ETC 403—Robotics & Automation

Introduction to Robotics
Overview
A robot is commonly defined as a machine or device that automatically performs tasks or
activities that are typically completed by a person using skills and intelligence. As far as the
exact definition of robots, several definitions exist including the following:
"A reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or
specialized devices through various programmed motions for the performance of a variety of
task."
Robot Institute of America, 1979
"An automatic device that performs functions normally ascribed to humans or a machine in the
form of a human."
Webster's Dictionary

"a reprogrammable manipulator device"

British Department of Industry

"Robotics is that field concerned with the intelligent connection of perception to action."

Mike Brady
For centuries, the idea of robots has captured people’s imaginations. Who first conceived of
robots? How did they become so popular? This lecture discusses the origins of the robots and
explores the ways in which robots were first used in industry.
Early Robots
1495
Before he began work on the Last Supper, Leonardo Da Vinci designed the first humanoid robot.

1801
Joseph Jacquard builds an automated loom that is controlled with punched cards. Punch cards are
later used as an input method for some of the 20th century’s earliest computers.

1822
Charles Babbage demonstrates a prototype of his "Difference Engine" to the Royal Astronomical
Society. He continues his work by designing an even more ambitious project the “Analytical
Engine" that reportedly was to use punch cards inspired by Joseph Jacquard's invention.

1899
Nikolai Tesla demonstrates the first remote-controlled vehicle. The remote-control boat could be
commanded to go, stop, turn left and right, turn its lights on and off, and even submerge. The
public was not impressed. Press reports spoke of “mind control”, which didn't help Tesla's
scientific reputation.

1926
Fritz Lang's movie "Metropolis" is released. "Maria" the female robot in the film is the first robot
to be projected on the silver screen. Maria is considered the precursor to Star War's C-3PO.

1942
Issac Asimov is generally credited with the popularization of the term "Robotics" which was first
mentioned in his story "Runaround" in 1942. His most important contribution to the history of
the robot is the creation of his “Laws of Robotics”.

1946
First presentation of the concept of a stored program (John von Neumann) and generic re-
programmability of computers.
The first general-purpose digital computer, dubbed Whirlwind, solves its first problem at M.I.T.

1947
The transistor is invented by Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain.

1948
British robotics pioneer William Grey Walter creates autonomous machines called Elmer and
Elsie that mimic life-like behaviour with very simple circuitry. These are the first “turtle” robots.

1952
The first Numerically Controlled (NC) machine is built at MIT by John T. Parsons. It is
connected to Whirlwind (See 1946). It was used to make ashtrays for visiting guests.

1954
George Devol and Joe Engleberger design the first programmable robot "arm". This development
led to the development of the first industrial robot “UNIMATE” in 1961.

1961
The first industrial robot (UNIMATE) is installed in a General Motors automobile factory in
New Jersey. The assembly line robot is controlled step-by-step by commands stored on a
magnetic drum; the 4,000-pound arm sequenced and stacked hot pieces of die-cast metal.

1963
The first artificial robotic arm to be controlled by a computer is designed at Rancho Los Amigos
Hospital in Downey, California as a tool for the handicapped. The Rancho Arm’s six joints gave
it the flexibility of a human arm.
1965
Homogeneous transformations first applied to robot kinematics.

1969
Victor Scheinman, a Mechanical Engineering student working in the Stanford Artificial
Intelligence Lab (SAIL) creates the Stanford Arm. It was the first successful electrically
powered, computer-controlled robot arm. By 1974, the Stanford Arm could assemble a Ford
Model-T water pump, guiding itself with optical and contact sensors.

1970
Shakey created at the Stanford Research Institute (SRI). It is the first mobile robot controlled by
artificial intelligence. Equipped with sensing devices driven by a problem-solving program
called STRIPS, the robot could find its way around by applying information about its
environment to a route. Shakey used a TV camera, laser range finder, and bump sensors to
collect data, which it then transmitted to a DEC PDP-10 and PDP-15. The computer radioed
back commands to Shakey — who then moved at a speed of 2 meters per hour.

