robot structure.
3) Polar Configuration
The working envelope of this configuration sweeps out a volume between two partial
spheres. There are physical limits imposed by the design on the amount of angular movement in
both the vertical and horizontal planes. These restrictions create conical dead zones both above
and below the Robot structure.
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4) Revolute Configuration
This configuration has a large working envelope relative to the floor space it occupies. The shape
of the working envelope depends on the individual design. The two most common designs are
shown below. The design in b) allows almost a true sphere to be reached, whilst the design in a)
has a complex cusp shaped envelope.
5) SCARA Configuration
The SCARA configuration has a working envelope that can be loosely described as a heart or
kidney shaped prism, having a circular hole passing through the middle. This allow a large area
coverage in the horizontal plane but relatively little in the vertical plane.
6) Spine Configuration
The envelope of the spine Robot will approximate that of a true hemisphere the size being
dependent on the number of articulations in the spine.
7) Pendulum Configuration
The working envelope of the pendulum configuration resembles that of a simple horseshoe
having a segmented shaped cross section. The limited working envelope is offset by the fact
that this Robot can be mounted in almost any position, allowing the envelope to be finely
positioned in relation to its task.
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End effectors are devices attached to the end of a robot’s arm to help
it interact with the surrounding environment. End effectors are essential to
robotic systems as they handle, manipulate, and sense objects. These devices are
the primary means by which robots interact with their environment and perform
useful work. End effectors can be customized to suit specific applications and
can be designed to perform a wide range of tasks, including gripping, cutting,
welding, painting, and more.
Grippers
Grippers are used to grasp and hold objects securely. They are one of the most
commonly used types of end effectors in robotics and are an essential
component of many automated systems. The primary function of grippers is to
provide robots with the ability to pick up, move, and manipulate objects in a
controlled and repeatable manner. Grippers come in different sizes, shapes, and
configurations. Their choice depends on the type and size of the object being
handled, the robot's environment, and the specific application.
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Mechanical Grippers: Mechanical grippers are the most basic type of grippers
and work by using jaws or fingers to grab an object. They are simple, robust,
and reliable and are often used in applications that require a firm and stable
grasp, such as pick-and-place operations or assembly tasks. Mechanical grippers
can be further classified based on the type of jaws or fingers used, such as
parallel grippers, angular grippers, or three-finger grippers.
Vacuum Grippers: Vacuum grippers use suction cups to grab and hold things.
They are primarily used in applications that require handling flat, smooth, or
porous objects, such as glass panels or printed circuit boards. Vacuum cups are
easy to use, have a fast cycle time, and are highly reliable. However, they may
not be suitable for handling irregularly shaped or heavy payloads.
Servo Grippers: Servo grippers use motors and gearboxes to control the
gripping force and positioning of the robot precisely. They are used in
applications that require high precision and flexibility, such as quality control or
inspection tasks. Servo grippers can be programmed to adjust their gripping
force and position based on the size and shape of the object being handled,
making them highly versatile.
Every gripper has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Hence, the
choice of gripper depends on the specific application it is going to be used for.
Mechanical grippers are simple, reliable, and cost-effective but may not
be suitable for handling irregularly shaped objects.
Vacuum grippers are easy to use, highly reliable, and have a fast cycle
time but may not be suitable for handling heavy or non-porous objects.
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Magnetic grippers are highly reliable and require minimal maintenance
but may not be suitable for handling non-ferromagnetic materials.
Servo grippers are highly precise and flexible but may be more expensive
and require more complex control systems.
Sensors
Sensors are essential components of robotic systems, providing robots with the
ability to gain a perception of their environment. Sensors gather data about the
robot's surroundings, including the position and orientation of objects around it
and the robot itself. The robot's control system then uses this information to
decide how to interact with its environment. Here are some of the most
commonly used sensors in end effectors:
Light sensors: Light sensors can detect the presence or absence of light and are
used to provide feedback on the position of objects in low-light environments.
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Magnetic sensors: Magnetic sensors or hall effect sensors are used to detect the
presence of magnetic fields. They can detect the position and orientation of
objects that contain magnets.
Range Sensors: Range sensors are used to measure the distance between the
robot’s end effector and objects near it.
Process Tools
Process tools in robot end effectors are attachments or devices used to perform
specific tasks. They work in coordination with the robotic arm, providing
additional functionalities to the robotic system. They can be as simple as a
screwdriver or as complex as a whole robot. Here are some examples of process
tools used in end effectors:
Painting Spray Guns: Painting spray guns are used as end effectors in robotic
painting systems. They are designed to apply a precise and consistent amount of
paint to a workpiece. The spray gun can be programmed to adjust the angle and
distance of the spray to achieve the desired coverage and finish.
