Ms 07

MS-07 REFERENCE MATERIAL
Q1. Explain the difference between the following:

a. High-Level and Low level languages
b. Applications and Utilities
c. Shareware, Open source software, Freeware
Ans.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HIGH LEVEL AND LOW LEVEL LANGUAGES
A low-level programming language is a programming language that provides little or no abstraction from a
computer's instruction set architecture. The word "low" refers to the small or non-existent amount of abstraction between
the language and machine language; because of this, low-level languages are sometimes described as being "close to
the hardware."
Low-level languages can be converted to machine code without using a compiler or interpreter, and the resulting
code runs directly on the processor. A program written in a low-level language can be made to run very fast, and with a
very small memory footprint; an equivalent program in a high-level language will be more heavyweight. Low-level
languages are simple, but are considered difficult to use, due to the numerous technical details which must be
remembered.
By comparison, a high-level programming language isolates the execution semantics of a computer architecture
from the specification of the program, which simplifies development.
Low-level programming languages are sometimes divided into two categories: first generation, and second generation.
A high-level programming language is a programming language with strong abstraction from the details of the
computer. In comparison to low-level programming languages, it may use natural language elements, be easier to use, or
be more portable across platforms. Such languages hide the details of CPU operations such as memory access models
and management of scope.
This greater abstraction and hiding of details is generally intended to make the language user-friendly, as it
includes concepts from the problem domain instead of those of the machine used. A high-level language isolates the
execution semantics of a computer architecture from the specification of the program, making the process of developing a
program simpler and more understandable with respect to a low-level language. The amount of abstraction provided
defines how "high-level" a programming language is.
The first high-level programming language to be designed for a computer was Plankalkül, created by Konrad
Zuse. However, it was not implemented in his time and his original contributions were isolated from other developments.
The term "high-level language" does not imply that the language is superior to low-level programming languages.
In fact, in terms of the depth of knowledge of how computers work required to productively program in a given language,
the inverse may be true. Rather, "high-level language" refers to the higher level of abstraction from machine language.
Rather than dealing with registers, memory addresses and call stacks, high-level languages deal with variables,
arrays, objects, complex arithmetic or boolean expressions, subroutines and functions, loops, threads, locks, and other
abstract computer science concepts, with a focus on usability over optimal program efficiency.
Unlike low-level assembly languages, high-level languages have few, if any, language elements that translate
directly into a machine's native opcodes. Other features such as string handling routines, object-oriented language
features and file input/output may also be present.
Stereotypically, high-level languages make complex programming simpler, while low-level languages tend to
produce more efficient code. Abstraction penalty is the barrier that prevents high-level programming techniques from
being applied in situations where computational resources are limited. High-level programming features like more generic
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data structures, run-time interpretation and intermediate code files often result in slower execution speed, higher memory
consumption and larger binary program size. For this reason, code which needs to run particularly quickly and efficiently
may require the use of a lower-level language, even if a higher-level language would make the coding easier.
However, with the growing complexity of modern microprocessor architectures, well-designed compilers for high-
level languages frequently produce code comparable in efficiency to what most low-level programmers can produce by
hand, and the higher abstraction may allow for more powerful techniques providing better overall results than their low-
level counterparts in particular settings.
The terms high-level and low-level are inherently relative. Some decades ago, the C language, and similar
languages, were most often considered "high-level", as it supported concepts such as expression
evaluation, parameterised recursive functions, and data types and structures, while assembly language was considered
"low-level". Many programmers today might refer to C as low-level, as it lacks a large runtime-system (no garbage
collection etc.), basically supports only scalar operations, and provides direct memory addressing. It therefore readily
blends with assembly language and the machine level of CPUs and microcontrollers.
Also note that assembly language may itself be regarded as a higher level (but often still one-to-one if used
without macros) representation of machine code, as it supports concepts such as constants and (limited) expressions,
sometimes even variables, procedures, and data structures. Machine code, in its turn, is inherently at a slightly higher
level than the microcode or micro-operations used internally in many processors.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN APPLICATIONS AND UTILITY
Application Software, also known as an application or an "app", is computer software designed to help
the user to perform singular or multiple related specific tasks. It helps to solve problems in the real world. Examples
include enterprise software, accounting software, office suites, graphics software, and media players.
Application software is contrasted with system software and middleware, which manage and integrate a
computer's capabilities, but typically do not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user. A simple,
if imperfect, analogy in the world of hardware would be the relationship of an electric light bulb (an application) to an
electric power generation plant (a system). The power plant merely generates electricity, not itself of any real use until
harnessed to an application like the electric light that performs a service that benefits the user.
In information technology, an application is a computer program designed to help people perform an activity. An
application thus differs from an operating system (which runs a computer), a utility (which performs maintenance or
general-purpose chores), and a programming language (with which computer programs are created). Depending on the
activity for which it was designed, an application can manipulate text, numbers, graphics, or a combination of these
elements. Some application packages offer considerable computing power by focusing on a single task, such as word
processing; others, called integrated software, offer somewhat less power but include several applications.
There are many types of application software:
 An application suite consists of multiple applications bundled together. They usually have related functions,
features and user interfaces, and may be able to interact with each other, e.g. Microsoft Office, OpenOffice.org,
and iWork.
 Enterprise software addresses the needs of organization processes and data flow, often in a large distributed
environment. (Examples include financial systems, customer relationship management (CRM) systems, and supply-
chain management software).
 Enterprise infrastructure software provides common capabilities needed to support enterprise software systems.
(Examples include databases, email servers, and systems for managing networks and security.)