1977
Star Wars is released. George Lucas' movie introduces viewers to R2D2 and C3PO. The movie
creates the strongest image of a human future with robots since the 1960's and inspires a
generation of researchers.
ASEA, a European robot company, offers two sizes of electric powered industrial robots. Both
robots use a microcomputer controller for programming and operation.

1980
Seymour Papert publishes Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas where he
advocates constructivism, or learning through doing.

1981
Takeo Kanade builds the direct drive arm. It is the first to have motors installed directly into the
joints of the arm. This development makes joints faster and much more accurate than previous
robotic arms.

1982
Fanuc of Japan and General Motors form a joint venture: GM Fanuc. The new company is going
to market robots in North America.

1986
LEGO and the MIT Media Lab collaborate to bring the first LEGO-based educational products
to market.
Honda begins a robot research program that's starts with the premise that the robot "should
coexist and cooperate with human beings, by doing what a person cannot do and by cultivating a
new dimension in mobility to ultimately benefit society". They start with the experimental “E-
series” between 1986 and 1991.

1989
A walking robot named Genghis is unveiled by the Mobile Robots Group at MIT. It becomes
known for the way it walks, popularly referred to as the "Genghis gait".

1993
Dante an 8-legged walking robot developed at Carnegie Mellon University descends into Mt.
Erebrus, Antarctica. Its mission is to collect data from a harsh environment similar to what we
might find on another planet. The mission fails when, after a short decent, Dante's tether snaps
dropping it into the crater.
Seiko Epson develops a micro robot called Monsieur, the world's smallest micro robot as
certified by the Guinness Book of World Records.

1994
Carnegie Mellon University (CMU) Robotics Institute's Dante II, a more robust version of its
predecessor, descends into the crater of Alaskan (USA) volcano Mt. Spurr to sample volcanic
gases. The mission is considered a success.

1995
The Robotics Group is formed in the Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering at the
University of Auckland, with its first mobile robot platform the Maxifander.

1996
RoboTuna (a robot fish) is designed and built by David Barrett for his doctoral thesis at MIT. It
is used to study the way fish swim.
Chris Campbell and Dr. Stuart Wilkinson turn a brewing accident into inspiration at the
University of South Florida. The result is the Gastrobot, a robot that digests organic mass to
produce carbon dioxide that is then used for power. They call their creation the "flatulence
engine". Later a more conventional nickname is given: "Chew Chew".

1997
The first RoboCup football tournament is held in Nagoya, Japan.
The Pathfinder Mission lands on Mars. Its robotic rover Sojourner, rolls down a ramp and onto
Martian soil in early July. It continues to broadcast data from the Martian surface until
September.

1998
Scottish hotel owner Campbell Aird is fitted with the world's first bionic arm.
LEGO releases their first Robotics Invention System. LEGO names the product line
MINDSTORMS after Seymour Papert's seminal work of 1980.
Tiger Electronics introduces the Furby for the Christmas toy market. It quickly becomes "the
toy" to get for the season. Using a variety of sensors this animatronic pet can react to its
environment and communicate using over 800 phrases in English and their own language
"Furbish".

1999
Sony builds Aibo. One of the first robots intended for the consumer market. It reacts to sounds
and has some sort of preprogrammed behavior. It sells out within 20 minutes of going on sale.

2000
The Robotics Group updates its flagship mobile robot to the B21r.
Honda debuts a new humanoid robot “ASIMO”, the next generation of its series of humanoid
robots. See 1986 and 1991 for the earlier series.
October, The UN estimates that there are 742,500 industrial robots in use worldwide. More than
half of these are being used in Japan.

2001
Built by MD Robotics of Canada, the Space Station Remote Manipulator System (SSRMS) is
successfully launched into orbit and begins operations to complete assembly of International
Space Station.

2002
Honda's ASIMO was the first robot that could walk independently with relatively smooth
movements and could climb the stairs.
Honda's ASIMO robot rings the opening bell at the New York Stock Exchange.

2003
The Robotics lab at the University of Auckland use their B21r research robot for navigation
research.
Augmented reality research begins at the University of Auckland, Robotics lab.