Cutting Tools: Cutting tools are used to cut and shape workpieces. They can be
designed for a variety of materials and thicknesses, including metal, plastic, and
wood. Cutting tools can be mounted on the robotic arm as an end effector and
programmed to cut the workpiece to a specific size and shape.
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Grinding and Sanding Tools: Grinding and sanding tools are used to smooth
and finish surfaces on a workpiece. These tools can be mounted on the robotic
arm as an end effector, and the arm can be programmed to move the tool over
the surface of the workpiece to achieve the desired finish.
Dispensers: Dispenser end effectors are a process tool used in robotics designed
to dispense various materials, such as adhesives, sealants, and lubricants, onto a
workpiece or component. These are used in 3D printing systems too.
As the service robot will face relatively complex group and environment,
thus it will equip with sensors that imitate human’s five senses. That is,
vision, hearing, smell, taste and touch. Besides, it will also contain facial/body
posture recognition and voice recognition systems to enhance communication
capabilities. In addition, the combination of artificial intelligence and cloud
network system empower AI service robot timely response to environmental
conditions, own more autonomy in operation and easier to integrate into
society and used by human beings.
1. Hotel
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The strong reception and communication skill enable service robots suitable
to be used at the hotel lobby to interact with guests, understand their
requirements and guide them solve problem. For important VIP guests, the
service robot can even provide hospitality and exclusive VIP services in
response to improve the image and influence of the hotel.
2. Government affairs
Powerful AI capabilities empower the AI robot a new role. Namely, it can play
the part of a supplementary government staff and assist to handle a certain
amount of daily business, which is good to relieve the labor shorten pressure
and optimize the working efficiency.
3. Hospital
Hospital guide, health consultation and other services can be provided by the
service robot at the guide desk to show the core strength of medical care.
Besides, it can make circular introduction to made patients better understand
the hospital, including hospital introduction, department guidance, medical
knowledge and expert information.
4. Tourist attractions
The superior AI explanation ability makes AI robot available to act as the tour
guide at the tourist attractions. It is conducive to provide tourists all-in-one
service and elevate their travel experience through intelligent guidance and
explanation and be a bright spot to attract more tourists.
5. Enterprise
In addition to welcoming guests, the service robot can also be used in the
annual meeting of the enterprise. It can help to push the annual meeting to a
climax with vivid interaction with the host, detonate the atmosphere of the
scene and mobilize the emotions of the audience.
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There are mainly 4 types of Artificial Intelligence: reactive machines, limited memory,
theory of mind, and self-awareness.
Similarly, in the health care sector, robots powered by Natural Language Processing may
help physicians to observe the decease details and automatically fill in EHR. Besides
recognizing human language, it can learn common uses, such as learn the accent, and
predict how humans speak.
Edge Computing
Edge computing in robots is defined as a service provider of robot integration, testing,
design and simulation. Edge computing in robotics provides better data management,
lower connectivity cost, better security practices, more reliable and uninterrupted
connection.
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For example, the deployment of an airbag in a car is a complex event based on the data
from multiple sensors in real-time. This idea is used in Robotics, for example, Event-
Processing in Autonomous Robot Programming.
Transfer learning reuses the pre-trained model for a related problem, and only the last
layer of the model is trained, which is relatively less time consuming and cheaper. In
robotics, transfer learning can be used to train one machine with the help of other
machines.
Reinforcement Learning
Reinforcement learning is a feedback-based learning method in machine learning that
enables an AI agent to learn and explore the environment, perform actions and learn
automatically from experience or feedback for each action. Further, it is also having
feature of autonomously learn to behave optimally through hit-and-trail action while
interacting with the environment. It is primarily used to develop the sequence of
decisions and achieve the goals in uncertain and potentially complex environment. In
robotics, robots explore the environment and learn about it through hit and trial. For
each action, he gets rewarded (positive or negative). Reinforcement learning provides
Robotics with a framework to design and simulate sophisticated and hard-to-engineer
behaviours.
Affective computing
Affective computing is a field of study that deals with developing systems that can
identify, interpret, process, and simulate human emotions. Affective computing aims to
endow robots with emotional intelligence to hope that robots can be endowed with
human-like capabilities of observation, interpretation, and emotion expression.
Mixed Reality
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Mixed Reality is also an emerging domain. It is mainly used in the field of programming
by demonstration (PbD). PbD creates a prototyping mechanism for algorithms using a
combination of physical and virtual objects.
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