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 Information worker software addresses the needs of individuals to create and manage information, often for
individual projects within a department, in contrast to enterprise management. Examples include time management,
resource management, documentation tools, analytical, and collaborative.
 Content access software is software used primarily to access content without editing, but may include software
that allows for content editing. Such software addresses the needs of individuals and groups to consume digital
entertainment and published digital content. (Examples include Media Players, Web Browsers, Help browsers, and
Games)
 Educational software is related to content access software, but has the content and/or features adapted for use in
by educators or students. For example, it may deliver evaluations (tests), track progress through material, or include
collaborative capabilities.
 Simulation software are computer software for simulation of physical or abstract systems for either research,
training or entertainment purposes.
 Media development software addresses the needs of individuals who generate print and electronic media for
others to consume, most often in a commercial or educational setting. This includes Graphic Art software, Desktop
Publishing software, Multimedia Development software, HTML editors, Digital Animation editors, Digital Audio and
Video composition, and many others.
 Mobile applications run on hand-held devices such as mobile phones, personal digital assistants, and enterprise
digital assistants : see mobile application development.
 Product engineering software is used in developing hardware and software products. This includes computer
aided design (CAD), computer aided engineering (CAE), computer language editing and compiling tools, Integrated
Development Environments, and Application Programmer Interfaces.
 A graphical user interface (GUI) is one in which you select command choices from various menus, buttons and
icons using a mouse. It is a user-friendly interface. The Windows and Mac OS are both graphical user interfaces.
Utility Software is a kind of system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the
computer. A single piece of utility software is usually called a utility (abbr. util) or tool.
Utility software should be contrasted with application software, which allows users to do things like creating text
documents, playing games, listening to music or surfing the web. Rather than providing these kinds of user-oriented or
output-oriented functionality, utility software usually focuses on how the computer infrastructure (including the computer
hardware, operating system, application software and data storage) operates. Due to this focus, utilities are often rather
technical and targeted at people with an advanced level of computer knowledge.
Most utilities are highly specialized and designed to perform only a single task or a small range of tasks. However,
there are also some utility suites that combine several features in one piece of software.
Most major operating systems come with several pre-installed utilities:
 Disk storage utilities

 Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are broken across several locations on the hard
disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
 Disk checkers can scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are corrupted in some way, or were
not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a more efficiently operating hard drive.
 Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up considerable amounts of
space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete when their hard disk is full.
 Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for each folder (including sub
folders) & files in folder or drive showing the distribution of the used space.

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 Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own file system which can be
mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive.
 Backup utilities can make a copy of all information stored on a disk, and restore either the entire disk (e.g. in an
event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental deletion).
 Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a disk, increasing the capacity
of the disk.
 File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data management tasks, such as deleting,
renaming, cataloging, uncataloging, moving, copying, merging, generating and modifying data sets.
 Archive utilities output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of files. Archive utilities,
unlike archive suites, usually do not include compression or encryption capabilities. Some archive utilities may even
have a separate un-archive utility for the reverse operation.
 System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and hardware attached to the computer.
 Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.
 Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data or an actual program.
 Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a stream or file.
 Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files.
 Launcher applications provide a convenient access point for application software.
 Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows registry by removing old registry keys that are no longer in
use.
 Network utilities analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network settings, check data transfer or
log events.
 Command line interface (CLI) and Graphical user interface (GUI) Allows the user to contact and make changes to
the operating system.
 Screensavers were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer monitors by blanking the
screen or filling it with moving images or patterns when the computer is not in use. Contemporary screensavers are
used primarily for entertainment or security.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SHAREWARE, OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE, FREEWARE

Shareware (also known as trialware or demoware) refers to proprietary software that is provided to users without
payment on a trial basis and is often limited by any combination of functionality, availability or convenience. Shareware is
often offered as a download from an Internet website or as a compact disc included with a periodical such as
a newspaper or magazine. The rationale behind shareware is to give buyers the opportunity to use the program and judge
its usefulness before purchasing a license for the full version of the software. Firms with superior software thus have an
incentive to offer samples, except if their product is already well known, or if they do not want to be listed in direct
competition with other products on shareware repositories.
Shareware is usually offered either with certain features only available after the license is purchased, or as a full
version but for a limited trial period of time. Once the trial period has passed the program may stop running until a license
is purchased. Shareware is often offered without supports or updates which only become available with the purchase of a
license. The words "free trial" or "trial version" are indicative of shareware.
Free/open source software and shareware are similar in that they can be obtained and used without monetary
cost. Usually shareware differs from free/open source software in that requests of voluntary shareware fees are made,
often within the program itself, and in that source code for shareware programs is generally not available in a form that
would allow others to extend the program. Notwithstanding that tradition, some free/open source software authors ask for

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voluntary donations, although there is no requirement to do so. Free/open source software is usually compatible with the
strict Association of Shareware Professionals shareware guidelines.
Sometimes, paying the fee and obtaining a password results in access to expanded features, documentation, or
support. In some cases, unpaid use of the software is limited in time or in features — in which case the software is
vernacularly called crippleware. Some shareware items require no payment; just an email address, so that the supplier
can use this address for their own purposes.
Shareware is available on all major computer platforms including Microsoft Windows, Macintosh, Linux, and Unix.
Titles cover a very wide range of categories including: business, software development, education, home, multimedia,
design, drivers, games, and utilities.
Open-source software (OSS) is computer software that is available in source code form for which the source
code and certain other rights normally reserved for copyright holders are provided under a software license that permits
users to study, change, improve and at times also to distribute the software.
Open source software is very often developed in a public, collaborative manner. Open-source software is the
most prominent example of open-source development and often compared to (technically defined) user-generated
content or (legally defined) open content movements.
Software developers may want to publish their software with an open source license, so that anybody may also
develop the same software or understand its internal functioning. Open source software generally allows anyone to create
modifications of the software, port it to new operating systems and processor architectures, share it with others or market
it. Scholars Casson and Ryan have pointed out several policy-based reasons for adoption of open source, in particular,
the heightened value proposition from open source (when compared to most proprietary formats) in the following
categories:
Security, Affordability, Transparency, Perpetuity, Interoperability, and Localisation.

