Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Machines
R.E. Betz
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Newcastle, Australia
email: reb@ecemail.newcastle.edu.au
Preface vi
1 Fundamentals 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Sinusoidal Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Winding Interaction with Spatial Flux Density Distribution 4
1.2.2 Winding Interaction with Temporal Flux Density Variation 7
1.3 Flux Linkage to Sinusoidally Distributed Windings . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Other Important Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.1 Properties of Three Phase Sinusoidal Windings . . . . . . 12
1.5 Torque Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5.1 Torque of a Simple Reluctance Machine . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5.2 Linear Torque Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5.3 The Ellipse Diagram for co-energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
These notes contain material for the first half of Elec414 - Energy Flow Control.
Their objective is to give students a basic understanding of vector controlled
induction machines. The approach taken is to start off from first principles and
develop the basic expressions for a machine. Next the primitive dq machine
is developed and this is applied to the DC machine and the synchronous re-
luctance machine. The next stage is to develop stationary and rotating frame
transformations for AC machines, and then show that these machines can also
be developed as dq machines.
The last part of the notes introduces space vector representations for ma-
chines, and shows how they are related to dq representations. These models are
then used to develop various forms of vector control for the induction machine.
Fundamentals
1.1 Introduction
This subject provides an introduction to Generalised Machine Theory and the
dynamics of electrical machines. This area has become increasingly important
due to the prevalence of variable speed drive systems in industry. As industry
continues to modernise the penetration of AC variable speed drives into ap-
plications which were previously considered to be the exclusive domain of DC
machines is continuing. Consequently an understanding of how these drive sys-
tems work and what their capabilities are is becoming increasingly important.
Variable speed drive systems first began to appear in the late 1960’s early
1970’s. During the early years many of these drive systems were based on chop-
per fed DC machines, this being especially true for applications that required
good transient performance. AC machine drive systems were also available
around this time, but generally these were limited to low performance applica-
tions where the transient performance was of little importance. The other issue
that tended to limit the application of AC variable speed drives during this era
was the reliability of the systems. The dreaded “shoot through” problem in the
power electronics was a frequent occurrence.
Whilst reasonably high performance drives were developed based on DC
machine technology they still had the problem that the machine was a DC ma-
chine. These machines are inherently costly, they require a lot of maintenance,
and they are less reliable than other machine types (mainly due to the presence
of the commutator and brushes). Therefore there was a motivation to develop
drive systems based on AC machines, and in particular the induction machine.
This machine is extremely reliable and low cost. If has often been said that the
induction machine will continue to work even if an axe has been sunk into the
rotor.
Two problems initially held back the development of AC induction machine
variable speed drive systems:
Now let us examine these in more detail. The early development of variable
speed drive systems was dogged by the poor reliability of the power electronics.
This was largely to do with the fragility and difficulty of use of the early power
devices used. Consequently variable speed drives got a bad reputation amongst
many industrial people, which took more than 10 years to overcome. Virtually
all of these initial problems have been overcome with the latest power electronic
devices. Also one can not underestimate the influence that the microprocessor
has had on the development of drives systems. The availability of low cost
computation has allowed cost effective implementation of sophisticated control
algorithms for drive systems.
The other factor that limited the development of AC drives was the control.
The control for high performance DC drives was easy since this machine struc-
ture was very easy to control. In fact with a separately excited DC machine the
system dynamics were a first order linear differential equation. However, the AC
machine was a very complex fifth order non-linear system. For this reason early
AC drives were designed to operate at steady state for most of the time, the
variable speed capability only being used to move to a different set point. The
development of the concept of vector control and the early to 1970’s overcame
these limitations, and similar performance to the DC machine can be obtained
from the induction machine. Research into various aspects of vector control has
been active ever since this time.
This set of notes will gradually work its way towards the development of
vector control. The material to presented will follow the outline below:
The next section will examine one of the fundamental assumptions of ma-
chine modelling, the sinusoidal winding distribution assumption, and consider
its implications.
This waveform has an amplitude of na conductors, and goes positive and neg-
ative. How can one have positive and negative numbers of conductors? The
sign convention is based on the direction of the current in the conductor. The
positive part of this conductor distribution carry currents in one direction, and
the negative part carry the return currents [4].
Given this winding distribution, the mmf spatial distribution readily follows.
If the a-phase is carrying ia amps, then the mmf can be calculated by imple-
menting Ampere’s Law. This is achieved by carrying out a closed path integral
1.2 The Sinusoidal Assumption 5
over the full coil span (see Figure 1.1 for the path of integration):
θp +π
FaT (θp ) = na ia sin θp dθp
θp
= 2na ia cos θp
= 2F̂a cos θp
∴ Fa (θp ) = F̂a cos θp where F̂a = na ia (1.2)
The ‘2’ factor in the front of the right hand side of the above expression is
there because the total mmf is expended across two air gaps, and the Fa (θp )
expression represents the mmf expended per air gap.
The total number of coils in the winding is simply the sum of the number
of coils at each θp position. Due to the continuous nature of the proposed
distribution this sum becomes an integral:
π
Na = na sin θp dθp
0
= 2na (1.3)
Therefore the peak mmf for the winding may be written as:
Na ia
F̂a = = Ña ia = na ia
2
Now let us consider some general flux density waveform that varies in the
following way spatially with respect to θp around the machine, and also has a
time varying spatial phase angle δ(t):
e = BlvB (1.6)
1.2 The Sinusoidal Assumption 6
In the case of a sinusoidally distributed coil the length of conductor for one
side of the coil at some position θp is:
lT = na l sin θp (1.7)
therefore the induced voltage in the conductors at this angular position is:
The flux density at this position at a particular instant of time can be determined
from (1.4), and consequently (1.8) becomes:
Using the trigonometric relation sin x sin y = 1/2[sin(x + y) + sin(x − y)] one can
write:
2π
Kn nvB t nvB t
eT = sin (n + 1)θp − + sin (n − 1)θp − dθp
0 2 r r
(1.11)
For the specific case of n = 1 (i.e. only the fundamental harmonic present)
then (1.11) can be integrated and becomes:
vB t
eT = K1 π sin
r
= K1 π sin(ωB t) (1.12)
i.e. the voltage induced by the winding is a temporal sinusoidal voltage (as
expected).
Now consider what happens to the higher order harmonics in the flux density
waveform. If we carry out the integration of (1.11) for the case of n > 1 we
have:
Kn − cos nvB t cos nvB t
eT = 2π(n + 1) − − 2π(n − 1) −
2 n+1 r n−1 r
1 1 −nvB t
+ + cos (1.13)
n+1 n−1 r
Consider the situation where there is only the fundamental flux density dis-
tribution. The above surface integral can be written as follows (using Figure 1.2)
for the flux at angle coil position θp 1 :
θp +π l
φ(θp ) = B̂1 r cos θ dl dθ
θp 0
θp +π
= B̂1 r l cos θ dθ
θp
To find the total voltage for the whole winding the individual contributions
for the number of turns at each position θp have to be added:
π
eT = e(θp ) dθp
0
−2na rlB1 cos ωt π 2
= sin θp dθp
ω 0
−na rlB1 π
= cos ωt (1.24)
ω
i.e. a temporal sinusoidal voltage is produced from the winding as one would
expect.
The more interesting case is when the flux density spatial distribution is
non-sinusoidal as in (1.18). In this case the flux for a single coil is:
θp +π l
φ(θp )n = Bn r cos nθ dl dθ
θp 0
Bn rl
= [sin n(θp + π) − sin nθp ] (1.25)
n
Clearly φ(θp )n = 0 for n even. Therefore the even harmonics do not link to a
single coil.
For the n odd case it can be seen that the expression for the flux becomes:
−2Bn rl
φ(θp )n = sin nθp (1.26)
n
To calculate the voltage in a single coil at some position θp we again apply
(1.21). Carrying out the differentiation on (1.26) we get:
−2na Bn rl
e(θp )n = sin θp sin nθp cos ωt :n is odd (1.27)
nω
To get the total voltage due to the winding the individual contributions are
integrated as in the previous case:
−2na Bn rl cos ωt π
eT = sin θp sin nθp dθp (1.28)
nω 0
π
It can be shown that 0 sin θp sin nθp dθp = 0, therefore the total voltage due to
the odd harmonics is zero. Therefore, as with the spatially moving flux density
case, only the component of the flux density that has the same pole number as
the winding links with the winding, even if the harmonics are space stationary
and have a time varying amplitude..
Remark 4 The main implications of the above analysis is that the flux density
component with the same pole number as the winding links with the winding.
Therefore, for a pure sinusoidally distributed winding, the harmonics in the flux
density only contribute to the leakage flux, and do not have a role in determining
the performance of the machine. However, in reality a pure sinusoidal winding
1.3 Flux Linkage to Sinusoidally Distributed Windings 10
cannot be produced, and there are spatial harmonics in the winding distribution.
Therefore, harmonics in the flux density waveform can link with similar pole
number harmonics in the winding distribution resulting in higher order voltage
harmonics being produced in the winding. These harmonics will also have an
influence on machine performance.
