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functioning of the cells. Secondary metabolites (antibiotics, alkaloids, pheromones, and so forth) aid the functioning and survival of the whole organism more generally. Unlike primary metabolites, secondary metabolites are often unique to individual organisms or classes of organisms. See ENZYME; METABOLISM. The selective pressures that drive evolution have ensured a diverse array of secondary metabolite structures. Secondary metabolites can be grouped to some extent by virtue of their origin from key biosynthetic pathways. It is often in the latter stages of these pathways that the structural diversity is introduced. All terpenes, for example, originate from the C5 (five-carbon) intermediate isopentenyl pyrophosphate via mevalonic acid. The mammalian steroids, such as cholesterol, derive from the C30 steroid lanosterol, which is constructed from six C5 units. Alternatively, C10 terpenes (for example, menthol from peppermint leaves) and C15 terpenes (for example, juvenile hormone III from the silk worm) are derived after the condensation of two and three C5 units, respectively, and then with further enzymatic customization in each case. See CHOLESTEROL; ORGANIC EVOLUTION; [D.OH.] STEROID; TERPENE; TRITERPENE. with portions of the viral genome, in particular the viruss coat protein. Biotechnology also holds great promise in the production of vaccines for use in maintaining the health of animals. Interferons are also being tested for their use in the management of specific diseases. Animals may be transformed to carry genes from other species including humans and are being used to produce valuable drugs. For example, goats are being used to produce tissue plasminogen activator, which has been effective in dissolving blood clots. Plant scientists have been amazed at the ease with which plants can be transformed to enable them to express foreign genes. This field has developed very rapidly since the first transformation of a plant was reported in 1982, and a number of transformation procedures are available. Genetic engineering has enabled the large-scale production of proteins which have great potential for treatment of heart attacks. Many human gene products, produced with genetic engineering technology, are being investigated for their potential use as commercial drugs. Recombinant technology has been employed to produce vaccines from subunits of viruses, so that the use of either live or inactivated viruses as immunizing agents is avoided. Cloned genes and specific, defined nucleic acid sequences can be used as a means of diagnosing infectious diseases or in identifying individuals with the potential for genetic disease. The specific nucleic acids used as probes are normally tagged with radioisotopes, and the DNAs of candidate individuals are tested by hybridization to the labeled probe. The technique has been used to detect latent viruses such as herpes, bacteria, mycoplasmas, and plasmodia, and to identify Huntingtonsdisease, cystic fibrosis, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. It is now also possible to put foreign genes into cells and to target them to specific regions of the recipient genome. This presents the possibility of developing specific therapies for hereditary diseases, exemplified by sickle-cell anemia. Modified microorganisms are being developed with abilities to degrade hazardous wastes. Genes have been identified that are involved in the pathway known to degrade polychlorinated biphenyls, and some have been cloned and inserted into selected bacteria to degrade this compound in contaminated soil and water. Other organisms are being sought to degrade phenols, petroleum products, and other chlorinated compounds. See GENETIC ENGINEERING; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY. [M.Z.]

Biot-Savart law A law of physics which states that the magnetic flux density (magnetic induction) near a long, straight conductor is directly proportional to the current in the conductor and inversely proportional to the distance from the conductor. The field near a straight conductor can be found by application of Amp`res law. The magnetic flux density near a long, straight e conductor is at every point perpendicular to the plane determined by the point and the line of the conductor. Therefore, the lines of induction are circles with their centers at the conductor. Furthermore, each line of induction is a closed line. This observation concerning flux about a straight conductor may be generalized to include lines of induction due to a conductor of any shape by the statement that every line of induction forms a closed path. See AMPERES LAW. ` [K.V.M.] Biotechnology Generally, any technique that is used to make or modify the products of living organisms in order to improve plants or animals, or to develop useful microorganisms. In modern terms, biotechnology has come to mean the use of cell and tissue culture, cell fusion, molecular biology, and in particular, recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) technology to generate unique organisms with new traits or organisms that have the potential to produce specific products. Some examples of products in a number of important disciplines are described below. Recombinant DNA technology has opened new horizons in the study of gene function and the regulation of gene action. In particular, the ability to insert genes and their controlling nucleic acid sequences into new recipient organisms allows for the manipulation of these genes in order to examine their activity in unique environments, away from the constraints posed in their normal host. Genetic transformation normally is achieved easily with microorganisms; new genetic material may be inserted into them, either into their chromosomes or into extrachromosomal elements, the plasmids. Thus, bacteria and yeast can be created to metabolize specific products or to produce new products. See GENE; GENE ACTION; PLASMID. Genetic engineering has allowed for significant advances in the understanding of the structure and mode of action of antibody molecules. Practical use of immunological techniques is pervasive in biotechnology. See ANTIBODY. Few commercial products have been marketed for use in plant agriculture, but many have been tested. Interest has centered on producing plants that are resistant to specific herbicides. This resistance would allow crops to be sprayed with the particular herbicide, and only the weeds would be killed, not the genetically engineered crop species. Resistances to plant virus diseases have been induced in a number of crop species by transforming plants

Biotelemetry The use of telemetry methods for sending signals from a living organism over some distance to a receiver. Usually, biotelemetry is used for gathering data about the physiology, behavior, or location of the organism. Generally, the signals are carried by radio, light, or sound waves. Consequently, biotelemetry implies the absence of wires between the subject and receiver. See ANTENNA (ELECTROMAGNETISM); RADIO RECEIVER; RADIO TRANSMITTER. Generally, biotelemetry techniques are necessary in situations when wires running from a subject to a recorder would inhibit the subjects activity; when the proximity of an investigator to a subject might alter the subjects behavior; and when the movements of the subject and the duration of the monitoring make it impractical for the investigator to remain within sight of the subject. Biotelemetry is widely used in medical fields to monitor patients and research subjects, and now even to operate devices such as drug delivery systems and prosthetics. Sensors and transmitters placed on or implanted in animals are used to study physiology and behavior in the laboratory and to study the movements, behavior, and physiology of wildlife species in their natural environments. Biotelemetry is an important technique for biomedical research and clinical medicine. Perhaps cardiovascular research and treatment have benefited the most from biotelemetry. Heart rate, blood flow, and blood pressure can be measured in

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