The Open Source Definition, notably, presents an open source philosophy, and further defines the terms of usage,
modification and redistribution of open source software. Software licenses grant rights to users which would otherwise be
reserved by copyright law to the copyright holder. Several open source software licenses have qualified within the
boundaries of the Open Source Definition. The most prominent and popular example is the GNU General Public
License (GPL). While open source distribution presents a way to make the source code of a product publicly accessible,
the open source licenses allow the authors to fine tune such access.
Freeware (from "free" and "software") is computer software that is available for use at no cost (or for an optional
fee). This is in contrast to commercial software, which is typically sold for profit. Though "freeware" does not preclude free
and open source software (FOSS), it is commonly used to denote cost-free proprietary software in contrast to FOSS.
Software classified as freeware is either fully functional for an unlimited time with no cost, monetary or otherwise;
or has basic functions enabled at no cost, with a fully functional version available as commercial or shareware. Freeware
can be proprietary software available at zero price. The author usually restricts one or more rights to copy, distribute, and
make derivative works of the software. The software license may impose restrictions on the type of use including personal
use, individual use, non-profit use, non-commercial use, academic use, commercial use or any combination of these. For
instance, the license may be "free for personal, non-commercial use".
Accordingly, freeware may or may not be free and open source software and, in order to distinguish, the Free
Software Foundation asks users to avoid calling free software as "freeware", the principal difference being that free
software can be used, studied, and modified without restriction; free software embodies the concept of freedom to use,
while freeware that of free-of-charge. Freeware is also different from shareware; the latter obliges the user to pay after
some trial period or to gain additional functionality.
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Q2. Discuss the relationship between data and information, information and knowledge. Also explain the
concepts of cost and value of information by the help of an example.
Ans.
DATA The term data refers to qualitative or quantitative attributes of a variable or set of variables. Data
(plural of "datum") are typically the results of measurements and can be the basis of graphs, images, or observations of a
set of variables. Data are often viewed as the lowest level of abstraction from which information and then knowledge are
derived. Raw data, i.e. unprocessed data, refers to a collection of numbers, characters, images or other outputs from
devices that collect information to convert physical quantities into symbols.
The terms information and knowledge are frequently used for overlapping concepts. The main difference is in the
level of abstraction being considered. Data is the lowest level of abstraction, information is the next level, and finally,
knowledge is the highest level among all three. Data on its own carries no meaning. For data to become information, it
must be interpreted and take on a meaning. For example, the height of Mt. Everest is generally considered as "data", a
book on Mt. Everest geological characteristics may be considered as "information", and a report containing practical
information on the best way to reach Mt. Everest's peak may be considered as "knowledge".
Beynon-Davies uses the concept of a sign to distinguish between data and information; data are symbols while
information occurs when symbols are used to refer to something.
It is people and computers who collect data and impose patterns on it. These patterns are seen as information
which can be used to enhance knowledge. These patterns can be interpreted as truth, and are authorized as aesthetic
and ethical criteria. Events that leave behind perceivable physical or virtual remains can be traced back through data.
Marks are no longer considered data once the link between the mark and observation is broken.
Raw data refers to a collection of numbers, characters, images or other outputs from devices to convert physical
quantities into symbols, that are unprocessed. Such data is typically further processed by a human or input into
a computer, stored and processed there, or transmitted (output) to another human or computer (possibly through a data
cable). Raw data is a relative term; data processing commonly occurs by stages, and the "processed data" from one
stage may be considered the "raw data" of the next.
Mechanical computing devices are classified according to the means by which they represent data. An analog
computer represents a datum as a voltage, distance, position, or other physical quantity. A digital computer represents a
datum as a sequence of symbols drawn from a fixed alphabet. The most common digital computers use a binary
alphabet, that is, an alphabet of two characters, typically denoted "0" and "1". More familiar representations, such as
numbers or letters, are then constructed from the binary alphabet.
Some special forms of data are distinguished. A computer program is a collection of data, which can be
interpreted as instructions. Most computer languages make a distinction between programs and the other data on which
programs operate, but in some languages, notably Lisp and similar languages, programs are essentially indistinguishable
from other data. It is also useful to distinguish metadata, that is, a description of other data. A similar yet earlier term for
metadata is "ancillary data." The prototypical example of metadata is the library catalog, which is a description of the
contents of books.
Experimental data refers to data generated within the context of a scientific investigation by observation and
recording. Field data refers to raw data collected in an uncontrolled in situ environment.
INFORMATION Information as a concept bears a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to technical
settings. Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control,
data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation.
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Information is any kind of event that affects the state of a dynamical system. In its most restricted technical sense,
it is an ordered sequence of symbols. As a concept, however, information has many meanings. Moreover, the concept of
information is closely related to notions of constraint,
communication, control, data, form, instruction, knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception,
and representation.
Information is any type of pattern that influences the formation or transformation of other patterns. In this sense,
there is no need for a conscious mind to perceive, much less appreciate, the pattern. Consider, for example, DNA. The
sequence of nucleotides is a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a
conscious mind.
Systems theory at times seems to refer to information in this sense, assuming information does not necessarily
involve any conscious mind, and patterns circulating (due to feedback) in the system can be called information. In other
words, it can be said that information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not
created or presented for that purpose. For example, Gregory Bateson defines "information" as a "difference that makes a
difference".
If, however, the premise of "influence" implies that information has been perceived by a conscious mind and also
interpreted by it, the specific context associated with this interpretation may cause the transformation of the information
into knowledge. Complex definitions of both "information" and "knowledge" make such semantic and logical analysis
difficult, but the condition of "transformation" is an important point in the study of information as it relates to knowledge,
especially in the business discipline of knowledge management. In this practice, tools and processes are used to assist
a knowledge worker in performing research and making decisions, including steps such as:
 reviewing information in order to effectively derive value and meaning

 referencing metadata if any is available
 establishing a relevant context, often selecting from many possible contexts
 deriving new knowledge from the information
 making decisions or recommendations from the resulting knowledge.
KNOWLEDGE Knowledge is defined as (i) expertise, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education;
the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject; (ii) what is known in a particular field or in total; facts and
information; or (iii) be absolutely certain or sure about something: . Philosophical debates in general start
with Plato's formulation of knowledge as "justified true belief."
There is however no single agreed definition of knowledge presently, nor any prospect of one, and there remain
numerous competing theories. Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes: perception, learning,
communication, association and reasoning. The term knowledge is also used to mean the confident understanding of a
subject with the ability to use it for a specific purpose if appropriate.
The development of the scientific method has made a significant contribution to our understanding of knowledge. To
be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on
gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. The scientific
method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of
hypotheses. Science, and the nature of scientific knowledge have also become the subject of Philosophy. As science
itself has developed, knowledge has developed a broader usage which has been developing within biology/psychology—
discussed elsewhere as meta-epistemology, or genetic epistemology, and to some extent related to "theory of cognitive
development".

