Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ME 424 A Unit1
Dr.Ch.Lakshmi Srinivas
Syllabus
UNIT – 1
Introduction to Robotics, major components of a robot, robotic like devices, classification
of robots – Classification by coordinate system and by control method, Specifications of
robots, fixed versus flexible automation, economic analysis, Overview of robot
application.
Learning Objectives
1
ME424U1ChLS201516
INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS
ROBOT entered the English language through Czech play titled “Rossums
Universal Robots” by Karel Capek in early 1920’s.
Czech word ROBOTA means Forced worker. The English translation of robota is
ROBOT
The term “ROBOTICS” was coined by Isaac Asimov in his short story
“RUNAROUND” first published in 1942. This work is also notable because of
the so called three Laws of Robotics are presented.
Asimov has stated that workers in the field of AI indicated to him that these three
laws should serve as a good guide as the field progresses.
2
ME424U1ChLS201516
Real inventors who made original contributions to the technology of industrial
robotics are Cyril W Kenward and George C Devol.
.
Fig. 1.2 Operation of PAT (Programmed Article Transfer)
3
ME424U1ChLS201516
Although Kenward’s robot was chronologically the first in terms of patent dates,
Devol’s robot proved more important in the development of commercialization of
robotic technology.
By the time a chance meeting occurred between Engleberger and Devol in 1956.
Meeting took place at a cocktail party in fair field, Connecticut, USA.
Engleberger was Pre disposed by education, avocation and occupation towards
the notion of robotics.
Fig. 1.3. Joseph Engleberger (left) and George Devol being served
drinks by a Unimate robot.
In 1962, Unimation Inc founded with Engleberger as president. The first product
was “UNIMATE” a polar configuration robot. The application of this robot was
unloading a die casting machine at General Motors plant in New Jersey in 1961.
4
ME424U1ChLS201516
Fig. 1.4 Unimate robot for unloading of parts from die casting machine
5
ME424U1ChLS201516
In the late 1980’s with the availability of cheap electronic devices like touch
sensors, vision cameras, etc robots actually began interacting with the
environment and thus started the application artificial intelligence in robotics.
Smart material based sensors and actuators and an interest in emulating biological
design paradigms in later 1990’s led to development of robots that could emulate
humans in both form and function.
6
ME424U1ChLS201516
1962 Unimation was formed, the first industrial robots appeared, and GM
installed its first robot from Unimation.
1967 Unimate introduced Mark II robot. The first robot was imported to Japan
for paint spraying applications.
1968 An intelligent robot called Shakey was built at the Stanford Research
Institute (SRI).
1983 Robotics became a very popular subject, both in industry and academia.
Many programs in the nation started teaching robotic courses.
1986 Honda introduced its first humanoid robot called H0. First ASIMO
(Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility) was introduced in 2000.
2005 Between January and March, over 5,300 robots were ordered by the North
American manufacturing companies at a value of $302 million.
7
ME424U1ChLS201516
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF A ROBOT
THE MANIPULATOR
In fact, robot and manipulator are often used interchangeably, although strictly
speaking this is not correct.
8
ME424U1ChLS201516
A joint of an industrial robot is similar to a joint in the human body. It provides
relative motion between two parts of the body.
Robots are often classified according to the total number of degrees -of-freedom
they posses.
Connected to each joint are two links, an input link and an output link.
Links are the rigid components of the robot manipulator. The purpose of the joint
is to provide controlled relative movement between the input link and the output
link.
Link1 is the input link to joint2; Link2 is the output link of joint2 and so on.
Nearly all industrial robots have mechanical joints that can be classified in to one
of five types given below. Two types provide translational motion, three types
provide rotary motion.
9
ME424U1ChLS201516
Linear Joint (L-Joint): The relative movement between the input link and the
output link is a translational sliding motion, with the axes of the two links
parallel.
Orthogonal Joint (O-Joint): This is also a translational sliding motion, but the
input and output links are perpendicular to each other during the motion.
Rotational Joint (R-Joint): This type provides rotational relative motion with
the axis of rotation perpendicular to the axes of the input and output links.
Twisting Joint (T-Joint): This joint also involves rotary motion. But the axis
of rotation is parallel to the axes of the two links.