Remark 5 The fact that even non-sinusoidally distributed windings react pri-
marily to fluxes of the same pole number as the spatial fundamental of the wind-
ing means, from a machine modelling perspective that the models can produce
performance results that are relevant to real machines.
n = na sin(θp − α) (1.29)
We wish to work out what the total flux linkage to this winding is. Applying
the fundamental definition of flux (1.19) to a single turn of the winding at some
angle θp , similarly to (1.20) we get:
θp +π
φ(θ) = B(θ)lr dθ
θp
Therefore for the turns distribution given by (1.29) the total linkage at a par-
ticular position θp is:
ψ(θp ) = nφ(θp )
= 2na Bm lr sin θp sin(θp − α) (1.32)
To find the total flux linking the coil integrate over the entire positive half cycle
of the flux density waveform:
π
2
ψT = ψ(θp ) dθp
−π
2
π
2
= 2na Bm lr sin θp sin(θp − α) dθp
−π
2
Remark 6 The above expression for ψT says that the flux linking a sinusoidal
winding varies co-sinusoidally with the angle between the axis of the winding and
the vector of the sinusoidally distributed flux density distribution. Another way
of interpreting this is to say that a flux linkage vector of amplitude na Bm lrπ
lies along the flux density vector, and the component of the flux linkage vector
that lines coincident with the axis of the winding is the flux linking the winding.
Therefore, we are creating the view that there is a flux linkage that is sinusoidally
distributed in space. This concept is important in space vector modelling of
machines.
ib
vb
q
120°
va ia
vc
ic
the mmfs:
where θp is as defined in Figure 1.3 and F̂a , F̂b , and F̂c are the peak mmfs.
The resultant mmf distribution at any point θp around the three phase machine
periphery is:
2π 2π
FT = F̂a cos θp + F̂b cos θp − + F̂c cos θp + (1.37)
3 3
Assuming that the three phase windings have identical turns, and they are being
driven by three phase currents of the form:
The mechanical energy component may not appear as mechanical work, but
some of it may be stored in forms such as kinetic energy and various forms of
potential energy. Therefore the actual output mechanical energy is:
where:
1. The iron circuit exhibits saturation, i.e. it has a nonlinear flux vs current
relationship.
1.5 Torque Expressions 15
Equation (1.49) can be broken up into two sections – the Ri2 term is clearly
related to the resistive losses in the coil. Therefore the remaining term must be
related to any stored field energy and mechanical energy. Considering this term
in detail, it can be seen that it is in a form that enables it to be transformed by
1.5 Torque Expressions 16
The second term therefore can be written in terms of the energy equation as:
ψ
i(ψ) dψ = Ef e + Emo (1.52)
0
Equation (1.52) contains the output energy term, and therefore can be used
to calculate the output power and torque if there is mechanical movement in
the system. However, before this can be achieved the field energy term must be
separated out. If there isn’t mechanical movement then this term would be the
stored field energy in the coils.
Consider the rotor in Figure 1.4. If it is held stationary, and a voltage and
current are applied then there can be no mechanical energy output. Therefore
ignoring the resistive losses all the input energy must be stored in the magnetic
field of the stator coils. Consider two different rotor positions; one where the
rotor is aligned with the axis of the windings, and the other where it is at some
angle to the windings. In the first situation there will be more flux for a given
value of current as compared to the second case. A sketch of the flux versus
current plots are shown in Figure 1.5. Notice that the unaligned flux plot is
more linear than the aligned flux plot due to the fact that the flux path is
dominated by air in the former case, and consequently the flux density does not
get high enough to cause saturation.
For the aligned position the integration of (1.52) is represented by the shaded
area in Figure 1.4. Therefore this area represents the field energy stored in the
system, and is the useful electrical energy applied to the system. Similarly
the area represented by PA , PB , PE , and PA , is the field energy stored in the
i
unaligned position. The alternative integration 0 2 ψ di, is called the co-energy
and, as we shall see, is also important in the determination of the mechanical
energy output of the system when the rotor is allowed to move.
In order to calculate the mechanical energy the rotor is allowed to move. In
order to find the mechanical energy a thought experiment involving two different
types of movement is carried out. The movements are:
1. Very slow movement of the rotor which does not produce any voltage
across the stator coil due to dψ/dt. This means that the current flowing
in the coil is determined by its resistance, and is therefore constant.
2. Very fast movement of the rotor. Since the flux linkage cannot change
instantaneously then the flux is considered to be constant throughout this
process.
Ii should be noted that the above two movements are idealised and it is im-
possible to carry out these experiments with a high degree of accuracy. However
it is possible to approximate them.
1.5 Torque Expressions 17
Aligned
Unaligned
Figure 1.6: Incremental energy change with small movement of the rotor.
The sign convention of positive power for energy flowing out of the machine
shall be taken. This convention is consistent with the normal convention used
for motoring machines. Power flowing into of the system is negative and power
flowing out of the system is positive. In the particular case above electrical
energy is flowing from the supply into the rotor, and mechanical energy is flowing
out of the rotor into an external load via the rotor shaft. The calculation in
(1.54) can be seen in Figure 1.7. The output energy area is the difference
between the co-energy at the aligned position and the co-energy at the unaligned
position. Therefore the mechanical output energy can be written as:
where:
i2
Ef e1 = ψunalign di the co-energy in the unaligned position.
0
i2
Ef e2 = ψalign di the co-energy in the aligned position.
0
If we adopt the convention that the energy changes are calculated by subtracting
the initial energy from the final energy then the co-energy calculation naturally
gives the correct sign for the mechanical output energy using the energy sign
convention that we have defined above.
If the energy for a mechanical movement is known then the torque can be
found using the expression:
mechanical energy Emo
Tave = = (1.56)
angular movement ∆θpd
1.5 Torque Expressions 19
If one considers a very small movement of δθpd , and take the limit as δθpd → 0,
then one can find the expression for the instantaneous torque under the slow
movement condition:
δEf e
Te = lim
δθp →0 δθpd i constant
∂Ef e
= (1.57)
∂θpd i constant
be concluded because i dψ = 0. However the stored energy in the field has
changed considerably. Using conservation of energy arguments the conclusion
is that the stored field energy has been converted to mechanical energy. This
energy is presented by the area PA , PB , and PF in Figure 1.8. Once the rotor is
stationary, the current will increase from the i1 value at PF to i2 , at a rate de-
termined by the time constant of the stator winding. During this time electrical
energy is flowing into the system and being stored in the magnetic field. This
statement can be deduced from the fact that the rotor is not moving, therefore
there can be no mechanical energy.
The expression for the mechanical energy can be written as:
The mechanical output energy is therefore the change in the field energy Ef e ,
during this movement. The negative sign results so that the mechanical energy
from this expression is consistent with that calculated using co-energy. Remem-
ber that the convention for the sign of the energy is that energy flowing into the
system is negative, and out is positive. In the case of both the slow and fact
rotor movements the mechanical energy flows out of the system (i.e. the energy
is being applied to the shaft load on the rotor).
The torque expression can be found for this case as it was for the case using
slow movement. Assume a small increment, δθp , of the movement shown in
Figure 1.8. The instantaneous torque over such a movement can be found by
1.5 Torque Expressions 21
Figure 1.9: Flux versus current trajectory for typical real movement.
Real Movement
Real movements usually don’t consist of either a very slow rotor movement or
an instantaneous movement. They are usually somewhere in between. However,
as will be seen in a moment, real movements can be analyzed by using the two
idealised movements in combination. The following discussion is with reference
to Figure 1.9, which shows the ψ versus i trajectory for a typical real movement.
Consider a small elemental movement of the rotor. The area PA bdPA repre-
sents the actual amount of mechanical output energy. With a slow movement
the mechanical output energy is PA bcPA , and with instantaneous movement
PA baPA . Heuristically one can see from Figure 1.9 that as the movement an-
gle becomes less, the slow movement and instantaneous movement areas will
approach each other, and in the limit they will be equal. In other words the
areas bcdb and bdab tend to zero as δθpd → 0. This means that the areas for
the slow movement and instantaneous movement converge to the shaded area,
which is the area representing the mechanical energy for the actual movement.
1.5 Torque Expressions 22
In other words the same value of torque is obtained if the rate of change of
co-energy is calculated with a constant current, or if the rate of change of field
energy is calculated with constant flux linkage.
The same result may be obtained via a much more formal route. Both the
field energy and the field co-energy can be expressed as functions of the following
form:
Ef e = −G(ψ, i) (1.61)
Ef e = H(ψ, i) (1.62)
where G(ψ, i) and H(ψ, i) represent non-linear functions of the variables ψ and
i.
Similarly the current, flux and rotor angle can be expressed as the following
functional relationships:
where I and J represent the new non-linear functions after the substitution.
