ROBOTICS

Dr. K.V.P. CHAKRADHAR,

Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Vardhaman College of Engineering, Hyderabad.
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ENGINEERING ROBOTICS
(A3365)
-PROFESSIONAL ELECTIVE

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 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS

The field of robotics has its origins in science fiction.

The term robot was derived from the English translation
of a fantasy play written by KAREL CAPEK in
Czechoslovakia around 1921.
It took another 40 years before the modern technology
of industrial robotics began.
Today, Robots are highly automated mechanical
manipulators controlled by computers.
Note: A CNC machine is not a Robot
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 PIONEERS IN ROBOTICS

KAREL KAPEK ISAAC ASIMOV

GEORGE DEVOL
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 ROBOTICS-DEFINED
Word robot was coined by a Czech novelist Karel Capek in a 1921 play
titled Rassum’s Universal Robots (RUR)

Robot in Czech means worker or servant (Robota-Greek word)

 A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to
move material, parts, tools or specialized devices through variable
programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.
-Robot Institute of America, 1979.
An automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose
manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may be either
fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications.
- International Federation of Robotics
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 History of Robotics
320 BC
Greek philosopher Aristotle made this famous quote:
“If every tool, when ordered, or even of its own accord, could do the work
that befits it... then there would be no need either of apprentices for the
master workers or of slaves for the lords.”

1495
Around 1495 Leonardo da Vinci sketched plans for a humanoid robot.

1700 - 1900
Between 1700 and 1900 a number of life-sized automatons were created
including a famous mechanical duck made by Jacques de Vaucanson that
could crane its neck, flap its wings and even swallow food.

1913
Henry Ford installs the world’s first moving conveyor belt-based assembly
line in his car factory.
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 History of Robotics
1920
Karel Capek coins the word ‘robot’ to describe machines that resemble
humans in his play called Rossums Universal Robots. The play was about a
society that became enslaved by the robots that once served them.

1941
Legendary science fiction writer Isaac Asimov writes the short story ‘Liar!’
in which he describes the Three Laws of Robotics. His stories were
recompiled into the volume “I, Robot” in 1950 – later reproduced as a
movie starring Will Smith.
Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics:
•A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human
being to come to harm.
•A robot must obey any orders given to it by human beings, except where
such orders would conflict with the First Law.
•A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does
not conflict with the First or Second Law.
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 History of Robotics
1950
Alan Turing proposes a test to determine if a machine truly has the power
to think for itself. To pass the test a machine must be indistinguishable
from a human during conversation. It is known as the ‘Turing Test’.

1954
George Devol and Joe Engleberger design the first programmable robot
‘arm’. This later became the first industrial robot, completing dangerous
and repetitive tasks on an assembly line at General Motors (1962).

1957
The Soviet Union launches ‘Sputnik’, the first artificial orbiting satellite.
This marks the beginning of the space race.

1964
The IBM 360 becomes the first computer to be mass-produced.

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 History of Robotics

1969
The U.S. successfully use the latest in computing, robotic and space
technology to land Neil Armstrong on the moon.
1977
The first Star Wars movie is released. George Lucas‘s movie inspires a
new generation of researchers through his image of a human future
shared with robots such as the now famous R2-D2 and C-3PO.
1986
The first LEGO based educational products are put on the market and
Honda launches a project to build a walking humanoid robot.
1994
Carnegie Universities eight-legged walking robot, Dante ll, successfully
descends into Mt Spur to collect volcanic gas samples.
1997
On May 11, a computer built by IBM known as Deep Blue beat world
chess champion Garry Kasparov.
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 History of Robotics
1999
Sony releases the first version of AIBO, a robotic dog with the ability to
learn, entertain and communicate with its owner. More advanced
versions have followed.
2000
Honda debuts ASIMO, the next generation in its series of humanoid
robots.
2004
Epsom release the smallest known robot, standing 7cm high and
weighing just 10 grams. The robot helicopter is intended to be used as a
‘flying camera’ during natural disasters.
2005
Researchers at Cornell University build the first self-replicating robot.
Each ‘robot’ is made up of a small tower of computerized cubes which
link together through the use of magnets.