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Cost of Information
The old adage, "You get what you pay for," has long been used to explain the difference in the value of that which is
obtained for a cost versus that which is free. The underlying assumption is that free information has less value than
information that has a cost. That assumption has been challenged lately by a new assumption (some would say
misconception) that "everything is on the Internet, and it costs nothing." This brief discussion of fee versus free information
will explain some differences between the two. The simple explanation is that information has value, whether it is free or it
comes with a cost, but it is helpful to understand what value is attached to each type.
What are the differences between information that is free versus information that has a cost? Obviously, the major
difference is cost. However, there are several other important distinctions, such as aggregation and organization of
information, associated services, currency, reliability, comprehensiveness, and ease of use, that may add value to the
information. Those differences may add enough value that paying for fee based information resources is worthwhile. In
general, people seem to be willing to pay when they believe they receive a quality product with value. This willingness
extends to items formerly free that now may involve charges.
Some examples of what people are willing to pay for, which can otherwise be available for free, include cable
television, private schools, or water. In each case, the user of the item perceives added value that exceeds the cost of the
item. For cable television, that value is the additional program choices for children, foreign language, movies, news,
sports, etc. In education, willingness to pay may be based on parent's values, higher quality instruction, individual
attention, safer environment, or smaller class size. Water quality and taste are usually cited as the reason individuals are
willing to pay for something that is free out of the tap.
Conversely, what was formerly free information may now cost. Some examples are travel reservations and
tickets, which were free to customers using travel agents. Banking services that may have been free in the past may now
involve costs. Yet, customers are willing to pay even for "free" items if they get value. Value may be due to more efficient
use of time or extra service. The difference between making your own travel arrangements and using a travel agent is one
that is often cited. Many airlines and hotels make reservations via the Internet. Although such services were previously
available to customers by travel agents for free (the fee was paid to the agent by the airline or hotel), the agent must now
charge the customer. Why then do people persist in using travel agents? Agents have access to a great variety of travel
databases which allow them to look at a variety of options and choose the best one for their customer. Agents do the
research on their time, so the customer does not waste his time. If there are problems, the agent resolves them. The
bottom line is convenience and efficiency, which are often worth the fees charged.
Another example is fees for library services such as book rentals, copying, interlibrary loan, and reference
queries. Most books are circulated for free in public libraries, but some best sellers now are rented out for small fees of
$.25 to $1.00 a day. People pay these fees because they would rather read best sellers now, rather than later. The rental
fees are usually much smaller than the price of purchasing the best seller. Photocopying materials is a common use of
libraries. Although free in some special and academic libraries, fees are commonly charged in other libraries. No one
complains. Getting interlibrary loans of materials from other libraries may cost a small fee, but users seem to understand
the value and gladly pay for the service.
If people are willing to pay for items which can be obtained free of charge, why then do they persist in the belief
that some things should not be paid for, even if that item was formerly only available for a cost. "One of the Web's great
accomplishments has been to reinforce the notion that all information ought to be free. The great irony is that the online
industry has long dreamed of, and struggled for a mass market. Now that it exists, its members don't expect to pay"
(O'Leary 2000). Many producers of fee-based information now believe that they will lose their customer base to free
providers if they charge fees. With the prevalent feeling that it is all out there for free, providers believe that customers will
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not pay for information. It's been shown that some customers will drop some suppliers and choose to use only free
sources. But, in times of downsizing and rightsizing, free sources may cost more in terms of labor time and effort, making
their true cost higher in actual dollars.
Overall, differences in perceptions of what is appropriate to charge for, and what should be free, will always vary.
Beauty is, after all, in the eye of the beholder. The true value of information is accepted. The choice of fee or free will
depend upon availability, budget, convenience, cost, efficiency, evaluation and determination of value added, and the
perceptions of the user. Information has value, and even more so when it becomes useful knowledge. The determination
of its value and the choice of payment or nonpayment is a final decision made by the user.
Value of Information
The value of information has never been denied. But when does data become information, and when does information
become useful knowledge that adds value to our work? Information itself is valueless unless translated into usable
knowledge. Many now suggest that general consensus has been reached establishing that "information is now a more
important measure of a company's worth than their tangible assets…The truly mission critical processes for every
enterprise involve capturing the daily flood of data… Data must be stored and organised so that employees can access it
easily and intuitively, evaluate it…and act upon the findings effortlessly." The value of the computer has been determined
only as a storage device for the information. The number and size of computers do not provide the value, only the ease of
use and value of their content when shared as information.
The difficulty is not in establishing the value of information, but in quantifying that value. Librarians and knowledge
workers can determine what it costs to staff a reference desk, to license a database for searching, to borrow or purchase
a book, report, or journal article. Determining the value of the use of that product or information by the military, or the
civilian scientist or engineer is a different problem. Some studies reported in the literature have attempted to put a value
on these individual transactions.
Another approach is to simply estimate the value of the content of a library by looking at its catalog and making
assumptions based on numbers of items cataloged. Donald W. King, a noted researcher in this area, has conducted
numerous studies on the value of information, including several for DoD components. In 1990, King developed a
methodology for determining the value of information provided by libraries to the individuals in an organization. His rule of
thumb indicates that organizations appreciate a value to cost ratio, or return on investment (ROI) of providing information
services via a library of 19 to 1.
In 1998, the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, prepared a study of the "Value
of Information and Information Services." Using an extensive literature search and set of interviews with public and private
sector experts, the findings of this study indicated that information value can be measured by 1) reduced costs of agency
research, technology development, and operations, 2) quicker implementation of innovations and time savings, and 3)
more effective decision making at all levels of the agency.
Information does have value; studies have proven it, and experts can agree. The difficulty is then how to evaluate
the value. One proven method that is frequently used is to determine a return on investment, or ROI, of information.
Q3. Explain the major marketing subsystems and enumerate the advantages of the use of computers in such
subsystems.
Ans.