Let us consider the co-energy expression. Since i is constant for this expres-
sion we can take the partial derivative with respect to θpd :
Example 7 As an example of the use of the above expressions assume that the
current flux relationship is as follows:
This expression is based on the self inductance expression for a single winding
as obtained in (A.28), with the addition of a non-linearity to approximate the
saturation of the steel in the stator of the machine. Note that this is not an
attempt to accurately model saturation, but is simply an artifice for this example.
Using the expression for the co-energy we have:
i1
Ef e = ψ di
0
i1
= (L1 + L2 cos 2θpd )i0.9 di
0
1
= (L1 + L2 cos 2θpd ) i1.9
1 (1.71)
1.9
If one now uses (1.52) and rearranges (1.70) with i as the subject of the expres-
sion, then the field energy can be calculated as follows:
ψ1
Ef e = i dψ
0
ψ1 1
ψ 0.9
= 1 dψ
0 (L1 + L2 cos 2θpd ) 0.9
1.9
0.9 ψ10.9
= 1 (1.73)
1.9 (L1 + L2 cos 2θpd ) 0.9
ψ = Li (1.78)
where L the inductance of the system. The flux versus current plot for such
a system is shown in Figure 1.10. If the field energy of the system is calculated
one has:
ψ
Ef e = i dψ
0
ψ
ψ
= dψ
0 L
1 ψ2
= (1.79)
2 L
Given that L = ψ/i then (1.79) can be written as:
1 1
Ef e = ψi = Li2 (1.80)
2 2
Clearly from Figure 1.10 it can be seen that the co-energy and the field
energy are equal, i.e.:
Ef e = Ef e (1.81)
1.5 Torque Expressions 25
If the linear system is of the type shown in Figure 1.4 then as the rotor of the
machine aligns with the stator poles the inductance of the system will increase.
This is indicated in Figure 1.10 by the steeper flux line. For such a movement
we can calculate the torque using a formal method based on (1.57):
∂Ef e (i, θpd )
Te =
∂θpd
i constant
∂ 1 2
= Li
∂θpd 2 i constant
1 2 dL
∴ Te = i (1.82)
2 dθpd
A less formal and heuristic approach is to realise that the co-energy under the
less aligned flux line is:
1
Ef e1 = ψ1 i (1.83)
2
and under the more aligned line after a δθ rotor movement is:
1
Ef e2 = ψ2 i (1.84)
2
Since:
ψ1 = L1 i and (1.85)
ψ2 = L2 i (1.86)
we can write:
also applicable to the two phase reluctance machine – i.e. a reluctance machine
with two orthogonal stator windings.
Consider a machine of the form shown in Figure 1.11. The expressions for
the flux linking the windings is:
ψ1 = L1 i1 + M i2 (1.89)
ψ2 = L2 i2 + M i1 (1.90)
where:
d d
v1 = R1 i1 + (L1 i1 ) + (M i2 ) (1.93)
dt dt
d d
v2 = R2 i2 + (L2 i2 ) + (M i1 ) (1.94)
dt dt
Because this system has saliency, then the inductances, L1 and L2 are func-
tions of θ. However, because we are considering the machine to be linear, the
inductances are not functions of current. Taking the appropriate derivatives
1.5 Torque Expressions 27
Electrical
Energy to
energy
field + = (L1 i1 di1 + L2 i2 di2 + i1 M di2
to mechanical
storage
energy
+ i2 M di1 + 2i1 i2 dM + i21 dL1 + i22 dL2 ) (1.99)
Because the system
In order to get a value for the torque produced by this device one needs is linear we can in-
to separate the field energy from the mechanical energy in (1.99). This can terchange field en-
be achieved by locking the rotor of the transducer at some position, and then ergy and field co-
energizing the coils from zero current to some required value. Because the rotor energy.
is locked there can be no mechanical energy, therefore all the energy must be
field energy. Note that this condition also implies that the dL1 , dL2 and dM
terms in (1.99) are zero. Therefore the stored field energy equation becomes:
i1 i2 i2
Ef e = L1 i1 di1 + L2 i2 di2 + i1 M di2
0 0 0
1 1
= L1 i21 + L2 i22 + i1 i2 M (1.100)
2 2
The integration in (1.100) implicitly relies on the fact that the energy stored
in the field of an inductor depends on the instantaneous value of the current,
and not on the time history of how the current attained this value. The reason
that only the i1 M di2 term is integrated in (1.100) is not immediately obvious.
However it can be reasoned out using the following thought experiment. Assume
that i2 is initially held at zero by an open circuit. At the same time i1 is increased
from zero to some final value of I1 . During this time the energy stored in the self
1.5 Torque Expressions 28
inductance is 12 L1 i21 . With the current in winding 1 held constant, the current
in winding 2 is then increased to I2 . Similarly the energy stored in the winding
2 self inductance is 12 L2 i22 . However, due to the mutual coupling to winding
1 during this current increase there is an induced voltage in winding 1 which
attempts to produce a current to oppose the changing flux. The current source
supplying the I1 current produces a voltage to oppose this induced voltage so
that the current remains constant at I1 . Therefore energy is being supplied to
winding 1, and this energy must be going into the stored field since it cannot
go into mechanical energy. The energy supplied to winding 1 is:
T
di2
EM = M I1 dt
0
dt
Induced voltage
I2
= M I1 di2 = M I1 I2 (1.101)
0
Therefore the total energy is the self inductance energy terms plus (1.101). A
more formal proof can be obtained if the currents in both winding 1 and 2 are
assumed to increase linearly from zero to their final values; i.e.:
i1 (t) = K1 t
for 0 ≤ t ≤ T (1.102)
i2 (t) = K2 t
stored field energy. In order to analyze this situation differentiate (1.100) with
respect to time:
The field energy related terms in this expression are obviously those used in
(1.100), therefore the other terms are related to the mechanical energy, i.e. the
mechanical energy is:
1 1
Emo = ( i21 dL1 + i22 dL2 + i1 i2 dM ) (1.106)
2 2
If this expression is compared with (1.99), and eliminating the stored field energy
terms one ends up with the following terms only:
(2i1 i2 dM + i21 dL1 + i22 dL2 ) (1.107)
Clearly this is twice (1.106), therefore when the rotor is moved half the electrical
input energy associated with the movement is going into mechanical output
energy, and the other half is being stored in field energy.
Therefore the inductance expressions for the machine obey (A.55) and (A.56)
derived previously. It will be shown in a future section that the dq-axis induc-
tances can be related to the phase expressions in the following manner:
3
Ld = Lsl + (L1 + L2 ) (1.108)
2
3
Lq = Lsl + (L1 − L2 ) (1.109)
2
where Lsl the self leakage of the phase windings. By manipulating these two
expressions L1 and L2 can be obtained in terms of the dq-axes inductances:
Ld + Lq 2
L1 = + Lsl (1.110)
3 3
Ld − Lq
L2 = (1.111)
3
It is assumed that this machine is a three phase, four pole machine, and is
excited by currents of the form:
If (1.115) are substituted into (1.110) and (1.111) and these are substituted
into (A.55) and (A.56), then the plots in Figure 1.12 can be obtained for the
inductance variation with rotor angle.
To calculate the total flux linkage to the a-phase under these conditions then
the following expressions have to be used:
Figure 1.12: Self and mutual inductance variation with rotor angle.
Figure 1.14: Total, self and mutual flux versus current loci.
1.5 Torque Expressions 33
Remark 8 Note that Figure 1.14 has been drawn for a linear system. The
segment corresponding to the δ movement of the rotor is a triangle because of
this linear assumption. In a real machine this area would have curved sides
due to saturation at the higher currents when the rotor is aligned with a phase.
Indeed in this situation the outside boundary of the diagram is no longer an
ellipse (this only occurs if the magnetic material is linear). In order to get
accurate instantaneous torques under this condition one would have to calculate
the area taking into account the non-linear shape of the segment [5].
One complete traverse of the ellipse corresponds to 360◦ electrical, and con-
sequently to the passage of two rotor poles past the axis of the phase winding.
Therefore, to conform with the normal convention applied to the switched re-
luctance machine, the basic unit of energy conversion is half the area of the
ellipse, Eastroke = E2π /2, where E2π is the area for one complete revolution of
the ellipse. The ellipse shown in Figure 1.14 is only for one phase, similar ellipses
can be drawn for the other two phases of a three phase machine. Therefore the
total energy per stroke for the machine is:
3
Estroke = 3Eastroke = E2π (1.121)
2
Assume that the machine in question has pp pole pairs; i.e. 2pp poles.
Therefore in one mechanical revolution of the machine rotor 2pp poles will pass
each phase axis. Clearly the total energy is the number of strokes multiplied by
the energy of a single stroke, i.e.:
The expression for the average torque for a revolution of the rotor is:
∆Ef e ETstroke pp
T ave = = = Estroke (1.123)
∆θ 2π π
For a general m phase, pp pole pair machine the average torque expression
can easily be shown to be:
mpp
Tave = Eastroke
π
pp
= Estroke (1.124)
π
where Estroke = mEastroke .