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 History of Robotics
2008
After being first introduced in 2002, the popular Roomba robotic
vacuum cleaner has sold over 2.5 million units, proving that there is a
strong demand for this type of domestic robotic technology.

2009: Adam, the Robot Scientist - The great minds of Aberystwyth

University and the University of Cambridge created Adam, an
automated scientist that demonstrated active machine learning. It
formulated hypotheses, designed experiments and ran tests for its
investigation.

2013: Kirobo, the Talking Robot Astronaut - At just 13 inches

tall, Kirobo, the world’s first talking humanoid astronaut, said its first
words in Japanese on Aug. 21 while aboard the International Space
Station (ISS).
Kirobo, which was designed by the University of Tokyo.

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 History of Robotics

The first industrial

robot: UNIMATE

• 1954: The first programmable

robot is designed by George
Devol, who coins the term
Universal Automation. He later
shortens this to Unimation, which
becomes the name of the first
robot company (1962).

UNIMATE originally automated the

manufacture of TV picture tubes

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 History of Robotics

1978: The Puma

(Programmable Universal
Machine for Assembly) robot
was developed by Unimation
with a General Motors design
supportThe robot industry enters
1980s:
a phase of rapid growth. Many
institutions introduce programs
and courses in robotics. Robotics
courses are spread across
mechanical engineering,
electrical engineering, and
computer science departments.
PUMA 560 Manipulator

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History of Robotics

Chandrayaan-2 is the second

lunar exploration mission
developed by the Indian Space
Research Organisation (ISRO),
after Chandrayaan-1. The
spacecraft was launched on its
mission to the Moon from
the Satish Dhawan Space
Centre in Andhra Pradesh on
22 July 2019.

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 Industrial robot:-
The official definition of an industrial robot is provided by the robotics
industries association (RIA). Industrial robot is defined as an automatic,
freely programmed, servo-controlled, multi-purpose manipulator to
handle various operations of an industry with variable programmed
motions.
Need for using robotics in industries:-
Industrial robot plays a significant role in automated manufacturing to
perform different kinds of applications.
1. Robots can be built as a performance capability superior to those of
human beings. In terms of strength, size, speed, accuracy…etc.
2. Robots are better than humans to perform simple and repetitive tasks
with better quality and consistency.
3. Robots do not have the limitations and negative attributes of human
such as fatigue, need for rest, diversion of attention…..etc.
4. Robots are used in industries to save the time compared to human
beings.
5. Robots can be applied in conditions or places which are hazardous to
humans. A3365 CHAPTER 1 15
Specifications of robotics:-
1. Axis of motion
2. Work stations
3. Speed
4. Acceleration
5. Pay load capacity
6. Accuracy
7. Repeatability etc…

Overview of Robotics:-
"Robotics" is defined as the science of designing and building Robots which
are suitable for real life application in automated manufacturing and other
non-manufacturing environments. It has the following objectives,
1. To increase productivity
2. Reduce production time
3. Minimize labour requirement
4. Enhance quality of the products
5. Minimize loss of man hours, on account of accidents.
6. Make reliable and high speed production.
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Present Applications of robots:-
Industrial Applications of Robots:-
(i) Material transfer applications
(ii) Machine loading and unloading
(iii) Processing operations like,
(a) Spot welding
(b) Continuous arc welding
(c) Spray coating
(d) Drilling, routing, machining operations
(e) Grinding, polishing debarring wire brushing
(g) Laser drilling and cutting etc.
(iv) Assembly tasks.
(v) Inspection, automation or test equipment.
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Future Applications of Robots:-
The profile of the future robot based on the research activities will
include the following,
(i) Intelligence (ii) Sensor capabilities (iii) Mechanical design
(iv) Mobility and navigation (walking machines)
(v) Universal gripper (vi) Systems integration and networking
(vii) FMS (Flexible Manufacturing Systems)
(viii) Hazardous and inaccessible non-manufacturing environments
(ix) Underground coal mining
(x) Fire fighting operations
(xi) Robots in space
(xii) Security guards
(xiii) Garbage collection and waste disposal operations
(xiv) Household robots
(xv) Medical care and hospital duties etc. (xvi) AI