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Marketing is the process by which goods are sold and purchased. The aim of marketing is to acquire, retain, and
satisfy customers. Modern marketing has evolved into a complex and diverse field. This field includes a wide variety of
special functions such as advertising, mail-order business, public relations, retailing and merchandising, sales, market
research, and pricing of goods.
Marketing is the process of performing market research, selling products and/or services to customers and
promoting them via advertising to further enhance sales. It generates the strategy that underlies sales techniques,
business communication, and business developments. It is an integrated process through which companies build
strong customer relationships and create value for their customers and for themselves.
Marketing is used to identify the customer, to satisfy the customer, and to keep the customer. With the customer
as the focus of its activities, it can be concluded that marketing management is one of the major components of business
management. Marketing evolved to meet the stasis in developing new markets caused by mature
markets and overcapacities in the last 2-3 centuries. The adoption of marketing strategies requires businesses to shift
their focus from production to the perceived needs and wants of their customers as the means of staying profitable.
Businesses, and particularly the marketing aspect of businesses, rely a great deal on the use of computers.
Computers play a significant role in inventory control, processing and handling orders, communication between satelite
companies in an organization, design and production of goods, manufacturing, product and market analysis, advertising,
producing the company newsletter, and in some cases, complete control of company operations.
In today's extremely competitive business environment businesses are searching for ways to improve profitability and
to maintain their position in the marketplace. As competition becomes more intense the formula for success becomes
more difficult.
CAD/CAM software enables a designer to construct a model directly from data which is stored in computer memory.
These software programs help designers to consider both function and manufacturing consequences at early stages,
when designs are easily modified.
More and more manufacturing businesses are integrating CAD/CAM with other aspects of production, including
inventory tracking, scheduling, and marketing. This idea, known as computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), speeds
processing of orders, adds to effective materials management, and creates considerable cost savings.
In addition to designing and manufacturing a product, a company must be effectively able to advertise, market, and sell
its product. Much of what passes for business is nothing more than making connections with other people. What if you
could passout your business card to thousands, maybe millions of potential clients and partners? You can, twenty four
hours a day, inexpensively and simply on the World Wide Web. Firms communicate with their customers through various
types of media. This media usually follows passive one-to-many communication where a firm reaches many current and
potential customers through marketing efforts that allow limited forms of feedback on the part of the customer.
For several years a revolution has been developing that is dramatically changing the traditional form of advertising
and communication media. This revolution is the Internet, a massive global network of interconnected computer networks
which has the potential to drastically change the way firms do business with their customers. The World Wide Web is a
hypertext based information service. It provides access to multimedia, complex documents, and databases. The Web is
one of the most effective vehicles to provide information because of its visual impact and advanced features. It can be
used as a complete presentation media for a company's corporate information or information on all of its products and
services. The recent growth of the world wide web (WWW) has opened up new markets and shattered boundaries to
selling to a worldwide audience. For marketers the world wide web can be used to create a client base, for product and
market analysis, rapid information access, wide scale information dissemination, rapid communication, cost-effective
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document transfers, expert advise and help, recruiting new employees, peer communications, and new business
opportunities.
Marketing Management can also rely on various technologies within the scope of its marketing efforts. Computer-
based information system scan be employed, aiding in better processing and storage of data. Marketing researchers can
use such systems to devise better methods of converting data into information, and for the creation of enhanced data
gathering methods. Information technology can aid in enhancing an MKIS' software and hardware components, and
improve a company's marketing decision-making process.
Client Base Finding new clients and new client bases is not always an easy task. This process involves a
careful market analysis, product marketing and consumer base testing. The Internet is a ready base of several million
people from all walks of life.
Marketing Research involves conducting research to support marketing activities, and the statistical interpretation of
data into information. This information is then used by managers to plan marketing activities, gauge the nature of a firm's
marketing environment and attain information from suppliers. Marketing researchers use statistical methods such
as quantitative research, qualitative research, hypothesis tests, Chi-squared tests, linear
regression, correlations, frequency distributions, poisson distributions, binomial distributions, etc. to interpret their findings
and convert data into information. All these can easily and quickly be done by the help of PCs.
Marketing Planning process involves forging a plan for a firm's marketing activities. A marketing plan can also
pertain to a specific product, as well as to an organization's overall marketing strategy. There are several levels of
marketing objectives within an organization. The senior management of a firm would formulate a general business
strategy for a firm. Whatever be the job, computers are there to help you.
Marketing Strategy encompasses the strategy involved in the management of a given product. A given firm may
hold numerous products in the marketplace, spanning numerous and sometimes wholly unrelated industries. Accordingly,
a plan is required in order to effectively manage such products. Evidently, a company needs to weigh up and ascertain
how to utilize its finite resources. For example, a start-up car manufacturing firm would face little success should it attempt
to rival Toyota, Ford, Nissan, Chevrolet, or any other large global car maker. Moreover, a product may be reaching the
end of its life-cycle. Thus, the issue of divest, or a ceasing of production, may be made. Each scenario requires a unique
marketing strategy. Computers are a great tool in comparing data and providing useful insights into them.
Services Marketing relates to the marketing of services, as opposed to tangible products. A service (as opposed to a
good) is typically defined as follows:
 The use of it is inseparable from its purchase (i.e., a service is used and consumed simultaneously)
 It does not possess material form, and thus cannot be touched, seen, heard, tasted, or smelled.
 The use of a service is inherently subjective, meaning that several persons experiencing a service would each
experience it uniquely.
For example, a train ride can be deemed a service. If one buys a train ticket, the use of the train is typically
experienced concurrently with the purchase of the ticket. Although the train is a physical object, one is not paying for the
permanent ownership of the tangible components of the train. Services (compared with goods) can also be viewed as a