In order to calculate the torque using this technique one needs to calculate
the area of the ellipse. In general a numerical technique needs to be used to do
this (since the data for this curve in a real situation would come from a finite
element analysis of the motor). One simple technique is the break the ellipse into
a number of sectors, each corresponding to the same small angular movement
of the rotor. The area of each sector is then computed and summed to get the
total area. Figure 1.15 shows the ellipse divided into a number of approximately
1.5 Torque Expressions 34
180
Remark 9 The above calculation is comparing the average torque using the
dq expression and using the ellipse area assuming that the system is linear.
Therefore any inaccuracy is due to the numerical inaccuracy of the triangles.
It should be understood that the co-energy diagram for a real machine is not
an ellipse, and one cannot use triangular segments to work out the accurate
instantaneous torques (as noted above). However even in the case of a saturated
machine, triangles are quite satisfactory for the calculation of the average torque
since it is related to the total co-energy area, and not the area of the individual
segments.
1.5 Torque Expressions 35
The main benefit of the ellipse is realised if one is dealing with data for a
“real” machine – i.e. a machine with saturation and slotting effects. Saturation
characteristics can be accounted for using the more traditional dq based formulae
by including saturation functions for the inductances, but slotting effects do not
fit into the fundamental sinusoidal assumptions used to derived these types of
models. However, if a machine is designed using finite element (FE) modelling
techniques then the ψ versus i data is available from the FE package. Since
FE modelling uses the exact geometric dimensions of the machine stator and
rotor, as well as the characteristics of the magnetic materials, this data then will
contain the effects of the saturation and slots. Consequently, application of the
ellipse torque calculation technique to this data allows very precise prediction of
not only the average torque from the machine, but also the torque ripple. This
is an invaluable aid in designing a machine.
Reference [5] compares measured values of torque with torque data calcu-
lated using the ellipse technique on the FE design data. The correspondence
between the two sets of results is very good. One interesting point that is made
in [5] is that the saturated “ellipse shapes” obtained from FE data are almost
exactly the same as the ideal ones. The torque ripple present in a machine
with slotting manifests itself in irregular separation of the curved radial lines
emanating from the centre of the ellipse. These lines each correspond to an
equal angular movement of the rotor, and the co-energy enclosed in each small
triangle is related to the instantaneous torque. In a slotted machine these areas
become very irregular. These effects are shown schematically in Figure 1.16.
Notice the curvature of the ellipses as the current level increases, and the differ-
ent co-energy areas for the same angular movement of the rotor indicating that
the machine has significant slotting ripple.
Chapter 2
2.1 Introduction
This chapter will develop some basic tools required for the transient analysis of
machines. the modelling approach will be based on the Kron primitive machine.
The Kron primitive is a generalisation of the DC commutator machine. It is
useful because almost all machines can be transformed into a Kron primitive
machine, allowing similar analysis of most machines within a common frame-
work.
The develop the Kron machine we shall develop a model for the doubly
fed machine, then convert this to a DC machine with a commutator, and then
finally develop the basic primitive machine. The basic primitive model will then
be used to analyse the DC machine, with particular emphasis on the separately
excited DC machine.
v1 = R1 i1 + pψ1 (2.1)
v2 = R2 i2 + pψ2 (2.2)
d
where p denotes dt .
These expressions can be expanded in terms of self and mutual inductances
to give:
F2
i2
v2
F1 (d axis)
v1
i1
This in turn can be further expanded. Note that we shall assume that L12 and
M12 are functions of θ (which they would be in the case of this doubly salient
machine), and in turn that θ is a function of time (i.e. the rotor is moving):
v = [R + Lp + ωG] i (2.10)
where:
v1 i1
v= i=
v2 i2
2.2 Model for the Doubly Fed Machine 38
R1 0 L1 M12
R= L=
0 R2 M12 L2
d L1 M12 dL
G= =
dθ M12 L2 dθ
Consider these equations for two separate cases: namely a cylindrical stator
and rotor, and a salient pole rotor and a cylindrical rotor.
Generation
-p p p p q
-
2 2
-i1i2 M m sin q
Motoring
Figure 2.2: Torque plot for the double fed machine with DC rotor and stator
currents.
Consider that both the stator and the rotor are fed with DC currents. If the
torque expression components and their total are plotted then Figure 2.2 results.
Note that the torque is pulsating, and that the average torque over a complete
cycle of rotation is zero. Another observation that one can make from this Note that torque is
diagram is that a net torque can be produced if the current in the either of the positive in the anti-
windings (but not both) is reversed at the θ = 0 or θ = π angles. clockwise direction
2.3 Commutator Machines 40
q axis q axis
w w
F2 F2
i2 pseudo-stationary
q
++++ i2
q F1 v2 F1
d axis v1 d axis
i1
++
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
(hence the name). Note that θ based expressions for mutual and self flux do not
change with time and are only dependent on the brush angle.
The torque expression for this machine is a little different to that of (2.15)
because of the disappearance of all the d/dθ terms in the first voltage equation.
The torque expression can be calculated by looking at the total differential en-
ergy input to the system and then assigning various components in the resultant
expression to losses, stored field energy and mechanical output energy. Now the
incremental energy supplied in time dt is:
dEe = (v1 i1 + v2 i2 )dt (2.19)
which can be expanded to:
1 1
dEe = (i2 R1 + i22 R2 )dt + [ L1 p(i21 ) + L2 p(i22 ) + M12 p(i1 i2 )]dt
1
2 2
incremental resistive loss
incremental field storage
dM12 2 dL2
+ ω i1 i2 + i2 dt (2.20)
dθ dθ
incremental mechanical output energy
Using the relationship between torque and power – P = T ω, then one can
write the following expression for the torque of the commutator machine with
stator saliency:
dM12 dL2
T e = i1 i2 + i22
dθ dθ
∴ Te = iT Gi (2.21)
where:
i1
i=
i2
0 0
G= dM12 dL2
dθ dθ
Note that (2.21) is exactly twice the previous general expression (2.15) where
the magnetic axis of the rotor winding was moving with respect to the stator.
Now let us write down the full expression for these equations for the stator
saliency commutator machine. Therefore the inductance values to be used are:
L1 = constant
dL2
L2 = L2 + L2 cos 2θ = −2L2 sin 2θ
dθ
dM12
M12 = Mm cos θ = −Mm sin θ
dθ
and the voltage and torque expressions for a general brush displacement are:
! 0 0 i1
T e = i1 i2 (2.22)
−Mm sin θ −2L2 sin 2θ i2
2.4 The Primitive Machine Concept 42
Ia Ra
Va rotor Lr
coil
- +
wM m I f
v1 R1 0 L1 Mm cos θ
= + p
v2 0 R2 Mm cos θ L2
0 0 i1
+ω (2.23)
−Mm sin θ −2L2 sin 2θ i2
If one considers the situation where the brushes are at θ = −π/2 then the
expressions above become:
T e = i1 i2 M m (2.24)
v1 = i1 R1 + L1 pi1 (2.25)
v2 = i2 R2 + L2 pi2 + ωMm i1 (2.26)
If one considers the steady state situation, then the normal steady state DC
machine equation can be obtained:
Te = If Ia Mm (2.27)
Vf = If Rf (2.28)
Va = Ia Ra + ωMm If (2.29)
where f refers to field quantities, and a refers to the armature quantities. The
resultant equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 2.4.
We shall see in the next section that the DC commutator machine is the
basis of the Kron primitive machine
q axis
iqs
qs vqs
pseudo stationary
iqr
qr vqr
dr ds
d axis
vdr idr vds ids
w
Because the windings are separated by π/2 then the mutual inductance elements
of this matrix are non-zero only on the same magnetic axis (since cos θ = 0 for
θ = π/2).
Now consider the G matrix:
0 0
G=
−Mm sin θ −2L2 sin 2θ
The top row of this matrix is zero because the rotor coil is pseudo stationary
with respect to the stator coil, and consequently their is no relative movement of
the rotor flux relative to the stator flux, and the stator circuit does no experience
any change in permeance as the rotor rotates. For θ = 0 and ±π/2, sin 2θ = 0
and the only G term of concern is −Mm sin θ. Therefore the G matrix for the
orthogonal coils becomes:
0 0
G=
∓Mm 0
Note that the sign can be deduced by applying Lenz’s law to the system. Terms in the G
We shall now consider the four coil primitive machine case. Writing down matrix are present
the voltage equations for this system in the most general form we get: only when coils are
in space quadrature
d d d and at least one is
vds = Rds ids + (Lds ids ) + (Mdsdr idr ) + (Mdsqr iqr )
dt dt dt pseudo stationary.
d
+ (Mdsqs iqs ) (2.30)
dt
d d d
vdr = Rdr idr + (Ldr idr ) + (Mdrds ids ) + (Mdrqr iqr )
dt dt dt
d
+ (Mdrqs iqs ) (2.31)
dt
d d d
vqs = Rqs iqs + (Lqs iqs ) + (Mqsqr iqr ) + (Mqsdr idr )
dt dt dt
d
+ (Mqsds ids ) (2.32)
dt
d d d
vqr = Rqr iqr + (Lqr iqr ) + (Mqrqs iqs ) + (Mqrdr idr )
dt dt dt
d
+ (Mqrds ids ) (2.33)
dt
The above expressions can be significantly simplified using the observations
noted above in relation to the terms that are relevant when the windings angles
2.4 The Primitive Machine Concept 45
dids didr
vds = Rds ids + Lds + Mdsdr (2.34)
dt dt
didr dids
vdr = Rdr idr + Ldr + Mdrds
dt dt
dMdrqr dMdrqs
+ ω iqr + iqs (2.35)
dθ dθ
diqs diqr
vqs = Rqs iqs + Lqs + Mqsqr (2.36)
dt dt
diqr diqs
vqr = Rqr iqr + Lqr + Mqrqs
dt dt
dMqrdr dMqrds
+ ω idr + ids (2.37)
dθ dθ
Note that the winding that is the source of the flux is taken as the reference
when evaluating the angles between windings.