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 APPLICATIONS OF ROBOT
•Agriculture
•Automobile
•Construction
•Entertainment
•Health care: hospitals, patient-care, surgery ,
research, etc.
•Laboratories: science, engineering , etc.
•Law enforcement: surveillance, patrol, etc.
•Manufacturing
•Military: demining, surveillance, attack, etc.
•Mining, excavation, and exploration
•Transportation: air, ground, rail, space, etc.
•Warehouses

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 Industrial Applications of Robots

•Material handling
•Material transfer
•Machine and/or
loading unloading
•Spot welding Material Handling Manipulator

•Continuous arc welding

•Spray coating
•Assembly
•Inspection
Assembly Manipulator

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Industrial Applications of Robots

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 Robots in Space

NASA has been investigating This spiky cube of a robot is

Mars with rovers since the being developed by NASA with
Pathfinder mission landed in Stanford University and MIT.
1997 and deployed a small Hedgehog is designed to
rover called Sojourner. explore small bodies, such as
asteroids or comets.
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 Robots in Space

ISRO has recently sent a robot (Pragyaan Rover) to

Moon in its mission Chandrayaan-2.

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 Robots in Hazardous Environments

TROV in Antarctica HAZBOT operating in

operating under water atmospheres containing
combustible gases
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 Medical Robots

Robotic assistant for micro surgery. The ability to

manipulate a highly sophisticated robotic arm by operating
controls, seated at a workstation out of the operating room, is
the hallmark of surgical robots
Sanitation and Disinfection Robots-These robots can disinfect
a room of any bacteria and viruses within minutes using UV
light and hydrogen peroxide.
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 Robots in Military

PREDATOR – UNMANNED COMBAT

AIR VEHICLE
SPLIT STRIKE:
Deployed from a ISTAR
sub’s hull, Manta could
dispatch tiny mine-
seeking AUVs or engage
in more explosive
combat.

GLOBAL HAWK- DRONE GOLDENEYE

USED FOR MILITARY
SURVEILLANCE
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 Robots at Home

Sony SDR-3X Entertainment Robot Sony AIBO

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Robots at Home

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 Agricultural Robots

• Used in spraying pesticides, removing weeds, ploughing

and seeding
•Collecting and testing soil samples
•Milking cows etc..
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FUTURE SCOPE IN ROBOTICS

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 Autonomy

Robot Work Crews Garbage Collection Cart

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Humanoids

HONDA Humanoid Robot

Humanoids

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Medical Applications of Robot

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Disaster Response Robots

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ISRO TO SEND ROBOT ‘VYOMAMITRA’
Even before
orbiting astronauts
on India’s first
manned mission to
the space in
December 2021,
the Indian Space
Research
Organisation will
send ‘Vyomamitra’,
a ‘lady robot’, in
unmanned
Gaganyaan
spacecraft.
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Classification of Robots (or) Classification by co-ordinate system and
control system:-
-> Co-ordinate systems:-
Industrial robots are available in a wide variety of sizes, shapes, and
physical configurations. The vast majority of today’s commercially
available robots possess one of the basic configurations :
1. Polar configuration
2. Cylindrical configuration
3. Cartesian coordinate configuration
4. Jointed-arm configuration
-> Control systems:-
With respect to robotics, the motion control system used to control the
movement of the end-effector or tool.
1. Limited sequence robots (Non-servo)
2. Playback robots with point to point (servo)
3. Play back robots with continuous path control,
4. Intelligent robots.
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 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON COORDINATE SYSTEMS
1. Polar (Spherical) configuration:-

Telescopic arm
Pivot

A polar configuration robot is shown in Figure above. It uses a

telescoping arm that can be raised or lowered about a horizontal pivot
The pivot is mounted on a base. These various joints provide the robot
with the capability to move its arm within a spherical space, and hence
the name “spherical coordinate” robot is sometimes applied to this type.
A number of commercial robots possess the polar configuration.
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WORK ENVELOPE OF ROBOTS- SPHERICAL CONFIGURATION

WORK ENVELOPE

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 2. Cylindrical configuration:-

Vertical Column

A cylindrical configuration robot, as shown in figure above, uses a vertical

column and a slide that can be moved up or down along the column. The
robot arm is attached to the slide so that it can he moved radially with
respect to the column. By moving about the column, the robot is capable
of achieving a work space that approximates a cylinder.
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WORK ENVELOPE OF ROBOTS-CYLINDERICAL CONFIGURATION