Revolving Joint (V-Joint): In this joint type, the axis of the input link is
parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint, and the axis of the output link is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
10
ME424U1ChLS201516
Each of these joint types has a range over which it can be moved. The range for a
translational joint is usually less than a meter, but for large gantry robots, the
range may be several meters. The three types of rotary joints may have a range as
small as a few degrees or as large as several complete turns.
SENSORY DEVICES
These elements inform the robot controller about the status of the manipulator.
This can be done continuously or only at the end of a desired motion. Regardless
of how it is used, the information provided by the sensors can be analog, digital or
a combination.
THE CONTROLLER
To carry out these tasks, controllers must perform the necessary arithmetic
computations for determining the correct manipulator path, speed, and position. They
must also send signals to the joint-actuating devices (via interfaces) and utilize the
information provided by the robot’s sensors. Also, they must permit communication
between peripheral devices and the manipulator.
11
ME424U1ChLS201516
Robot controllers usually fall in to one of the following classes.
The purpose of this part of the robot is to provide the necessary energy to the
manipulator’s actuators.
(e.g.: power amplifier in case of servo motor controlled actuated system, remote
compressor system, Hydraulic power pack , AC motors, DC motors, Stepper
motors etc).
12
ME424U1ChLS201516
ROBOTIC LIKE DEVICES
There are a number of devices that utilize certain facets of robot technology and are
therefore often mistakenly called robots. In fact, Engleberger has referred to them as
“near relations”.
1. PROSTHESES: These are often referred to as “robot arms” or “robot legs”. Even
though they can make use of either hydraulic or servo motor actuators, utilize
servo control and have mechanical linkages, they do not have their own brains
and are not truly programmable. The impetus to produce an action (called the
‘command signal’) in such a device originates in the brain of the human being. It
is then transmitted via nerves to the appropriate appendage, where electrodes
sense the nerve impulses. These are processed electronically by a special-purpose
computer (on board the prosthesis), which in turn controls the motion of the
substitute limb (or hand).
13
ME424U1ChLS201516
14
ME424U1ChLS201516
2. EXOSKELETONS: These are a collection of mechanical linkages that are made
to surround either human limbs or the entire human frame. They have the ability
to amplify a human’s power. However, it is clear that they can’t act
independently and as such are not robots. When an exoskeleton device is used,
the operator must exercise caution due to increased forces and / or speeds that are
possible.
15
ME424U1ChLS201516
3. TELECHERICS: These devices permit manipulation or movement of materials and /
or tools that are located many feet away from an operator. Even though,
telecheric mechanisms use either hydraulic or servomotor actuators which are
usually controlled in a closed loop manner with the help of human operator
taking appropriate decisions about the position and speed.
16
ME424U1ChLS201516
4. LOCOMOTIVE MECHANISMS: These are devices that imitate human beings or
animals by having the ability to walk on two or four legs. Although the multiple
appendages can be highly sophisticated collections of linkages that are
hydraulically or electrically actuated under closed loop control, a human operator
is still required to execute the locomotive process. (i.e. taking decisions
concerning the desired direction and coordination of various movements).
17
ME424U1ChLS201516
CLASSIFICATION OF ROBOTS
At the end of manipulator’s wrist is a device related to the task that must be accomplished
by the robot. This device is called “end effector”.
An end effector may be a gripper for holding a work part or a tool for performing some
process.
The body-and-arm of the robot is used to position the end effector and the robot wrist is
used to orient the end effector.
The gross work envelope of a robot is defined as the locus of points in three-dimensional
space that can be reached by the wrist.
(i) Polar configuration (Two revolute pairs and one prismatic pair)
(ii) Cylindrical configuration (one revolute and two prismatic pairs)
(iii) Cartesian coordinate robot (Three prismatic pairs)
(iv) Jointed arm robot (Three revolute pairs )
(v) SCARA (Two revolute and one prismatic pair)
18
ME424U1ChLS201516
1. Polar Configuration robot (Spherical-coordinate robot)( RRP):
This configuration consists of sliding arm (L joint) actuated relative to the body,
which can rotate about both a vertical axis (T joint) and a horizontal axis (R joint).
Joint notation is TRL.
19
ME424U1ChLS201516
The working envelope of this configuration sweeps out a volume between two
partial spheres as shown in figure 1.9. There are physical limits imposed by the
design on the amount of angular movement in both the vertical and horizontal
planes. These restrictions create conical dead zones both above and below the
Robot structure.