2004
Epson releases the smallest flying robot. Weighing 0.35 ounces (10 grams) and measuring 2.8
inches (70 millimeters) in height, the Micro Flying Robot is unveiled as the world's lightest and
smallest robot helicopter.
The Robotics lab at the University of Auckland begin using their latest teaching robot—the
Shuriken. This 3-wheeled robot can move in any direction and can rotate. Student Luke Gumbley
describes the Shuriken as “Cool”.

2005
The University of Auckland Robotics Group acquires a new, dedicated laboratory, and seed
funding for 7 new Pioneer robots, which complement the B21r and various other research robots,
as well as robot visualisation equipment and human-robot interaction equipment.
It is generally acknowledged that the Robotics Lab has the best toys in the sandpit.
Researchers at Cornell University claim to have built the first self-replicating robot using an
array of computerized cubes.
The Shuriken robot gets an upgrade at the University of Auckland. It now has optical odometry,
a magnetic compass and a second processor.

2006
A second robotics paper is introduced in semester 2: Advanced Intelligent Systems.
Sony retires the AIBO and QRIO household service robots.

2007…
The DARPA Grand Challenge: Urban challenge will see robotic cars compete in various
challenges in simulated urban environments. New Zealands entry is the Grand Challenge
Nomadz.

2010…
Japan's Mitsubishi Research Institute believes household robots will begin to penetrate the
market in earnest in 2010. Predictions on the size of the Intelligent Service Robot industry in
2010… $US20billion (Japan Machinery Federation); $US24.3billion (International Federation of
Robotics); $US70 billion (Korea's Ministry of Commerce)

2020…
The Intelligent Service Robot industry grows to the same size as the IT industry in 2005 (Think
of the number of jobs in IT now…. The same number of jobs will be available in Robotics by
2020.)
Japan's Mitsubishi Research Institute predicts that each household would own at least one robot
by 2020.
Robots in Literature

Robots don’t need to be in scientific journals or technical documentations only,

they are also very popular in fictional literature. There have been stories about
“artificial beings” for centuries. But it was not until the advanced technological
evolution that brought beings into literature which come close to today’s image of a
robot. For example, the term “android” was coined by the character Hadaly, a
mechanical woman who was powered by electricity, from the novel “The Future
Eve” by French author Auguste Villiers de l’Isle-Adam in 1886. From that time on,
robots and androids became integral parts of literature.

The first time that the term “robot” was used in literature, was in the 1920 drama
“R.U.R. – Rossum’s Universal Robots”. The work of Czech author Karel Čapek is
about a company that produces robots which are workers without rights and after a
while start a rebellion to extinct mankind. The story was later picked up by
Hollywood and used in science fiction movies like “The Matrix” or “The
Terminator”.

One of the most famous authors of science fiction and robot literature is Isaac
Asimov ( 1992). The Russian-born worked as a professor of biochemistry at
Boston University and already started to be interested in science fiction at a young
age. In 1939, he published his first short story. During his lifetime, Asimov
published several non-fictional books, detective stories and robot literature like the
compilation of short stories with the title “I, Robot” from 1952. In one of his early
short story “Runaround” (1942) Asimov coined the three laws of robotics which set
some kind of ground rule for robots for the first time and are still relevant today.
The three laws are:

1. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being
to come to harm.

2. A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings except where such orders
would conflict with the First Law.

3. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not
conflict with the First or Second Laws