spectrum. Not all products are pure goods, nor are all pure services. An example would be a restaurant, where a waiter's
service is intangible, but the food is tangible. With the help of world wide web, you can provide services to consumers
residing at any corner of this universe.
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Promotion is one of the four elements of marketing mix (product, price, promotion, distribution). It is the
communication link between sellers and buyers for the purpose of influencing, informing, or persuading a potential buyer's
purchasing decision.
The Web is also more cost-effective than conventional advertising. Transferring online documents via the Internet
takes a minimal amount of time, saving a great deal of money over postal or courier services which can also suffer late
deliveries, losses or damage. If a document transfer fails on the Internet, you can always try again since the cost of the
transfer is exactly the same. Current or potential clients are not lost due to late or absent documents.
Targeted Advertising is a type of advertising whereby advertisements are placed so as to reach consumers based
on various traits such as demographics, purchase history, or observed behavior. One can easily find new customers and
clients from this massive group, provided that your presence on the internet is known. If you could keep your customer
informed of every reason why they should do business with you, your business would definitely increase.
Product Distribution (or place) is one of the four elements of the marketing mix. An organization or set of
organizations (go-betweens) involved in the process of making a product or service available for use or consumption by a
consumer or business user.
Making Business Information available is one of the most important ways to serve your customers. Before people
decide to become customers, they want to know about your company, what you do and what you can do for them. This
can be accomplished easily and inexpensively on the World Wide Web.
Many users also do Product Analyses And Comparisons and report their findings via the World Wide Web. Quite
frequently one can find others who may be familiar with a product that you are currently testing. A company can get first
hand reports on the functionality of such products before spending a great deal of money. Also, the large base of Internet
users is a principle area for the distribution of surveys for an analysis of the market for a new product of service ideas.
These surveys can reach millions of people and potential clients with very little effort on the part of the surveyors. Once a
product is already marketed, you can examine the level of satisfaction that users have received from the product.
Getting Customer Feedback can lead to new and improved products. Feedback will let you know what customers
think of your product faster, easier and much less expensively than any other market you may reach. For the cost of a
page or two of Web programming, you can have a crystal ball into where to position your product or service in the
marketplace.
International Marketing Accessing information over the Internet is much faster on most occasions than
transmissions and transfers via fax or postal courier services. You can access information and data from countries around
the world and make interactive connections to remote computer systems just about anywhere in the world.
Electronic mail has also proved to be an effective solution to the problem of telephone tag. Contacting others through
email has provided a unique method of communication which has the speed of telephone conversations, yet still provides
the advantages of postal mail. Email can be sent from just about anywhere that there is an Internet service or access so
that businessmen or travelers can keep in touch with up to the minute details of the office.
Public Relation Another benefit of the World Wide Web is wide scale information circulation. You can place
documents on the Internet and instantly make them accessible to millions of users around the world. Hypertext documents
provide an effective technique by which to present information to subscribers, clients or the general public. Creating World
Wide Web documents and registering your site with larger Web sites improves the availability of the documents to a client
base larger, and cheaper, than the circulation of many major newspapers and/or television medias. You may not be able
to use the mail, phone system and regulation systems in all of your potential international markets. With the World Wide
Web, however, you can open up a dialogue with international markets as easily as with the company across the street.
In recent years, the net book personal computer has gained significant market share among laptops, largely due
to its more user-friendly size and portability. Information technology typically progresses at a fast rate, leading to
marketing managers being cognizant of the latest technological developments. Moreover, the launch of smartphones into
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the cellphone market is commonly derived from a demand among consumers for more technologically advanced
products. A firm can lose out to competitors should it ignore technological innovations in its industry.
Technological advancements can lessen barriers between countries and regions. Using the World Wide Web,
firms can quickly dispatch information from one country to another without much restriction. Prior to the mass usage of the
Internet, such transfers of information would have taken longer to send, especially if done via snail mail, telex, etc.
Computer technology is by far the most important and impressive means by which to insure a company's
success. Computers play a significant role in every aspect of a company's survival, from product design and
manufacturing, creating client databases, inventory control, market analysis, advertising and sales, and even total
company operations.
Q4. Describe the significant features of each of Visual Basic, Java, HTML, Excel and COBOL briefly.
Ans.
VISUAL BASIC
Visual Basic is not only a programming language, but also a complete graphical development environment. This
environment allows users with little programming experience to quickly develop useful Microsoft Windows applications
which have the ability to use OLE ( Object Linking and Embedding ) objects, such as an Excel spreadsheet. Visual Basic
also has the ability to develop programs that can be used as a front end application to a database system, serving as the
user interface which collects user input and displays formatted output in a more appealing and useful form than many
SQL versions are capable of.
Visual Basic's main selling point is the ease with which it allows the user to create nice looking, graphical
programs with little coding by the programmer, unlike many other languages that may take hundreds of lines of
programmer keyed code. As the programmer works in the graphical environment, much of the program code is
automatically generated by the Visual Basic program.
Once all the objects are created, we can combine them to form a single executable program that can be run
outside of the Visual Basic environment, in Microsoft Windows. The term "Personal Programming" refers to the idea that,
wherever you work, whatever you do, you can expand your computer's usefulness by writing applications to use in your
own job. Personal Programming is what Visual Basic is all about.
Using Visual Basic's tools, you quickly translate an abstract idea into a program design you can actually see on
the screen. VB encourages you to experiment, revise, correct, and network your design until the new project meets your
requirements. However, most of all, it inspires your imagination and creativity.
Visual Basic is ideal for developing applications that run in the new Windows 95 operating system. VB presents a 3-
step approach for creating programs:
1. Design the appearance of your application.