The above expression can be written in matrix form as follows:
vds
Rds 0 0 0 Lds Mdsdr 0 0
vdr 0 R 0 0 Mdrds Ldr 0 0
dr + p
vqs = 0 0 R 0 0 0 Lqs Mqsqr
qs
vqr 0 0 0 Rqr 0 0 Mqrqs Lqr
L matrix
0 0 0 0
ids
0 0
dMdrqs (θ) dMdrqr (θ) idr
+ ω
0
dθ dθ
iqs
0 0 0
dMqrds (θ) dMqrdr (θ)
iqr
0 0
dθ dθ
G matrix
(2.38)
Substituting for the mutual inductance expressions one can write the above
equation in matrix form as follows:
v = {R + Lp + ωG}i (2.39)
where:
Rds 0 0 0 Lds Mdsdr 0 0
0 R 0 0 Mdrds Ldr 0 0
R=
0
dr
L= 0
0 Rqs 0 0 Lqs Mqsqr
0 0 0 Rqr 0 0 Mqrqs Lqr
0 0 0 0 vds ids
0 0 Mdrqs Lqr vdr idr
G=
0
v=
vqs i= iqs
0 0 0
−Mqrds −Ldr 0 0 vqr iqr
the dr and qs windings. In this part of the equation it is being used to give
the voltage induced in the dr winding due to flux generated in the qs winding.
Therefore the angle between the winding is measured relative to the qs winding.
Expanding:
dMdrqs (θ)
= −Mdrqs sin θ (2.40)
dθ
where Mdrqs is the maximum mutual inductance between the d axis rotor wind-
ing and the q axis stator winding. In this case the angle is −π/2 radians,
therefore:
dMdrqs (θ)
= Mdrqs (2.41)
dθ
dM
drqr (θ)
The other term in the G matrix is the dθ type terms. These terms
relate to mutual inductance between two windings on the same magnetic struc-
ture. Therefore if the windings are at an angle of θ = 0 then the dr and qr
windings are coincident, and assuming perfect couplings under theses condi-
tions then the maximum mutual inductance would be equal to each windings
self inductance.
The torque expression for the primitive machine can be calculated using the
expression (2.21):
0 0 0 0 ids
0 0 Mdrqs Lqr
Te = [ ids idr iqs iqr ] idr (2.42)
0 0 0 0 iqs
−Mqrds −Ldr 0 0 iqr
Te = (Mdrqs iqs idr − Mqrds ids iqr ) − (Ldr − Lqr )idr iqr (2.43)
The second term in this expression is due at saliency (i.e. different permeances
in the d and q axis directions). In a non-salient machine this term would
disappear. The internal mechanical power produced by the machine is easily
calculated from this expression using the expression:
Pe = Te ω (2.44)
ia
a va f
d axis d axis
w
vf if
varm
forward, since, as we have seen in the previous section the primitive machine
model derivation was based on the DC machine.
Figure 2.6 shows a conceptual diagram of a separately excited DC machine
with a compensating winding or interpole.
In order to develop the primitive machine equations we can apply the rules
mentioned in the previous section. The machine is assumed to have a salient
pole stator and a round rotor (which most machines of this type have). Clearly
from Figure 2.6 one can see that one of the windings present in the primitive
machine is not present in this machine, therefore it has one equation less than
the general primitive machine equation. Let us construct the main inductance
matrices. In order to understand where the elements go in these matrices we
shall nominate the current vector to be:
if
i = ic
ia
Firstly the L matrix. The only locations that elements appear are for mutual
inductance terms for coils on the same axes and for self inductance terms:
Lf 0 0
L= 0 Lc Mca
0 Mac La
Now consider the G matrix. These terms occur in pseudo stationary coils
that are orthogonal to a stationary coil or another pseudo stationary coil. The
terms take the general form of −M sin θ where the θ is measured relative to
the coil that is producing the flux (i.e. the seat of the flux). Therefore in this
particular case the relevant coils are the armature coil (coil a) and the field coil
(coil f) and the maximum mutual flux if the axes were lying on the same axis
2.4 The Primitive Machine Concept 48
would be Maf . Therefore we will have rotational voltage terms in the armature
and field equations. Therefore the G matrix becomes:
0 0 0
G= 0 0 0
−Maf 0 0
Now considering the currents we have in the connection shown in Figure 2.6:
Using this expression one can then further simplify (2.47) to give:
vf Rf + Lf p 0 if
= (2.49)
varm −ωMaf (Ra + Rc ) + (La + Lc − 2Mac )p ia
which is the same expression as that for a separately excited DC machine with
an armature inductance of (La + Lc − 2Mac ). This inductance is small due to
the effect of the compensating winding since La ≈ Lc ≈ Mac .
The torque expression for this machine can be obtained by using the general
expression for the primitive machine and substituting for the specific G matrix
for this case:
Te = iT Gi
0 0 0 if
= [ if ic ia ] 0 0 0 ic
−Maf 0 0 ia
= −Maf ia if (2.50)
where:
Equations (2.49), (2.50) and (2.51) constitute a complete dynamic model of the
compensated, separately excited DC machine. These equations can be used to
calculate the response of the system under various conditions – short circuited
generator, full voltage start etc. In addition they can be used for the design of
controllers for this machine.
Remark 11 If the if current is held constant, then the torque expression be-
comes Te = Kia , where ia is governed by a first order linear differential equa-
tion. One can see why the separately excited DC machine is simple to use in
high performance control systems.
2.5 Summary
This chapter has shown how the primitive machine is derived from the basic
DC commutator machine. Rules have been derived to determine the values of
the various inductances used in the primitive machine model.
The primitive machine forms the basis for the analysis of a whole range of
machines whose winding distributions can be modelled as a sinusoidal funda-
mental without too much error. This assumption applies to common machines
such as the induction machine, the synchronous machine, the synchronous re-
luctance machine, and many brushless DC machines. However this modelling
concept cannot be applied to machines such as the switched reluctance machine.
Chapter 3
Frame transformations, DQ
and Space Vector Models
3.1 Introduction
This chapter develops the basic theory behind transformation of AC machine
models into dq and space vector machine models. In the previous chapter we
developed the primitive machine model from the DC commutator machine. The
transformations presented in this chapter allow an AC machine to be converted
into a primitive machine form. This has the benefit of allowing all these machine
types to be analysed using the same techniques. Another advantage is that the
transformed models are often considerably simpler than the non-transformed
model, allowing simpler analysis and a more intuitive understanding of how the
machine works.
The remainder of the chapter is organised as follows. The next major section
will present the basics of dq modelling, for both stationary frame and rotating
frame transformations. An example of how the transformations are applied is
given for the synchronous reluctance machine. The final major section presents
the other form of dynamic machine equations – space vector models, and shows
the relationship between this modelling technique and dq modelling. Once again
the SYNCREL is used as an example.
3.2 dq Models
Most electrical machines with sinusoidally distributed windings are modelled
mathematically using a technique called dq modelling. It is not the purpose of
this chapter to give an exhaustive derivation of dq modelling of machines, as
this could fill a whole text book in its own right. However, a brief overview
of the principles of dq modelling will be presented, and as an example the dq
model for the SYNCREL will be derived.
The fundamental assumption used as the basis of dq modelling is that the
winding distribution in a machine is sinusoidal. In addition a number of other
secondary assumptions are made, which are similar to the assumptions used in
Appendix A, namely:
3.2 dq Models 51
120
MMF transformations
Given that the space distribution of the mmfs for windings a, b and c can be
modelled similarly to (1.2) then the following expressions can be written for the
mmfs:
where θp is as defined in Figure 3.1. The resultant mmf distribution for the
three phase machine is:
2π 2π
FT = F̂a cos θp + F̂b cos θp − + F̂c cos θp + (3.4)
3 3
Assuming that the three phase windings have identical turns, and they are being
driven by three phase currents of the form:
where1 Ñ = N/2.
Therefore (3.4) can be written as:
2π 2π
FT = Ñ Ipk cos ωt cos θ + cos ωt − cos θ −
3 3
2π 2π
+ cos ωt + cos θ + (3.11)
3 3
3
= Ñ Ipk cos(ωt − θ) (3.12)
2
i.e. the resultant mmf is has a spacial sinusoidal distribution which is rotating
around the machine at ωt electrical radians per second.