Of course, kids love robots, too. That’s why they are also featured in many novels and stories
for children and young adults. One of the most famous examples is the German book
“Schlupp vom grünen Stern” (1974) by author Ellis Kraut. It is about a little robot from the
planet Balda 7/3 that suddenly develops feelings and even a soul. Since this is being
considered a failure, the authorities want to send him to a trash planet. But he somehow lands
on earth where he befriends with the 14-year-old Benni and they experience some exciting
adventures. Another famous children’s book is “Robbi, Tobbi und das Fliewatüüt” by German
author Boy Lornsen from 1967. It is about a kid and inventor named Tobias who helps his
robot friend Robbi to solve riddles in order to graduate from robot school.
Traces of robots or Artificial Intelligence can be found in several literary genres. Sometimes
as a protagonist and sometimes only as a minor character like the mechanical hounds that are
chasing public enemies and book owners in Ray Bradbury’s dystopian novel “Fahrenheit
451”. A more prominent fictional character is the paranoid android Marvin which
accompanies protagonist Arthur Dent on his journey in Douglas Adams’ “The Hitchhiker’s
Guide to The Galaxy”. Quotes like “The first ten million years were the worst, and the second
ten million years, they were the worst too. The third ten million years I didn’t enjoy at all.
After that I went into a bit of a decline” make Marvin one of the funniest robots in the history
of literature.
A whole bunch of robots can be found in the science fiction novel “Do Androids Dream of
Electric Sheep?” by American writer Philip K. Dick. It explores the issue of what it is to be
human and served as the primary basis for the film “Blade Runner”. More recommendations
for robot literature are “The Humanoids” (1948) by Jack Williamson, “The Soul of the Robot”
(1974) by Barrington J. Bayley and “Roderick” (1981) by John Sladek. We wish you a lot of
fun reading all these books!

The advent of computers--Robots and Artificial Intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI) is arguably the most exciting field in robotics. It's certainly the most
controversial: Everybody agrees that a robot can work in an assembly line, but there's no
consensus on whether a robot can ever be intelligent.

Like the term "robot" itself, artificial intelligence is hard to define. Ultimate AI would be a
recreation of the human thought process -- a man-made machine with our intellectual abilities.
This would include the ability to learn just about anything, the ability to reason, the ability to use
language and the ability to formulate original ideas. Roboticists are nowhere near achieving this
level of artificial intelligence, but they have made a lot of progress with more limited AI. Today's
AI machines can replicate some specific elements of intellectual ability.

Computers can already solve problems in limited realms. The basic idea of AI problem-solving
is very simple, though its execution is complicated. First, the AI robot or computer gathers facts
about a situation through sensors or human input. The computer compares this information to
stored data and decides what the information signifies. The computer runs through various
possible actions and predicts which action will be most successful based on the collected
information. Of course, the computer can only solve problems it's programmed to solve -- it
doesn't have any generalized analytical ability. Chess computers are one example of this sort of
machine.

Some modern robots also have the ability to learn in a limited capacity. Learning robots
recognize if a certain action (moving its legs in a certain way, for instance) achieved a desired
result (navigating an obstacle). The robot stores this information and attempts the successful
action the next time it encounters the same situation. Again, modern computers can only do this
in very limited situations. They can't absorb any sort of information like a human can. Some
robots can learn by mimicking human actions. In Japan, roboticists have taught a robot to dance
by demonstrating the moves themselves.

Some robots can interact socially. Kismet, a robot at M.I.T's Artificial Intelligence Lab,
recognizes human body language and voice inflection and responds appropriately. Kismet's
creators are interested in how humans and babies interact, based only on tone of speech and
visual cue. This low-level interaction could be the foundation of a human-like learning system.

Kismet and other humanoid robots at the M.I.T. AI Lab operate using an unconventional control
structure. Instead of directing every action using a central computer, the robots control lower-
level actions with lower-level computers. The program's director, Rodney Brooks, believes this
is a more accurate model of human intelligence. We do most things automatically; we don't
decide to do them at the highest level of consciousness.

The real challenge of AI is to understand how natural intelligence works. Developing AI isn't
like building an artificial heart -- scientists don't have a simple, concrete model to work from.
We do know that the brain contains billions and billions of neurons, and that we think and learn
by establishing electrical connections between different neurons. But we don't know exactly how
all of these connections add up to higher reasoning, or even low-level operations. The complex
circuitry seems incomprehensible.

Because of this, AI research is largely theoretical. Scientists hypothesize on how and why we
learn and think, and they experiment with their ideas using robots. Brooks and his team focus on
humanoid robots because they feel that being able to experience the world like a human is
essential to developing human-like intelligence. It also makes it easier for people to interact with
the robots, which potentially makes it easier for the robot to learn.