WORK ENVELOPE

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3. Cartesian coordinate configuration:-
Telescopic arm

The cartesian coordinate robot, illustrated in Fig, uses three perpendicular

slides to construct the x, y, and z axes. Other names are sometimes
applied to this configuration, including xyz robot and rectilinear robot. By
moving the three slides relative to one another, the robot is capable of
operating within a rectangular work envelope.
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WORK ENVELOPE OF ROBOTS- CARTESIAN CONFIGURATION

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 4. Jointed-arm configuration:-
ELBOW JOINT

SHOULDER JOINT

The jointed-arm robot is shown in Fig. Its configuration is similar to that

of the human arm. It consists of two straight components.
Corresponding to the human forearm and upper arm, mounted on a
vertical pedestal. These components are connected by rotary joints
corresponding to the shoulder and elbow.
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WORK ENVELOPE OF ROBOTS- JOINTED ARM CONFIGURATION

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 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CONTROL SYSTEMS
1. Limited sequence robots (Non-servo):-
Limited sequence robots do not give servo controlled to relative
positions of the joints, instead they are controlled by setting limit
switches & mechanical stops. There is generally no feed back
associated with a limited sequence robot to indicate that the desired
position, has been achieved generally in type of robots involving
simple motion as pick & place operations.

OPEN LOOP SYSTEM

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2. Point to point motion (Servo):-
This type robots are capable of controlling velocity, acceleration &
path of motion, from the beginning to the end of the path. It uses
complex control programs, PLC’s (programmable logic controller’s)
computers to control the motion.
The point to point control motion robots are capable of
performing motion cycle that consists of a series of desired point
location. The robot is tough & recorded, unit. Ex: Drilling, spot
welding operations

CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM

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3. Continuous path motion:-
These robots are capable of performing motion cycle in which
the path followed by the robot in controlled. The robot move
through a series of closely space point which describe the
desired path.
Ex:- Spray painting, arc welding & complicate assembly
operations.

4. Intelligent robots:-
These type of robots not only programmable motion cycle but
also interact with it’s environment. in a way that years
intelligent. It can make logical decisions based on sensor data
received from the operation.
There robots are usually programmed using an English like
symbolic language not like a computer programming language.
Ex: Sophia, Nao, AIBO
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INTELLIGENT ROBOTS WORKING ALONG WITH HUMANS IN INDUSTRIES
(COBOTS)

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 COMPONENTS OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

Types of robot arms or

function line diagram representation of robot arms

The arms of the robot are classified as

follows:

i. Cartesian robot
ii. Cylinderical robot
iii. Polar robot
iv. Jointed arm (articulated) robot
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i. Cartesian robot:

Cartesian robot has simplest configuration with prismatic

joints. The work envelope of cartesian robot is cuboidal. It
has large work volume but low density. It consists of 3 linear
axes. It produces the most accurate movements.
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ii. Cylindrical robot:

Cylinder robot makes use of two perpendicular prismatic

joint and one revolute joint. The work envelope of cylinder
robot approximates to a cylinder. It consists of two linear and
one rotary axes.
A3365 CHAPTER 1 57
iii. Polar robot:

Polar robot consists of a rotating base, a telescopic link

which can be raised or lowered about a horizontal revolute
joint. It has a work envelope of a partial spherical shell. It
consists of one linear and two rotary axes.
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iv. Joint arm robot:

Joint arm robot also known as anthropomorphic robot. It

functions similar to the human arm. It consists of two straight
links, similar to the human forearm and upper arm. These two
links are mounted on rotary table and has a work envelope of
spherical shape. It is the most dexterous one since all the
joints are revolute joints. It consists of 3 rotary axes.
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COMPONENTS OF INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

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1. Manipulator:
It consists of base, arm, wrist, links etc.. similar to a human
arm. On receiving signals from robot controller this mechanical
unit will be activated. The movement of manipulator can be in
relation to it’s coordinate system. Which may be cartesian,
cylindrical..etc. Depending on the controller, movement may be
point to point motion or continuous motion.

2. Actuators:
These are the muscles of the manipulators. It includes power
source either electric, hydraulic or pneumatic. They are stepper
motors, servo motors, pneumatic and hydraulic cylinders etc..