If the vectors associated with (3.1), (3.2) and (3.3) are resolved along two
orthogonal axes called the dq axes then the following expressions can be written
for the resultant dq axes mmfs:
The ‘s’ superscript on these variables means that the dq axes are in a stationary
frame. The meaning of this will become clearer when we look at rotating frame
transformations later. The ‘s’ subscript next to the ‘d ’ says that the d axis is
for the stator. An ‘r ’ subscript is used to refer to rotor quantities.
1 Note that this definition for Ñ results from the fact that the total mmf of the winding is
expended across two airgaps. Therefore the mmf per airgap is half the total mmf.
3.2 dq Models 53
Now let us consider what each of the mmfs for the axes are. Firstly expanding
the d axis expression we have:
1 2π 1 2π
s
Fds = Ñ Ipk cos ωt − cos ωt − − cos ωt + (3.15)
2 3 2 3
3
= Ñ Ipk cos ωt (3.16)
2
Similarly for the q axis we have:
√
3 2π 2π
s
Fqs = Ñ Ipk cos(ωt − ) − cos(ωt + ) (3.17)
2 3 3
3
= Ñ Ipk sin ωt (3.18)
2
Notice that the converted machine has time carrying sinusoidal mmfs on each
axis that are 90◦ out of phase. Note that both the d and q axis windings are also
s s s s
sinusoidally distributed as well – ie. Fds (θ) = Fds cos θ and Fqs (θ) = Fqs sin θ.
In order to get the resultant space distribution from both these windings we
s s
add together Fds (θ) and Fqs (θ) similarly to the three phase case. Therefore we
get:
s s
FT = Fds (θ) + Fqs (θ)
3
= Ñ Ipk (cos ωt cos θ + sin ωt sin θ)
2
3
= Ñ Ipk cos(ωt − θ) (3.19)
2
Therefore the mmf distribution for the two phase machine is exactly the same
as the distribution for the three phase machine.
We now have a technique for going from a three phase machine mmf to an
equivalent two phase machine mmf. However, in order for these transformations
to be very useful we have to have a technique to do the reverse. If we have an
inverse transformation then we can relate values calculated in the two phase
machine back to the three phase machine. Therefore we need to make the
transformation of (3.13) invertible. In order to do this the T matrix and Fsdq
vector are augmented as follows:
Fds 1 − √2
1
−√12 Fa
Fqs = 0
2
3
− 23 Fb (3.20)
s √1 √1 √1
Fγ 2 2 2
F c
where:
2
√
2
3 0 √3
S−1 = − 13 √1 2
3 √3
− 13 − √13 3
2
√1
1 0
√ 2
2 1
−2
3 √1
= 2√ 2
3
− 12 − 23 √1
2
2 T
i.e. S−1 = S (3.23)
3
√
The choice of the 1/ 2 augmentation of T was made so that the property
in (3.23) was obtained. Note that the F γ term is zero if the three phase mmfs
contain no zero sequence components, else this term is not zero. Therefore, for
a star connected machine F γ always equals zero, since one cannot have zero
sequence currents with this configuration.
Remark 12 Although the above analysis has been carried out assuming balanced
sinusoidal currents the transformation expressions are valid for arbitrary current
waveforms including DC.
Remark 13 The above dq mmf is mmf invariant with the three phase mmf.
As we shall see this is not the preferred transformation.
Current Transformations
Given the mmf transformation in the previous section, it is a simple matter to
construct the transformation for the three phase currents to their equivalent two
phase currents. This transformation can be handled in two sensible ways. The
transformation could be carried out in such a way that the transformed machine
produces the same total power as the original three phase machine. Such trans-
formations are called power invariant transformations. Another transformation
can be implemented such that the transformed machine produces 2/3rds the
power of the three phase machine. This is one particular example of a power
variant transformation. Usually the power variant transformation is used, since
it turns out that in steady state the two phase currents and voltages have ex-
actly the same amplitude as the phase voltages and currents of the three phase
machine. If the magnitude of the two phase quantity is taken, and then pro-
jected onto the relevant three phase axis, then the instantaneous value can be
found for that phase. This transformation is commonly used in the literature
because of this property. Another advantage of this transformation is that the
per phase inductance values found by the normal testing procedures can be ap-
plied to each of the windings of the two phase machine. As we shall see shortly
this implies that end winding of the two phase machine has the same number
of turns as each individual winding of the three phase machine.
Consider the situation where we desire a power variant transformation – the
two phase machine in this situation has 2/3rds the resultant mmf of the three
phase machine. It can be seen from (3.19) that this means that the right hand
3.2 dq Models 55
side of (3.21) has to be multiplied by 2/3. Therefore (3.21) and (3.22) can be
written as:
2
Fsdqy = SFabc (3.24)
3
3
Fabc = S−1 Fsdqγ = ST Fsdqγ (3.25)
2
Now consider the mmf expressions expressed in terms of currents and winding
turns:
Fsdqγ = Ñ2φ isdqγ (3.26)
Fabc = Ñ3φ iabc (3.27)
Using (3.24) one can write:
2
Ñ2φ isdqγ = SÑ3φ iabc (3.28)
3
where2 :
Ñ2φ = N2φ /2 the half the number of turns for a winding
of the two phase dqγ machine.
Ñ3φ = N3φ /2 the half the number of turns for each winding
of the three phase machine.
Since the two phase dqγ machine is an artificial machine of our creation, we
are free to choose the number of turns for each of the windings. Clearly if Ñ2φ =
Ñ3φ , i.e. the two phase machine has the same number of turns on its windings
as the three phase machine, and the is relationship has the same form as the
mmf relationship above. Consequently the isdqγ vector has 2/3rds the magnitude
of the iabc resultant current vector. Therefore the current relationships between
the two machines is:
2
isdqγ = Siabc (3.29)
3
iabc = ST isdqγ (3.30)
Voltage Transformations
Similarly, one can derive the relationship between the three phase and two phase
voltages. Consider the power relationships for the two machines:
T
s
P3φ = vabc iabc (3.31)
sT
P2φ = vdqγ idqγ (3.32)
We want P2φ = 2/3P3φ . Therefore substituting (3.31) and (3.32) into this
expression and using (3.29) one can obtain:
s 2
vdqγ = Svabc (3.33)
3
vabc = ST vdqγ
s
(3.34)
2 Note again that this definition arise from the mmf per airgap condition which is half the
total mmf.
3.2 dq Models 56
Notice that this expression is in the same form as that for the current. Therefore
it has the same property that the magnitude of the voltage vector is 2/3rds that
of the voltage vector for the three phase machine. If one considers the case
where the windings are excited by three phase currents of the form in (3.5),
(3.6) and (3.7), then it is easy to show that:
s
i = Ipk (3.35)
dqγ
i.e. the magnitude of the resultant dqγ vector is equal to the peak current in a
phase in steady state. Similarly then we can write:
s
vdqγ = Vpk (3.36)
where Vpk the peak of three phase sinusoidal voltages supplying the abc
windings. Therefore the use of the 2/3rds power relationship has allowed one to
easily correlate the dqγ voltages and currents to the abc voltages and currents.
Impedance Transformations
Next we need to consider the transformation of the machine parameters be-
tween the three phase and two phase machines. Consider the following general
expressions for the two machines:
vabc = Zabc iabc (3.37)
s
vdqγ = Zsdqγ isdqγ (3.38)
Using (3.37) together with (3.30) and (3.34) one can write:
s 2
vdqγ = SZabc ST isdqγ (3.39)
3
Comparing this expression with (3.38) one can see that:
2
Zsdqγ = SZabc ST (3.40)
3
2
and Zabc = ST Zsdqγ S (3.41)
3
These general impedance transformations can be used to generate specific
transformations for the inductances and resistances for a three phase winding.
For a three phase winding the impedance matrix can be written as:
Ra + Laa p Lab p Lac p
Zabc = Lba p Rb + Lbb p Lbc p (3.42)
Lca p Lcb p Rc + Lcc p
where p d/dt.