20
ME424U1ChLS201516
The working envelope of this configuration is as its name suggests a
cylinder. The cylinder is hollow, since there is a limit to how far the arm can
retract; this creates a cylindrical dead zone around the Robot structure as shown
figure 1.11.
21
ME424U1ChLS201516
Fig. 1.13 Work envelope of a Cartesian coordinate robot
This robot manipulator has the general configuration of a human arm. The
jointed arm consists of a vertical column that swivels about the base using a T
joint. At the top of the column is a shoulder joint (shown as R joint), whose output
link connects to an elbow joint (another R joint). Joint notation is TRR.
This configuration has a large working envelope relative to the floor space
it occupies. The shape of the working envelope depends on the individual design.
The two most common designs are shown below. The design in fig 1.15 (a) has a
complex cusp shaped envelope (b) allows almost a true sphere to be reached,
whilst the design in.
22
ME424U1ChLS201516
Fig. 1.15 Work envelope of a jointed arm robot
The SCARA configuration has a working envelope that can be loosely described
(fig 1.17) as a heart or kidney shaped prism, having a circular hole passing through the
middle. This allows large area coverage in the horizontal plane but relatively little in the
vertical plane.
23
ME424U1ChLS201516
Fig. 1.17 Work envelope of a SCARA robot
WRIST CONFIGURATIONS:
The robot’s wrist is used to establish the orientation of the end effector. A robot
wrist usually consists of two or three degrees of freedom. Figure 1.18 shows one possible
configuration for a three degree of freedom wrist assembly.
(1) Roll, using a T joint to accomplish rotation about the robots arm axis
(2) Pitch, which involves up and down rotation, typically using a R joint
(3) Yaw, which involves right and left rotation, accomplished by R joint
A two degree of freedom wrist typically includes only roll and pitch joints (T and R
Joints).
24
ME424U1ChLS201516
JOINT NOTATION SCHEME:
The letter symbols for the five joint types (L, O, R, T and V) can be used to define
a joint notation system for the robot manipulator. In this notation system, the manipulator
is described by the joint types that make up the body-and arm assembly, followed by the
joint symbols that make up the wrist.
Example: The notation, TLR: TR represents five degrees of freedom manipulator, whose
body and arm is made up of a T joint, L joint and a R joint. The wrist is made up of a T
joint and a R joint.
25
ME424U1ChLS201516
Limited Sequence Control:
This is the most elementary type control and is used for simple motion cycles
such as pick and place operation. It is usually implemented by setting limits or
mechanical stops for each joint and sequencing the actuation of the joints to
accomplish the cycle. Feedback loops are sometimes used to indicate that the
particular joint actuation has been accomplished so that next step in sequence can
be initiated. However, there is no servo control to accomplish precise positioning
of the joint. Many pneumatically driven robots are limited sequence robots.
Consider a three axis Cartesian coordinate manipulator in which the end of arm is
moved in x-y-z space. In point-to-point systems, the x, y and z axes are controlled
to achieve a specified point location within the robot’s work volume. In
continuous path systems, not only are the x, y and z axes controlled, but the
velocities dx/dt, dy/dt and dz/dt are controlled simultaneously to achieve the
specified linear or curvilinear path. Servo control is used to continuously regulate
the position and speed of the manipulator. It should be mentioned that a play back
robot with continuous path control has the capacity for PTP control.
26
ME424U1ChLS201516
Intelligent control:
Industrial robots are becoming increasingly intelligent. An intelligent robot is one
that exhibits behavior that makes it seem intelligent. Some of these capabilities
are interact with its environment, make decisions when things go wrong during
the work cycle, communicate with humans, make computations during the motion
cycle and respond to advanced sensor inputs such as machine vision.
1. Electric
2. Hydraulic
3. Pneumatic
The important dynamic response characteristics of the manipulator are the speed
with which the robot can achieve a programmed position and the stability of its
motion.
Speed refers to the absolute velocity of the manipulator at its end-of-arm. Other
factors that influence the speed of motion are the weight (mass) of the object that
is being manipulated and the precision with which the object must be located at
the end of a given move.
27
ME424U1ChLS201516
Stability refers to the amount of overshoot and oscillation that occurs in the robot
motion at the end-of-arm as it attempts to move to the next programmed location.
More oscillations in the motion are an indication of less stability.
Up to the time of the first robot (i.e. the early 1960s) the automated machines developed
have been designed to perform essentially one task with little capability for changing.