2. Assign property settings to the objects of your program.
3. Write the code to direct specific tasks at runtime.
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To summarize, features of VB are:
1. VB is event driven. The user is in control of the application. The user generates events through codes which
respond to the click of mouse.
2. VB supports the principle of Object Oriented design. This means you can compartmentalize different aspect of
your application as objects and develop and test those objects independently of the rest of the application.
3. Microsoft has designed VB to be a complete windows application development system. This means that your
visual basic application will look and behave like other windows program.
JAVA
Java is a general purpose object oriented language developed by Sun Microsystems of USA in 1991. The most
striking feature of this language is that it is platform neutral language. Java is the first programming language that is not
tied to any particular hardware or operating system.
There are many features of Java. Some of them namely are explained below.
1. Multithreading A fundamental concept of computer programming is the idea of handling more than one task at a
time. Within a program these separately running pieces are called threads and the general concept is called
multithreading.
The Java Virtual Machine allows an application to have multiple threads of execution running concurrently. Each
thread has a priority. Threads with higher priority are executed in preference to threads with lower priority. When a Java
Virtual Machine starts up there is usually a single non-daemon thread. The Java Virtual Machine continues to execute
threads until either of the following occurs.
2. AWT and Event Handling The original design goal of the graphical user interface called as GUI library in
Java was to allow the programmer to build a GUI that looks good on all platforms. The Java Abstract Window Toolkit
called as AWT produces a GUI that looks equally good on all systems. Thus much of the situation has been improved with
the Java Abstract Window Toolkit AWT by using a very good object oriented approach. Also with the use of Java Beans
which is a component programming model that is very useful for the creation of easy and effective visual programming
environments.
Event driven programming is the concept of attaching or associating events to code like in the actions of mouse click
or key press or selection of menu and so on. Thus the code attached to these events gets fired when the action or event
occurs. This is very important concept supported by Java in an efficient way which takes care of interactive programming
methodology thus making it a powerful programming tool.
3. Networking This is a very important feature of Java and in Java it is possible to achieve networking without
much effort because of the powerful features possessed by it. In other words the concept of networking has become so
easy in Java because the underlying details of networking is abstracted and taken away and is taken care of within the
JVM and local machine installation of Java.
4. Socket In Java one creates a socket to make a connection to the other machine and thereby gets an InputStream
and OutputStream from the socket with the appropriate converters namely Reader and Writer which helps to treat the
connection as an IO stream object. Generally there are two stream-based socket classes namely a ServerScoket that a
server uses to listen for incoming connections and a Socket that a client uses in order to initiate a connection. Once a
client makes a socket connection the ServerSocket returns using appropriate method namely accept() method a
corresponding server side socket through which direct communications takes place. From this point one gets a true
Socket to Socket connection and one can treat both ends the same way as they are same.
5. Database connection The greatest feature of Java is its ability to build platform-independent client/server
database applications. In Java this is possible with Java Database Connectivity also called as JDBC in short. Java
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Database Connectivity is designed to be platform independent and so one need not worry about the database one use
while they are programming.
HTML
HTML, which stands for HyperText Markup Language, is the predominant markup language for web pages. HTML is
the basic building-blocks of web pages. A markup language is a set of markup tags, and HTML uses markup tags to
describe web pages.
HTML is written in the form of HTML elements consisting of tags, enclosed in angle brackets (like <html>), within the
web page content. HTML tags normally come in pairs like <h1> and </h1>. The first tag in a pair is the start tag, the
second tag is the end tag (they are also called opening tags and closing tags).
The purpose of a web browser is to read HTML documents and compose them into visual or audible web pages. The
browser does not display the HTML tags, but uses the tags to interpret the content of the page.
HTML elements form the building blocks of all websites. HTML allows images and objects to be embedded and can
be used to create interactive forms. It provides a means to create structured documents by denoting
structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. It can embed scripts in
languages such as JavaScript which affect the behavior of HTML web pages.
HTML markup consists of several key components, including elements (and their attributes), character-based data
types, character references and entity references. Another important component is the document type declaration, which
triggers standards mode rendering.
HTML is actually a subset of an internationally known standard called Standard Generalized Markup Language
(SGML). The advantage of HTML is that we can create its documents with simple ASCII text editor, which is not always
true for document based on SGML. HTML defines documents so that any browser running on any computer can read and
display them.
The basic HTML commands that are needed to create web pages fall under following categories:
Structural command, Paragraph formatting command, Character formatting command, List specification command,
Hyper linking command and Assest interaction command.
EXCEL
Excel has the basic features of all spreadsheets using a grid of cells arranged in numbered rows and letter-
named columns to organize data manipulations like arithmetic operations. It has a battery of supplied functions to answer
statistical, engineering and financial needs. In addition, it can display data as line graphs, histograms and charts, and with
a very limited three-dimensional graphical display. It allows sectioning of data to view its dependencies on various factors
from different perspectives.
It has a programming aspect, Visual Basic for Applications, allowing the user to employ a wide variety of numerical
methods, for example, for solving differential equations of mathematical physics, and then reporting the results back to the
spreadsheet. Finally, it has a variety of interactive features allowing user interfaces that can completely hide the
spreadsheet from the user, so the spreadsheet presents itself as a so-called application, or decision support
system (DSS), via a custom-designed user interface, for example, a stock analyzer, or in general, as a design tool that
asks the user questions and provides answers and reports.
In a more elaborate realization, an Excel application can automatically poll external databases and measuring
instruments using an update schedule, analyze the results, make a Word report or Power Point slide show, and e-mail
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these presentations on a regular basis to a list of participants. Microsoft allows for a number of optional command-line
switches to control the manner in which Excel starts.
Excel is one of the most versatile and popular spreadsheet programs. It serves as an electronic pad for accountants
which can easily perform simple as well as complex mathematical operations. It helps you to establish relationship
between two or more sets of data and easily understand the trends of data changes.
Microsoft Excel supports charts, graphs or histograms generated from specified groups of cells. The generated
graphic component either can be embedded within the current sheet, or added as a separate object. These displays are
dynamically updated if cells change content, making a useful design tool. For example, suppose that the important design
requirements are displayed visually; then, in response to a user's change in trial values for parameters, the curves
describing the design change shape, and their points of intersection shift, assisting the selection of the best design.
Excel users can access external data sources via Microsoft Office features such as (for example) .odc connections
built with the Office Data Connection file format. These are static snapshots of data, and require either manual or
programmatic intervention to update. Excel files themselves may be updated using a Microsoft supplied ODBC driver.
Excel can accept data in real time through several programming interfaces, which allow it to communicate with many
data sources such as Bloomberg and Reuters. Excel maintains 15 figures in its numbers, but they are not always
accurate: the bottom line should be the same as the top line. Besides accuracy in user computations, the question of
accuracy in Excel-provided functions may be raised. Particularly in the arena of statistical functions, Excel has been
criticized for sacrificing accuracy for speed of calculation.
COBOL
COBOL stands for Command Business Oriented Language. COBOL is a compiler language that is commonly used to
solve data processing in commercial organization. COBOL is not suitable for scientific purpose programming.
COBOL as defined in the original specification included a PICTURE clause for detailed field specification. It did not
support local variables, recursion, dynamic memory allocation, or structured programming constructs. Support for some or
all of these features have been added in later editions of the COBOL standard. COBOL has many reserved words (over
400), called keywords.
COBOL provides "named conditions" (so-called 88-levels). These are declared as sub-items of another item (the
conditional variable). The named condition can be used in an IF statement, and tests whether the conditional variable is
equal to any of the values given in the named condition's VALUE clause. The SET statement can be used to make a
named condition TRUE (by assigning the first of its values to the conditional variable).
COBOL allows identifiers to be up to 30 characters long. The concept of copybooks was introduced by COBOL; these
are chunks of code which can be inserted into a program's code. This is done with the COPY statement, which also allows
parts of the copybook's code to be replaced with other code (using the REPLACING ... BY ... clause).
There are four divisions in any COBOL program:
Identification division, Environment division, Data division, and Procedure division.
Each division may have several sections. Each section may have several paragraphs. Each paragraph may have
several sentences. Each sentence may have several statements. Usually, a statement is terminated by a comma(,) or a
period(.).
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Q5. Define decision support system in your own words. Also illustrate the concept using your organizational
context.
Ans.
A Decision Support System (DSS) is a computer-based information system that supports business or
organizational decision-making activities. DSSs serve the management, operations, and planning levels of an
organization and help to make decisions, which may be rapidly changing and not easily specified in advance.
A Decision Support System is a way to model data and make quality decisions based on it. Making the right
decision in business is usually based on data quality and one’s ability to sift through and analyze the data to find trends
that solutions and strategies can be created from/for. DSS or Decision Support Systems are usually computer applications
with a human component. They can sift through large amounts of data and pick between the many choices.
DSSs include knowledge-based systems. A properly designed DSS is an interactive software-based system
intended to help decision makers compile useful information from a combination of raw data, documents, personal
knowledge, or business models to identify and solve problems and make decisions.
While many people think of Decision Support Systems as a specialized part of a business, most companies have
actually integrated them into their day to day operating activities. For instance, many companies constantly download and
analyze sales data, budget sheets, and forecasts. They update their strategy once they analyze and evaluate the current
results. Decision Support Systems have a definite structure in businesses. In reality, however, the data and decisions that
are based on them are fluid and constantly changing.
Decision Support Systems are used to collect data, analyze and shape the data that is collected, and make sound
decisions or construct strategies from analysis. Whether computers, databases, or people are involved usually does not
matter. It is important to note that although computers and artificial intelligence are at work, it is ultimately up to humans to
execute these strategies or formulate the data into a usable hypothesis.
Typical information that a decision support application might gather and present are:
 inventories of information assets (including legacy and relational data sources, cubes, data warehouses, and data
marts),
 comparative sales figures between one period and the next,
 projected revenue figures based on product sales assumptions.
Three fundamental components of a DSS architecture are:
1. the database (or knowledge base),