Just as physical robotic design is a handy tool for understanding animal and human anatomy, AI
research is useful for understanding how natural intelligence works. For some roboticists, this
insight is the ultimate goal of designing robots. Others envision a world where we live side by
side with intelligent machines and use a variety of lesser robots for manual labor, health care and
communication. A number of robotics experts predict that robotic evolution will ultimately turn
us into cyborgs -- humans integrated with machines. Conceivably, people in the future could load
their minds into a sturdy robot and live for thousands of years!

In any case, robots will certainly play a larger role in our daily lives in the future. In the coming
decades, robots will gradually move out of the industrial and scientific worlds and into daily life,
in the same way that computers spread to the home in the 1980s.

The best way to understand robots is to look at specific designs. The links below will show you a
variety of robot projects around the world.

The Evolution of Industrial Robots

Robots have long been the focus of science fiction and literature, but it wasn’t until recent
decades that they became a viable part of our workforce. Science fiction lovers will recall Isaac
Asimov and his Three Laws of Robotics. While made from fiction, these rules more or less
define our robots today.

We enjoy safe, collaborative robots that work right alongside us, but this wasn’t always the case.

The development of Numerically Controlled (NC) machines, and the rising popularity of the
computer both helped bring out about the first industrial robots. The earliest known industrial
robot that fits into the ISO definition of the term was created by Griffith “Bill” P. Taylor in 1937
and appeared in Meccano Magazine the following year.
It was a crane-like design that used Meccano parts and was powered by a single electric motor. It
had five axes of movement, including a grab and grab rotation. The robot was automated through
the use of paper tape with punches in it to energize solenoids. This would create movement in the
control levers.
This first robot could stack wooden blocks in patterns programmed by the paper tape. George
Devol placed the first industrial robot patent in 1954. His robot was able to transfer objects from
one point to another within a distance of 12 feet or less. He founded a company called Unimation
in 1956 to build the robot and coined the term “Universal Automation.”
Unimation manufactured UNIMATE in 1962, which was the first robot to be implemented by a
major manufacturer. General Motors began using it in their New Jersey plant that same year. In
1969, Victor Scheinman invented the Stanford arm at Stanford University. This was an all-
electric 6-axis articulated robot.
This new technology opened up the possibility for manufacturers to use robots in assembly and
welding tasks. He later sold his designs to Unimation, which then developed them alongside
General Motors.
Meanwhile, ASEA over in Europe developed the ASEA IRB in 1975 that was the first fully
electrically driven robot. It was also the first microprocessor-controller robot that used Intel’s
first chipset. In 1978, the PUMA robot arm was released by Vicarm and Unimation, with support
from General motors. This arm was originally used in assembly lines and is still used today by
researchers in robotics. Finally, OTC Japan released the first generation of dedicated arc welding
robots in 1979.
Japan Enters the Market
Japan is world's leading manufacturer and consumer of robots. About half of the world's robot
are made and used in Japan. About half of the world's 4,500 robot engineers are in Japan. In
2000, $5.7 billion worth of robots were produced in Japan.
Robots have been developed in Japan to help build products, to provide useful services and
entertainment for people and to provide companionship for them. Research is taking place at
corporations such as Sony, Honda and NEC and universities, most notably Waseda University's
famed robotics lab in Tokyo.
 In Japan there are dancing robots, car-driving robots, stair-climbing robots, a pair of courting
robots, robot families and their neighbors. One Tokyo department store has sold piano-playing
home robots for $42,000 a piece. In the future it is hoped that robots will fight fires and guide the
blind.
Christal Whelan wrote in The Daily Yomiuri, in Japan “the bond between an artisan and his
tools has deeper, enduring roots. Tools are revered in Japan not because they are "alive," but
because they are an extension of the craftsman's body. Through daily use, a worker infuses his
tools with his soul so that they acquire a kind of life of their own. This idea is common currency
in Polynesia, where it is referred to as mana. Since a person and his tools make human livelihood
possible, the product of this relationship is one of profound gratitude, a central value prevalent in
Japanese culture that fosters a subjunctive mood. The tools are "as if" they are alive, but not
mistaken for living things. [Source: Christal Whelan, The Daily Yomiuri, August 2, 2011]
Classification of Industrial Robots

There are two main types of robots based on the degree of mobility:

 Fixed – robots do not move with respect to certain components of their

environment;
 Mobile – robots can travel in their environment by using various means of
locomotion.