In general machines developed for a specific task are called fixed automated devices and
the process that incorporates them is called fixed or hard automation.
With the advent of the industrial robot a new method of automating products became
possible and is called flexible automation. (A single complex machine can able to
perform a multitude of jobs with relatively minor modifications and little downtime
needed when changing from one task to another).
The three major advantages of flexible automation over fixed one are:
1. Reaction time
2. Debugging
3. Resistance to Obsolescence
1. Reaction Time
In general, when a fixed automated device is to be used in a process for the first
time, it must be designed, built, and tested before it can be used. Such a process
may take several months or years. By that time the product may lose its
competitive edge.
It is clear that use of a robot may significantly reduce the lead time
required to start producing a new product and will facilitate changes necessitated
by process variability.
28
ME424U1ChLS201516
2. Debugging
Once a fixed automated device is delivered to the plant, it must be placed
in to operation. Due to the fact that it is a special-purpose electro mechanical
device, for which there is little or no past history of operation, this will often
require a good deal of “fine tuning”. In some instances, it may even be necessary
to redesign and rebuild entire portions of the machine before satisfactory
operation is achieved. All of this, no doubt make the debugging or shakedown
part of the procedure a time-consuming affair.
On the other hand, if a robot is to be used to perform the same task, the
debugging operation will take a significantly shorter time. Since the robot is an
off-the shelf piece of automation, power connections, perhaps compressed air
lines, and proper positioning will be required.
3. Resistance to Obsolescence
Engelberger has said that resistance to Obsolescence is the “very essence of a
robot”. Unlike a piece of fixed automation which is capable of performing only a
single, specific task, the robot is not limited by the nature of the product, the type
of operations to be performed, or the particular industry. It is this aspect that
makes flexible automation such an attractive alternative to companies that
regularly require model changes that necessitate retooling (e.g., the automobile
industry). These industries use robots by reprogramming and by utilizing different
types of grippers whenever such changes take place.
29
ME424U1ChLS201516
Economic considerations
The robots have relieved humans from “4D jobs” (i.e. a very dull, very dirty, very
dangerous, or very difficult), the fact remains that manufacturing plant managers are
extremely concerned with the reduction in labor costs.
A survey of robot users and potential users conducted in 1981 indicated the primary
reason for selecting a robot is to reduce labor costs. The other reasons are elimination of
dangerous jobs, increased output rate, improved product quality, increased product
flexibility, reduced materials waste, reduced labor turnover and reduced capital cost.
Thus regardless of how potentially beneficial robots may appear to be with respect to
humans, if they cannot be justified economically, they will not be purchased.
Another advantage of robots is that they can be used for a very long time since they do
not become obsolete. Thus it is expected that the user will realize a considerable profit
over the robots useful life.
Economic analysis
In order to analyze the economic justification of installing a robot, we have to consider
the total cost and the anticipated savings of the robot system.
Apart from the direct robot cost, there are other costs which are to be considered.
30
ME424U1ChLS201516
3. Increase in productivity: In operations where cycle time was determined
by the speed of the human operator rather than machine time, a robot may
reduce cycle time and increase productivity by using robots however; it is
difficult in general to quantify the value of increase. (rough estimates 25%
increase in productivity)
4. Indirect savings: A robot may produce indirect savings, such as savings in
materials, reduced scrap or rework, and reduced workers compensation
costs because of injuries.
Annual savings:
L = Labor saving
Q = Quality improvement
I = Production increase
= + + + +
The Payback period (P) is the length of time required for paying back the initial
investment.
( )=
−
31
ME424U1ChLS201516
(1 + )
− =
(1 + ) − 1
Where ‘i’ is the interest rate or ROI, ‘n’ is the number of years used as the planning
horizon (usually n= 5 years).
Example problem:
A robot used for machine loading is priced at $46,000, the special gripper required for it
costs $5000, the sensors cost $1000, and the feeder cost is $30,000. There are no layout
changes. The robot will replace one operator. The operator’s rate is $16 per hour
including fringe benefits and the operator works 250 days a year, 8 hours a day. No
production increase or quality improvements are anticipated. What is the payback period
for one-shift and for two-shift operations? Also find the ROI for a 5 year planning
horizon.