By inspection it can be seen that the resistive and inductive transformations
become:
2
Rsdqγ = SRabc ST (3.43)
3
2
Rabc = ST Rsdqγ S (3.44)
3
2
Lsdqγ = SLabc ST (3.45)
3
2
Labc = ST Lsdqγ S (3.46)
3
3.2 dq Models 57
To dqγ s To abc
Fsdqy = 23 SFabc Fabc = ST Fsdqγ
isdqγ = 23 Siabc iabc = ST isdqγ
s
vdqγ = 23 Svabc vabc = ST vdqγs
Ψdqγ = 23 SΨabc
s T s
Ψabc = S Ψdqγ
Lsdqγ = 23 SLabc ST Labc = 23 ST Lsdqγ S
Rsdqγ = 23 SRabc ST Rabc = 23 ST Rsdqγ S
Zsdqγ = 23 SZabc ST Zabc = 23 ST Zsdqγ S
where:
Ra 0 0
Rabc = 0 Rb 0
0 0 Rc
Laa Lab Lac
Labc = Lba Lbb Lbc
Lca Lcb Lcc
If (3.45) and (3.30) are substituted into (3.48) then one gets:
2 2
Ψsdqγ = SLabc ST Siabc
3 3
2
= SLabc iabc
3
2
∴ Ψsdqγ = SΨsabc (3.49)
3
and Ψabc = ST Ψsdqγ (3.50)
section. The angle θsr is defined with reference to the rotating axis (the subscript
being read as the angle of the stator axis (s) with respect to the rotating axis
(r)) as this makes it easier to see the projections of the stationary quantities
onto this axis. Using the normal convention for angle sign (anticlockwise is
positive angle), one can write the following expressions:
Clearly the total mmf then on each of the rotating axes is:
To make the θ definition consistent with the angle definition used to define the
inductance expressions, use θsr = −θrs , where θrs is the angle of the rotating
axis with respect to the stationary axis. Therefore the above can be written as:
r s
Fd cos θrs sin θrs 0 Fd
Fqr = − sin θrs cos θrs 0 Fqs (3.60)
Fγr 0 0 1 Fγs
s r
Fd cos θrs − sin θrs 0 Fd
and Fqs = sin θrs cos θrs 0 Fqr (3.61)
Fγs 0 0 1 Fγr
Figure 3.2: Two phase stationary to two phase rotating frame transformation
where:
cos θrs cos(θrs − 2π
3 ) cos(θrs + 2π
3 )
C = BS = − sin θrs − sin(θrs − 2π 2π
3 ) − sin(θrs + 3 ) (3.66)
√1 √1 √1
2 2 2
cos θrs − sin θrs √1
2
T T T cos(θ − 2π ) − sin(θrs − 2π √1
C =S B = rs 3 3 ) 2 (3.67)
cos(θrs + 2π
3 ) − sin(θrs + 2π
3 )
√1
2
It can be shown that the all the transformations from the abc frame to
the dqγ r frame have the same form as the stationary frame transformations of
Table 3.1, except that C and CT are substituted for S and ST respectively, and
the superscript on the variables becomes r .
From Faraday’s law it is possible to express the voltages in terms of rate
of change of flux linkage. In the case of the rotating transformations, this rate
of change can be from two causes; (a) the time rate of change of flux linkage
3.2 dq Models 60
To dqγ r To abc
Frdqy = 23 CFabc Fabc = CT Frdqγ
irdqγ = 23 Ciabc iabc = CT irdqγ
r
vdqγ = 23 Cvabc vabc = CT vdqγr
Ψdqγ = 23 CΨabc
r T r
Ψabc = C Ψdqγ
Lrdqγ = 23 CLabc CT Labc = 23 CT Lrdqγ C
Rrdqγ = 23 CRabc CT Rabc = 23 CT Rrdqγ C
Zrdqγ = 23 CZabc CT Zabc = 23 CT Zrdqγ C
caused by the time rate of change of currents, and (b) the rate of change due
to the relative movement of the frames. The general Faraday relationship is:
If one expands (3.71) by taking the appropriate derivatives, and then rearranges
the result the following expression can be obtained:
r
ψd −ψqr
vabc = CT p ψqr + ωrs ψdr = CT vdqγ r
(3.72)
r
ψγ 0
r
ψd −ψqr
∴ vdqγ
r
= p ψqr + ωrs ψdr (3.73)
ψγr 0
As we shall see in the next section, (3.73) is the form of the reluctance machine
dq equations.
A summary of the transformations from a stationary frame to a rotating
frame are summarized in Table 3.2.
of the machine to the two phase model of the machine. The following discus-
sion is with reference to Figure 3.3. This diagram shows a three phase, two
pole SYNCREL. The stationary dq frame is aligned with the d-axis along the
a-phase mmf axis. The rotating d-axis is located along the high permeance axis
of the rotor. Because the SYNCREL is a synchronous machine, the rotor has
to be synchronized with the rotating field in steady state to produce any useful
torque. Hence this frame is also synchronized with this field, and is known as
a synchronously rotating reference frame. The synchronously rotating reference
frame has some very important properties that make it the frame that is most
useful for control purposes. It will be seen in this frame that the angle depen-
dence of the inductances disappears, and the currents and voltages become DC
values in steady state.
The most complicated part of the three phase machine to two phase machine
conversion is the inductance transformation, so we shall look at this in detail.
The inductances for this model are calculated in Appendix A and appear in
(A.55) and (A.56). These inductance expressions have to be transformed using
the transformations in Table 3.1. Applying these transformations the inductance
matrix in the stationary frame becomes:
2
3 3 Ll + L1 + L2 cos 2θ L2 sin 2θ 0
Lsdqγ = L2 sin 2θ 3 Ll + L1 − L2 cos 2θ
2
0 (3.74)
2 2
0 0 3 Ll
Equation (3.74) can now be converted to the rotating frame by carrying out
the BLsdqγ BT transformation. After considerable manipulation one arrives at
3.2 dq Models 62
If one assumes that the system has no zero sequence currents flowing (i.e.
the machine has its winding Y connected for example) then the last column and
row can be deleted from the above matrices. Therefore the relevant matrix for
the dq inductances is:
r Ll + 32 (L1 + L2 ) 0
Ldq = (3.76)
0 Ll + 32 (L1 − L2 )
Notice in (3.76) that the θ dependent inductance values of the original three
phase model have been converted to time invariant and θ independent induc-
tances in the dq frame. This results from the fact that the dq reference frame is
tied to the rotor. If one were measuring the inductance whilst fixed to the rotor,
the inductance will not change as the rotor is rotated (assuming a non-salient
stator). In addition, the transformed windings that are fixed to this frame do
not see any movement of the rotor from the moving d-axis, and therefore the
mutual inductance term to the orthogonal winding is zero. A consequence of
this simplification of the inductances is that the dq frame dynamic equations
are much simpler than the three phase equations.
In (3.73) we calculated the generic form of the dq dynamic equations taking
into account only the voltage terms due to the flux linkages. If the three phase
conversion process is carried out for the resistance it can be shown that the dq
values are identical to the three phase values. Therefore, the generic dq equation
can be rewritten in the following form if we include the resistive drop term and
use the fact that the dq inductances are time invariant:
r
r R 0 r Ld 0 r −Lrq 0
vdq = idq + pidq + ωrs irqd (3.77)
0 R 0 Lrq 0 Lrd
where:
3
Lrd = Ll + (L1 + L2 )
2
3
Lq = Ll + (L1 − L2 )
r
2
Equation (3.78) is shown in diagram form in Figure 3.4.
It should be noted that the magnitude of the total flux linkage for the SYN-
CREL can be written in terms of the d and q-axis inductances as follows:
'
ψ = (Lrd ird )2 + (Lrq irq )2 (3.79)
3.2 dq Models 63
r r
pd Lq iq
R
- +
idr
vdr Lrd
d-axis
r r
pd Ld id
R
+ -
iqr
vqr Lrq
q-axis
The other relevant part of the machine model is the torque. The torque
expression (1.104) can be used as the basis for the development of the torque
for the linear reluctance machine. The expression developed in (1.104) was for
a system where the rotor had a single excitation winding and the stator a single
winding. However, the location of the second coil does not have to be on the
rotor, and it can be the q-axis coil instead. Obviously the self and mutual
coupling terms for the coils will now be the same as those in the stationary
frame dq model derived above.
The expression for the torque is (using (1.104)):
one can substitute for isd and isq in (3.81) in terms of ird and irq , and obtain:
3
Ter =2L2 ird irq
2
3
= (Lrd − Lrq )ird irq (3.83)
2
All of the analysis thus far has been for a single pole pair machine. A mul-
tiple pole machine only requires a slight modification to the torque expression,
and the ωrs term is in electrical radians per second in the dynamic equation.
Therefore for a pp pole pair machine the torque expression is:
3
pp (Lrd − Lrq )ird irq
Ter = (3.84)
2
The torque expression could also be found by applying the general torque
expression derived for the primitive machine – (2.21), repeated here for conve-
nience:
Te = iT Gi (3.85)
where:
ird −Lrq 0
i= and G =
irq 0 Lrd
Substituting for these vectors into the general torque expression:
r
−Lrq 0 id
Te = [ ird irq ]
0 Lrd irq
−Lrq ird
= [ ird irq ]
Lrd irq
= (Lrd − Lrq )ird irq (3.86)
as was previously obtained. We can introduce the 32 pp factor to give the same
torque as a pp pole pair three phase machine.