3. Sensors:
These elements inform the robot controller about the status
of the manipulator. These sensors can be either analog or
digital and or combination. These are classified as:
i. Visual ii. Non-visual
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4. End effector or Robot Tooling:
Robot tooling is nothing but hand or gripper of the robot also
called as the ”end effector”. It is provided at the end of the arm.
It’s design depends on the nature of the work to be performed
by the robot.

5. Robot controller unit (RCU):

The instructions to the robot to perform the desired tasks are
input through the key board of this unit. The controller
converts the input programs to suitable signals which
activate the manipulator to perform the desired tasks.

6. Processor: It is the brain of the robot. It calculates the

velocity and motions of the robot joints.

7. Software: It is the operating system of the robot.

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 TYPES OF ROBOT END EFFECTORS
End Effector:
•Device that attaches to the wrist of the robot arm and enables the
general-purpose robot to perform a specific task.
•It resembles a human hand. Even though a human hand is very
versatile, an end effector has one great advantage that humans do
not have and that is the interchangablility of end effectors.
•If the end effector is not suitable then it can be changed unlike the
human hand.

Types of end effectors:

•Grippers: to grasp and manipulate objects (eg.. components)

during a work cycle.

Tools: to perform a process. Eg.. Spot welding, spray painting etc..

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 TYPES OF END EFFECTORS
Grippers
•Mechanical Gripper
•Vacuum Gripper
•Magnetic Gripper
•Hooks
•Scoops

Tools
•Spot welding gun
•Arc welding tools
•Spray painting gun
•Heating torches
•Drilling spindle

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Factors to be considered for selecting suitable end effector

Stroke, reach and swing

Grip force
Speed
Form factor
Weight
Material
Repeatability
Sensing

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 GRIPPER

•Grippers are devices which can be used for holding or gripping an

object.
•They include mechanical hands and also hooks, magnets and
suction devices which can be used for holding or gripping.
•Grippers take advantage of point-to-point control (exact path that
the robot takes between what it is picking up and where it is placing
it).
•Grippers should be designed so that it requires the minimum
amount of manoeuvring in order to grip the work piece.

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A3365 CHAPTER 1 68
Mechanical Grippers

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 Mechanical Grippers
•We can think of a mechanical gripper as a robot hand. A basic robot hand
will have only two or three fingers.
•A mechanical hand that wraps around an object will rely on friction in order
to secure the object it is holding.
•Friction between the gripper and the object will depend on two things, First
is the type of surface whether it be metal on metal, rubber on metal,
smooth surfaces or rough surfaces and the second is the force which
is pressing the surfaces together.
•Mechanical grippers are often fitted with some type of pad usually made
from polyurethane as this provides greater friction. Pads are less likely to
damage the workpiece.
•Pads are also used so to have a better grip as the polyurethane will make
contact with all parts of the surface when the gripper is closed.
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 Mechanical Grippers- Working

SPRING

Cam and Follower Mechanism

A cam and follower arrangement, often using a spring-

loaded follower, can provide the opening and closing action
of the gripper. The advantage of this arrangement is that the
spring action would accommodate different sized objects.
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 Mechanical Grippers- Working

Screw Mechanism

The screw is turned by a motor, usually accompanied by a

speed reduction mechanism. Due to the rotation of the screw,
the threaded block moves, causing the opening and closing of
the fingers depending on the direction of rotation of the screw.

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Mechanical Grippers- Working

Rack and Pinion Mechanism

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Mechanical Gripper - Specifications

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Electric Grippers

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 Electric Grippers
In an electric gripper, or servo-gripper, electric motors control the
movement of the jaws using electric input from the robot
controller.
1. Control the position of the gripper finger
2. Detect grip
3. Control grip force and speed
Working:
•An Input command is sent to the gripper from a robot control
unit. The input command can be position, speed or grip force.
•The command from the robot is received by the gripper control
module responsible for driving the gripper motor.

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 Electric Grippers

•The servo-electric motor reacts to the signal. The shaft will

then rotate to the commanded position, speed or force. To

enable closed-loop control, feedback from the motor position is

usually necessary at the gripper level. Until there is a signal

change, the servo will hold the position (and resist change).