Intelligence is the ability of a natural or artificial system to adapt to the environment. In the
following table we have a synthetic representation of robotic systems from the artificial
intelligence viewpoint.

Table 1 – Robot classification based on AI

Not similar to a Similar to a

Capability
human human

1 Can repeat learned programs Automaton Automan

2 Is also mobile Mechanoid Mandroin

 Has sensors and a computer
3 Android Humanoid
implemented

Cyborg (cybernetic Syman (synthetic

4 Is adaptive and heuristic
organism) man)

Has superhuman physical and

5 Hyborg Supersyman
mental abilities

Robotic systems can be divided into:

 Robots;
 Manipulators;
 Teleoperation facilities;
 Prosthetics;
 Medical manipulators;
 Automated guided vehicles (AGV);
 Walking and crawling machinery.

Industrial robots
Industrial robots are part of industrial automation processes. Evolution from simple to complex
of industrial automation is represented below, starting from level 1, which represents the human
operator and reaching to level 10, which represents the self-improving machine.

Table 2 – Robot classification based on degree of automation

Information Energy used Level – Description of the

What robot
source for actuation machine

External Electric 10 – Self-improving Neural network

environment Hydraulic machine controlled robot
 8 – Machine that corelates
Variable
Pneumatic its program with external
program
conditions

7 – Numerical control
machine Programmable robot
Programmable Pneumatic
6 – Single operation on-line or off-line
machine

5 – Multiple operation
machine
Fixed program Pneumatic
4 – Single operation
automated machine

3 – Automated machine
and hand tool
Human Human
2 – Hand tool
1 – Hand

The robot is a high-level automated system, its main role being to manipulate parts and tools,
replacing human activity. A few examples of applications at which utilizing industrial robots
presents clear advantages are spot welding, contour welding or brazing, assembly and painting,
quality control and manipulation of toxic and radioactive materials.

The industrial robot is defined to date as a three dimensional, multifunctional and

reprogrammable system, capable of manipulating materials, parts, tools or special equipment
according to predefined trajectories with the purpose of accomplishing various fabrication
operations.

Industrial robots can be classified into three main categories, with respect to the type of
interaction with a human:

 Automatic robots;
 Bio-technical robots;
 Interactive robots.
Automatic robots accomplish their tasks without direct intervention of a human in the control
process. Based on the degree of adaptability of these robots to the environment, we can identify
three generations of automatic robots.

First generation robots are characterized by fixed control programs, they are capable to only
repeat in a strict fashion operations previously programmed into them, they cannot adapt to the
environment so no external perturbations must exist. The program can be changed to some
extent, but these robots are best suited in industrial environments performing repetitive
operations.

Second generation robots are adaptive, they can operate in variable or partially unknown
environments. The ability to adapt under the effect of external perturbations is enabled by using
sensors that measure various parameters of the environment. These robots execute a series of
predefined operations but can also take into account changes in the environment and alter their
routine in order to accomplish their tasks.

Third generations robots are intelligent, they have certain artificial intelligence abilities, their
degree of intelligence varies according to needs identified in the design phase. These robots are
capable of defining their instantaneous actions taking into account information gathered by
tactile, visual or noise sensors, resolve particular issues and modify their routine accordingly.

Standards in Robotics
The concept of a robot is defined differently by certain standards or institutions.

French norms – Normalisation Francaise (NF)

Norm E61-005 defines the manipulator as “a mechanical structure constituted by a series of
articulated or sliding elements, with respect to each other, utilized to catch, move, position and
guide objects (parts, tools, etc.) generally following a number of degrees of freedom. It can be
controlled by an operator, an electric programmable automaton or by any means of logic system
(cam device, wired logic, programmed logic, etc.), independently or associated.”