2. the model (i.e., the decision context and user criteria), and
3. the user interface.
The users themselves are also important components of the architecture.

DSS systems are not entirely different from other systems and require a structured approach. Such a framework
includes people, technology, and the development approach. DSS technology levels (of hardware and software) may
include:
1. The actual application that will be used by the user. This is the part of the application that allows the
decision maker to make decisions in a particular problem area. The user can act upon that particular problem.
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2. Generator contains Hardware/software environment that allows people to easily develop specific DSS
applications. This level makes use of case tools or systems such as Crystal, AIMMS, and iThink.
3. Tools include lower level hardware/software. DSS generators including special languages, function
libraries and linking modules
An iterative developmental approach allows for the DSS to be changed and redesigned at various intervals. Once the
system is designed, it will need to be tested and revised for the desired outcome.
Types of Decision Support System Models
It is important to note that the DSS field does not have a universally accepted model. That is to say, there are
many theories vying for supremacy in this broad field. Because there are many working DSS theories, there are many
ways to classify DSS.
For instance, one of the DSS models available bears the relationship of the user in mind. This model takes into
consideration passive, active, and cooperative DSS models.
Decision Support Systems that just collect data and organize it effectively are usually called passive models. They
do not suggest a specific decision, and they only reveal the data. An active decision support system actually processes
data and explicitly shows solutions based upon that data. While there are many systems that can be active, many
organizations would be hard pressed to put all their faith into a computer model without any human intervention.
A cooperative Decision Support System is when data is collected, analyzed, and then given to a human who
helps the system revise or refine it. Here, both a human and computer component work together to come up with the best
solution.
While the above DSS model considers the user’s relationship, another popular DSS model sees the mode of
assistance as the underlying basis of the DSS model. This includes the Model Driven DSS, Communications Driven DSS,
Data Driven DSS, Document Driven DSS, and Knowledge Driven DSS.
A Model Driven DSS is one in which decision makers use statistical simulations or financial models to come up
with a solution or strategy. Though these decisions are based on models, they do not have to be overwhelmingly data
intensive.
A Communications Driven DSS model is one in which many collaborate to come up with a series of decisions to
set a solution or strategy in motion. This model can be in an office environment or on the web.
A Data Driven DSS model puts its emphasis on collected data that is then manipulated to fit the decision maker’s
needs. This data can be internal or external and in a variety of formats. It is important that data is collected and
categorized sequentially, for example daily sales, operating budgets from one quarter to the next, inventory over the
previous year, etc.
A Document Driven DSS model uses a variety of documents such as text documents, spreadsheets, and
database records to come up with decisions as well as further manipulate the information to refine strategies.
A Knowledge Driven DSS model uses special rules stored in a computer or used by a human to determine
whether a decision should be made. For instance, many day traders see a stop loss limit as a knowledge driven DSS
model. These rules or facts are used in order to make a decision.
The scope in which decisions are made can also be seen as a DSS model. For instance, an organizational,
departmental or single user decision can be seen in the scope-wide model.
Applications:- There are theoretical possibilities of building such systems in any knowledge domain.
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One example is the clinical decision support system for medical diagnosis. Other examples include a bank
loan officer verifying the credit of a loan applicant or an engineering firm that has bids on several projects and wants to
know if they can be competitive with their costs.
DSS is extensively used in business and management. Executive dashboard and other business performance
software allow faster decision making, identification of negative trends, and better allocation of business resources.
A growing area of DSS application, concepts, principles, and techniques is in agricultural production, marketing
for sustainable development. For example, the DSSAT4 package, developed through financial support of USAID during
the 80's and 90's, has allowed rapid assessment of several agricultural production systems around the world to facilitate
decision-making at the farm and policy levels. There are, however, many constraints to the successful adoption on DSS in
agriculture.
DSS are also prevalent in forest management where the long planning time frame demands specific
requirements. All aspects of Forest management, from log transportation, harvest scheduling to sustainability and
ecosystem protection have been addressed by modern DSSs. A comprehensive list and discussion of all available
systems in forest management is being compiled under the COST action.
Benefits of DSS can be enumerated as follows:
Improves personal efficiency
Speed up the process of decision making
Increases organizational control
Encourages exploration and discovery on the part of the decision maker
Speeds up problem solving in an organization
Facilitates interpersonal communication
Promotes learning or training
Generates new evidence in support of a decision
Creates a competitive advantage over competition
Reveals new approaches to thinking about the problem space
Helps automate managerial processes
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MS-07 REFERENCE MATERIAL

Q1. Explain the difference between the following:

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 Disk storage utilities

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SHAREWARE, OPEN SOURCE SOFTWARE, FREEWARE

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Security, Affordability, Transparency, Perpetuity, Interoperability, and Localisation.

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 reviewing information in order to effectively derive value and meaning

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1. Design the appearance of your application.

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Three fundamental components of a DSS architecture are:

1. the database (or knowledge base),

The users themselves are also important components of the architecture.

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