•Servo grippers send status (jaw position, speed, grip detection)

back to the robot control unit.

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 Pneumatic Grippers

Pneumatic grippers are mechanical devices that are common in

automated manufacturing processes. Combined with a robot
they can do many robotic applications such as: pick-and-
place, assembly etc.
Working:
•Pneumatic grippers, as the name
proposes, works with compressed air.
•The gripper is connected to a compressed air supply network.
•When air pressure is applied on the pistons, the gripper closes.
•The piston will then apply a force according to the pressure on
the piston (Force = Pressure * Surface area).
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Pneumatic Grippers
AIR EXIT
AIR INLET

OPENING OF GRIPPER

CLOSING OF GRIPPER
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 Hydraulic Grippers

•The hydraulic gripper provides the most strength and is

often used for applications that require significant
amounts of force.
•These robotic grippers generate their strength from
pumps that can provide up to 2000psi.
•Although they are strong, hydraulic grippers are messier
than other grippers due to the oil used in the pumps.
•They also may need more maintenance due the gripper
being damaged because of the force used during the
application.
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Hydraulic Grippers

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Hydraulic Grippers

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 Types Of Drive (Actuator) Systems

Hydraulic drive:-
 Hydraulic drive is generally associated with larger robots,
such as the Unimate 2000 series.
 The usual advantages of the hydraulic drive system are that it
provides the robot with greater speed and strength.
 The disadvantages of the hydraulic drive system are that it
typically adds to the floor space required by the robot, and
that a hydraulic system is inclined to oil-leak which requires
maintenance.
 In this system, oil is used as a working fluid instead of
compressed air. Hydraulic system needs pump to generate the
required pressure and flow rate. These systems are quite
complex, costly and requires maintenance.
eg: Hydraulic robotic arm, material handling robot,
gripper mechanism, loading-unloading robot.
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 Types Of Drive Systems

2. Electric drive:-
Electric drive systems do not generally provide as much speed
or power as hydraulic systems.
However, the accuracy and repeatability of electric drive
robots are usually better.
Consequently, electric robots tend to be smaller. Require less
floor space, and their applications tend towards more precise
work such as assembly.
In this System, power is developed by an electric current. It
requires little maintenance and provides noise-less operation.
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 Types Of Drive Systems

3. Pneumatic drive:-
Pneumatic drive is generally reserved for smaller robots that
possess fewer degrees of freedom (two-to four-joint
motions).
In this system, air is used as a working fluid, hence it is also
called air-powered cylinders.
Air is compressed in the cylinder and with the aid of pump the
compressed air is used to generate the power with required
amount of pressure and flow rates.
eg: material handling of parts
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Precision of movement (or) parameters of robot:-
The preceding discussion of response speed and stability is
concerned with the dynamic performance of the robot. Another
measure of performance is precision of the robot's movement.
We will define precision as a function of three features:
1. Spatial resolution
2. Accuracy
3. Repeatability

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Accuracy: How close a measurement is to the actual value.
Repeatability: How close a group of measurements are to each
other.
Resolution: The smallest difference in movement that can be
measured.

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1. Spatial resolution:-
The spatial resolution of a robot is the smallest increment of movement
into which the robot can divide its work volume. Spatial resolution
depends on two factors: the system's control resolution and the robot's
mechanical inaccuracies. It is easiest to conceptualize these factors in
terms of a robot with 1 degree of freedom.
The no. of increments =2𝑛
Where n = the number of bits in the control memory.
The control resolution = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒/ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡s

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2. Accuracy:-
Accuracy refers to a robot's ability to position its wrist end at a desired
target point within the work volume. The accuracy of a robot can be in
terms of spatial resolution because the ability to achieve a given target
point depends on how closely the robot can define the control
increments for each of its joint motions.

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3. Repeatability:-
Repeatability is concerned with the robot's ability to position its wrist or an end
effector attached to its wrist at a point in space is known as repeatability.
Repeatability and accuracy refer to two different aspects of the robot’s
precision. Accuracy relates to the robot's capacity to be programmed to
achieve a given target point. The actual programmed point will probably be
different from the target point due to limitations of control resolution.
Repeatability refers to the robot’s ability to return to the programmed point
when commanded to do so.

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