Norm NF61-100 defines a robot as “A mechanism of automated manipulation, subdued in

position, reprogrammable, polyvalent, capable of positioning and guide materials, tools or
specialized devices, during variable and programmed movement, designed to execute various
tasks.”

German standard DIN 2801 defines industrial robots as “Mobile automatons with universal
applications, with multiple axes, whose movements are freely programmed onto trajectories or
angles in a certain order of motions and, in certain cases, controlled by sensors. They are
equipped with gripping devices, tools or other means of fabrications and can fulfill manipulation
and fabrication activities. The industrial robot can be mounted in a stationary fashion, in a certain
place or it can be moved by an aggregate.”
Japanese standards define the robot as “a mechanical system, fitted with flexible motor
functions, analogous to the ones of the living organisms or imitations of them, with intelligent
functions, systems that act according to a human’s will.”

Russian standards define the industrial robot as “an automated machine, stationary or movable,
consisting of an execution device, having multiple degrees of freedom, and a reprogrammable
device to control based on a program for performing motor and control functions in the
production process.”

The Robotics Institute of America (RIA) defines the robot as “a reprogrammable,

multifunctional manipulator, designed to move materials, parts, tools or devices, by means of
variable programmed movements, with the purpose of accomplishing different tasks. The robot
is an automatically operating equipment, adaptable to complex conditions of the environment in
which it operates, by means of reprogramming, managing to prolong, amplify and replace one or
more human functions in its interactions with the environment.”

The British Automation and Robot Association (BARA) defines the robot as “a
reprogrammable device, designed to manipulate parts, tools and other production means, through
variable programmed motions, to accomplish specific fabrication tasks.”

Types of Automation

Automation is key to the resurgence of manufacturing in the United States. There are many
types of automation available to companies today, and understanding what type is best for
your business is key to making the most out of your investment. Most people categorize
three main types of automation: Hard or Fixed Automation, Soft or Programmable
Automation, and Flexible Automation.

Hard Automation
Hard Automation is a robot or machine that is designed to perform a specific, highly
repetitive task. The task is usually simple operation or a combination of simple operations.
Because it handles straight-forward operations and has been designed and customized for
the specific task at hand, Hard Automation usually represents the lowest first-cost option.
The other advantage is that it typically operates at very high speeds and can thus
outperform human output. The downside to Hard Automation is that it is not flexible. It is
not designed to accommodate a variety of tasks or setups. Modifying Hard Automation can
be costly and time-consuming. It is ideal for high volume, low variability work. If you
require production that needs to be flexible and accommodate product updates or new
products, Hard Automation is not a good choice.
Soft Automation
Soft or Programmable Automation is the more developed cousin to Hard Automation. It
includes equipment that has been designed to accommodate a variety of product
configurations. Its operation is controlled by a computer, which can be reprogrammed to
adjust its operation for different products. Setup of the equipment for a product changeover
may be as simple as running a different input program or it may also include some
mechanical adjustments to the equipment. The added flexibility causes the first cost of this
equipment to be higher than Hard Automation and it typically operates at lower speeds. If
you have facility that manufactures a limited range of similar products that are run in
batches, Soft Automation may be your best choice.

Flexible Automation
As the name suggests, Flexible Automation is a robot or equipment that has been designed
to easily change the production line for a variety of product mixes or for new products. It
typically includes a robotic arm capable of five or six axis movements with interchangeable
heads that can perform a variety of tasks. A series of sensors and program logic control the
robot’s actions. Because of the flexibility in movements possible, the range of sensors
available, and the ability to reprogram the equipment’s function quickly, Flexible
Automation is well suited for production of high mix of products that are continually
changing or developing. It can handle both high- and low- volume production with ease. Of
course, all this flexibility comes with a price. It is much more costly than the automation
alternatives and operates at lower production rates. But if you have a need for a system that
can adjust over time as your business changes, Flexible Automation may the best long-term
investment.

Automation can be a game changer for large enterprises and small businesses alike. Even
the smallest of shops have tasks that can take advantage of Hard Automation at a low cost.
But if you take the time to understand your needs now and project them in the future, you
may find that making a larger investment up front may pay off many times over down the
road.