Solution
The values of the various variables are
R= $46,000
G= $5000
S= $1000
D= 0
F= $30,000
L= $16/hour x 250 days/year x 8h/day = $32,000/year/shift
Q= 0
I= 0
M= $4600 (10% of $46,000)
,
= = 1.38 for two-shift operation
, ,
Considering the planning horizon of 5 years, ROI is calculated as 20% for one-shift
operation and 67% for two-shift operation.
32
ME424U1ChLS201516
Resolution, repeatability and accuracy of a manipulator
The capacity of a robot to position and orient the end of its wrist with accuracy and
repeatability is an important control attribute in nearly all industrial applications.
In the context of robot move its joints to achieve accurate ad repeatable positioning, the
following characteristic terms are used.
Control Resolution
Accuracy
Repeatability
In robotics these characteristics are defined at the end of the wrist and in the absence of
any end effector attached to the wrist.
Resolution is important for both record and playback applications and off-line
programming. Essentially it defines the ability of the manipulator to be able to reach
position close enough during initial training or defines the smallest move that the robot
can make.
Control resolution refers to the capability of the robot’s positioning system to divide the
range of the joint into closely spaced points, called addressable points, to which the joint
can be moved by the controller.
Spatial resolution is defined as the worst case distance between two adjacent addressable
points.
The capability to divide the range into addressable points depends on two factors:
(a) Limitations of the electromechanical components that make
up each joint-link combination. (CR1)
(b) The controller’s bit storage capacity for that joint.(CR2)
33
ME424U1ChLS201516
A number of electromechanical factors affect control resolution, including lead screw
pitch, gear ratio in the drive system, and the step angle in a stepper motor for an open-
loop system or the angle between slots in an encoder disk for a closed loop system.
=
The second factor that limits control resolution is the numbers of bits used by the
controller to specify the axis coordinate value. This limitation may be imposed by the bit
storage capacity of the controller. If B = the number of bits in the storage register for the
axis, then the number of control points into which the axis range can be divided = 2B.
Assuming that the control points are separated equally within the range, then
=
Where CR2 is the control resolution of the computer control system (mm, in)
L= axis range (mm. in)
The control resolution of the positioning system is the maximum of the two
values CR1 and CR2.
CR= Max {CR1, CR2}
The desirable criterion is CR2≤CR1.
Accuracy is the robot’s ability to position the end of its wrist at a desired location in the
work volume.
= +3
2
Repeatability is a measure of the robot’s ability to position its end of wrist at a previously
taught point in the work volume. Each time the robot attempts to return to the
programmed point it will return to a slightly different position. Repeatability variations
are mainly due to mechanical errors.
= ±3
34
ME424U1ChLS201516
ROBOT SPECIFICATIONS
35
ME424U1ChLS201516
6. Type of drives defines the joint actuator’s source of power (e.g., electric,
hydraulic, or pneumatic)
7. The control defines the method used to control the axes. (i.e., servo versus
non-servo) and whether continuous –path or point-to-point motion is possible.
Various applications may require one or more of these features.
8. Memory devices define both internal memory types and mass storage
capabilities.
9. Programming method defines the type of robot training via a key board; teach
pendant, walk-through (in the case of painting robots), mechanical setup (for
non servo units) or CAD/CAM (off-line programming).
10. Memory capacity gives an indication of the number of program steps or points
that the robot controller (without mass storage) can handle.
It is clear that the user must know exactly what he or she wants to do with a robot
and ask the correct questions of the manufacturer to ensure that the robot in
question will perform properly.
The general characteristics of industrial work situations that tend to promote the
substitution of robots for human labor are the following:
Robots are being used in a wide field of applications in industry. The applications
can usually classify in to one of the following categories:
36
ME424U1ChLS201516
Material Handling Applications:
In material handling applications, the robot moves materials or parts from one
place to another. To accomplish the transfer, the robot is equipped with a gripper
type end effector. The gripper must be designed to handle the specific part or
parts that are to be moved in the application.
Here are two categories:
Processing operations:
In processing operations, the robot performs some processing operation on a work
part, such as grinding or spray painting. Here the robot is equipped with some
type of tool as its end effector.
Examples are, spot welding, continuous arc welding, spray coating,
37
ME424U1ChLS201516
Fig. 1.23 Typical example of Spray coating task
38
ME424U1ChLS201516
Fig. 1.25 Typical example of Inspection task
Inspection tasks performed by robots can be divided in to the following two cases:
39
ME424U1ChLS201516
Review Questions
40
ME424U1ChLS201516