The Role of robots in the Workplace

Robots were once known only for the manufacturing business but today they are very much part
of many workplaces. The future is even more promising for this wonder of artificial intelligence.
Imagine a robot doing some of the major tasks of managers like using data to evaluate problems,
making better decisions, monitoring team performance, and even setting goals.

Technology is playing a pivotal role in helping humans work more effectively. Since automation
has become an integral part of business operations, we can predict that robots are soon going to
replace many jobs that are today performed by humans. Now that the corporate world is also on
the cusp of entering the robotic age, let’s see what pros and cons this technology offers business
world.

Pros

1. The first and the foremost advantage of having robots in workplaces is their cost. Robots are
much cheaper than humans and their cost is now decreasing.

2. It’s a fact that we cannot compare human abilities with robots but robotic capabilities are now
growing quickly. For example, if you run an essay writing service, you can use robots to perform
every kind of research related to any subject.

3. Because robots are more active and don’t get tired like humans, the collaboration between
humans and robots is reducing absenteeism. The pace of human cannot increase hence robots are
helping humans.

4. Robots are more precise than humans; they don’t tremble or shake as human hands. Robots
have smaller and versatile moving parts which help them in performing tasks with more
accuracy than humans.

5. There is no doubt that robots are significantly stronger and faster than humans.

6. Robots come in any shape and size, depending upon the need of the task.

7. Robots can work anywhere in any environmental condition whether it is space, underwater, in
extreme heat or wind etc. Robots can be used everywhere where human safety is a huge concern.

8. Robots are programmed by a human; they cannot say no to anything and can be used for any
dangerous and unwanted work where humans may deny to offer their services. For example,
many robotic probes have been sent into space but have never returned.

9. Robots in warfare are saving more lives and have now proven to be very successful.

10. Robots are now being used in the chemical industry and can, for example deal with chemical
spills in a nuclear plant, which would otherwise pose a major health concern.
11. The best thing about robots is that they never get tired and can literally work on certain tasks
24 x 7. The human brain gets tired if it’s working continuously but robots never get tired of what
they are programmed to do and they can work on certain tasks error free.

Cons

1. Where robots are increasing the efficiency in many businesses, they are also increasing the
unemployment rate. Because of robots, human labour is no longer required in many factories and
manufacturing plants.

2. Robots can certainly handle their prescribed tasks, but they typically cannot handle
unexpected situations.

3. The ROI of your business may suffer if your operation relies on too many robots. They have
higher expenses than humans, so at the end of the day you may not always achieve the desired
ROI.

4. Robots may have AI but they are certainly not as intelligent as humans. They can never
improve their jobs outside the pre-defined programming because they simply cannot think for
themselves.

5. Robots installed in workplaces still require manual labour attached to them. Training those
employees on how to work with the robots definitely has a cost attached to it.

6. Robots have no sense of emotions or conscience. They lack empathy and this is one
major disadvantage of having an emotionless workplace.

7. Robots operate on the basis of information fed to them through a chip. If one thing goes wrong
the entire company bears the loss.

Where a robot saves times, on the other hand it can also result in a lag. It is, after all, a machine
so you cannot expect too much from them. If a robot malfunctions, you need extra time to fix it,
which would require reprogramming.

If ultimately robots would do all the work, and the humans will just sit and monitor them, health
hazards will increase rapidly. Obesity will be on top of the list.

So there are advantages, but there are disadvantages as well. It is the twenty first century and we
cannot work without machines.

Humans are still considered far more efficient than robots when it comes to decision making
powers, handling difficult situations, brainstorming, and generally bringing a sense of emotion
and empathy into a workplace.
The utilization of robots will bring more technological advancements and profit to
certain industries. However, according to the research, the most advanced robots will have the
collective intelligence and wisdom of a lobotomized mentally challenged cockroach!

What can you expect out of a robot who has such a small level of intelligence? Till the time the
robots are unable to reach the level of human intelligence or to rationalize the situation, humans
will still have a vital role in every workplace! Besides, you cannot rule out the significant role of
humans in a business. After all, no machine can replace the human factor ‘real employees’ bring
into a workplace.