The only other transformation of immediate interest that has not been ex-
plicitly carried out is the current transformation. It was eluded to in Sec-
tion 3.2.1 that one property of the rotating transformations was that the mag-
nitude of the current and voltage vectors was equal to that of a single phase
of the three phase machine in steady state. Another property that occurs is
that in steady state is that ird and irq have DC values if the dq-axes are rotating
synchronously with the rotor. To formally show these properties consider the
abc machine is being driven by currents of the form:
ia Ipk cos(θrs + γ)
ib = Ipk cos(θrs + γ − 2π ) (3.87)
3
ic Ipk cos(θrs + γ + 2π 3 )
These currents are synchronized to the rotation of the rotor, and consequently
so is the resultant current vector. Carrying out the transformation from the abc
frame to the dq stationary frame we get:
Ipk cos(θrs + γ)
isdqγ = Ipk sin(θrs + γ) (3.88)
0
3.3 Space Vector Model 65
Notice that if the phase angle γ is zero then the q-axis current is zero, and
all the current lies in the d-axis–i.e. along the high permeance axis of the rotor.
If the peak value of the abc currents are constant then we have a constant
amplitude D.C. value equal to the abc phase amplitude, in the dq-axes.
where θ is the angle from the axis of the a-phase winding as previously.
The notational simplicity of the space vector formulation is obtained by
introducing complex notation. In the following equations the “ ” is used to
denote vectors in the complex form. Equation (3.90) can be written as:
FTs = N3φ Re[ia (t)e−jθ + ib (t)ej(2π/3−θ) + ic (t)ej(4π/3−θ) ]
3 2 ( )
= N3φ Re [ia (t) + aib (t) + a2 ic (t)]e−jθ (3.91)
2 3
where a = ej2π/3 , and is a vector of unit length lying spatially along the axis of
the b-phase. Similarly a2 = ej4π/3 , and lies along the c-phase axis. Notice that
this complex notation implicitly means that we have a set of pseudo “dq” axes,
which now correspond to the real and imaginary axes.
Now consider the central part of the above mmf expression, namely:
√
1 1 3
ia (t) + aib (t) + a ic (t) = ia (t) − ib (t) − ic (t) + j
2
[ib (t) − ic (t)] (3.92)
2 2 2
which is the same expression that is obtained for the three phase to two phase
transformations for the dq model, where the imaginary axis expression corre-
sponds to the q axis expression in the dq model.
Therefore let us define the current vector as follows:
2
is = [ia (t) + aib (t) + a2 ic (t)]
3
= |is | ejαs (3.93)
Using this definition of the current vector we can write the expression for
the mmf in the machine as:
3 ( )
FTs = N3φ Re is e−jθ (3.94)
2
Figure 3.5 shows pictorially (3.93) means. The |is | vector is the magnitude of
the resultant current vector. Notice that the direction of this vector is spatially
the same direction as the original mmf vector (since the two are related by a
scalar). The αs angle is the angle of this vector with respect to the reference
a-phase axis. If one were to add together the ia , ib , and ic current vectors
graphically on this diagram, the resultant current vector would have the angle
αs but be 3/2 times the magnitude. The 2/3rd term was introduced into (3.91),
and then carried into (3.93), since the resultant current vector has the property
that the vector can be directly projected back onto the three phase axes. This
is the same situation as with dq modelling in that the 2/3 factor allows the
currents in the two phase space vector representation to be directly correlated
with the phase currents of the three phase machine. It should be noted that
implicit in this projection is that there are not zero sequence currents flowing
(i.e. ia + ib + ic = 0). It can also be shown that under this restriction that
the space vector to three phase projections can be represented by the following
relationships:
Re(is ) = ia (3.95)
2
Re(a is ) = ib (3.96)
Re(ais ) = ic (3.97)
3.3 Space Vector Model 67
Figure 3.5: Resolving the current space vector onto the abc axes
In the particular case where the currents are of the form (3.5–3.7) then the
space vector can be written as follows:
2 2π 2π 2π
is = Ipk [cos ωt + (cos + j sin ) cos(ωt − )
3 3 3 3
4π 4π 2π
+ (cos + j sin ) cos(ωt + )]
3 3 3√
2 1 1 3
= Ipk [cos ωt − (− cos ωt + sin ωt)
3√ 2 √ 2 2 √
3 1 3 1 1 3
+j (− cos ωt + sin ωt) − (− cos ωt − sin ωt)
√2 2 √ 2 2 2 2
3 1 3
−j (− cos ωt − sin ωt)
2 2 2
= Ipk (cos ωt + j sin ωt)
∴ is = Ipk ejωt (3.98)
Therefore the resultant current vector has a constant magnitude and the angle
αs is changing at the constant rate of ω, i.e. the vector is rotating around the
machine at a constant angular frequency.
The space vector representation can be simply related back to the dq repre-
3.3 Space Vector Model 68
Similarly:
1
Im(is ) = √ [ib − ic ] = isq (3.102)
3
These projections can be seen in Figure 3.6. Note that the dq projections are
not as restrictive as the projections onto the abc axes. For example, if there
are zero sequence currents then (3.101) does not equal (3.95). Zero sequence
currents require the presence of an additional space vector equation, as was
the case with the dq equations. However, the discussion in this book shall be
focussed on balanced (and usually Y connected) machines that do not have zero
sequence current components.
ir = |ir | ejαr
= |ir | ej(αs −θrs )
Now is = |is | ejαs = |ir | ej(θrs +αr ) (as |is | = |ir | )
= |ir | ejαr ejθrs
∴ is = ir ejθrs = ir e−jθsr (3.103)
The sign of the angle in (3.103) is dependent on the reference axis for the an-
gle difference between the two reference frames. The normal convention adopted
is that the old frame is taken as the reference, therefore the sign convention is:
Figure 3.6: Relationship between the dq axes and the current space vector.
where:
This relationship is general and can be applied to all space vector axis trans-
formations.
In the case of the transformation in (3.103) we are transforming from the
rotating axis to the stationary axis. Applying the rule above, the angle from
the old axis to the new axis is −θrs (or θsr ). Therefore applying (3.103):
is = ir e−jθsr (3.105)
Lab = Lba
Lac = Lca
Lbc = Lcb
This expression can be simplified greatly for a cylindrical rotor machine (i.e.
the self inductances are equal, and the mutual inductances are equal) . Defining:
Laa = Lbb = Lcc = Ls
and
Lab = Lba = Lac = Lca = Lbc = Lcb = Mss
where Mss is the mutual inductance between 120◦ separated phases, then we
can write (3.111) as:
* √ &
2 1 1 3
ψ s = (Ls − Mss ) (ia − ib − ic ) + j (ib − ic )
3 2 2 2
= L̄s is (3.112)
where L̄s = Ls − Mss . In the case of a normal three phase machine Mss =
Mm cos 120◦ = − 12 Mm . Note that ignoring leakage Mm = Ls . Therefore L̄s =
3
2 Ls . This is the three phase equivalent inductance. We shall look at the
3 induction machine
Remark 14 Note that even though the inductance term is 2 Ls
in (3.112), the
in detail in a fol-
flux linkage ψ s is still 2/3rds that produced by the three phase machine as the
lowing chapter
current vector is still 2/3rds the magnitude of the three phase current vector.
For the reluctance machine the expression is much more complicated. Sub-
stituting the inductance expressions (A.55) and (A.56) into (3.111) letting θrs =
θd , and after considerable manipulation one obtains the following expression for
the flux space vector in a stationary reference frame:
L1 π
ψ s = (L1 + L2 cos 2θrs )ia + (− + L2 cos 2(θrs − ))ib · · ·
2 3
L1 π
+ (− + L2 cos 2(θrs + ))ic · · ·
2 3
1 √
+ j √ ( 3L2 sin 2θrs )ia
3
√
3 3 3
+ ( L1 − L2 ( cos 2θrs + sin 2θrs ))ib · · · (3.113)
2 2 2√
3 3 3
+ (− L1 + L2 ( cos 2θrs − sin 2θrs ))ic (3.114)
2 2 2
The validity of this expression can be checked as follows. If (3.114) is calculated
for θrs = 0 and ia = Ipk , ib = −Ipk /2, ic = −Ipk /2, (i.e. the mmf vector lies
coincident with the a-phase) then the real part of the inductance is 3/2(L1 +L2 )
as expected from the dq analysis. A similar √ result can be √ found for the imaginary
component for θrs = 90◦ , ia = 0, ib = 3/2Ipk , ic = − 3/2Ipk (in this case the
mmf is at 90◦ and the rotor d-axis is also in this position).
If the currents are in the form of (3.87) then (3.114) can be simplified to the
following expression:
3
ψs = Ipk (L1 cos(θrs + γ) + L2 cos (θrs − γ)) · · ·
3φ currents 2
+ j (L1 sin(θrs + γ) + L2 sin(θrs − γ))
3
= Ipk L1 ej(θrs +γ) + L2 ej(θrs −γ) (3.115)
2
3.3 Space Vector Model 72
This special case for the currents has been chosen because it is the form of the
currents that are applied to the machine when it is being vector controlled. It
can be seen from that the resultant current is synchronized to the rotor position
such that the resultant current vector has an angle of γ radians with the rotor
high permeance axis. Note that similar to the cylindrical rotor case the current
amplitude only appears as Ipk in (3.115), the 3/2 term being from the inductance
part of the expression. Therefore the magnitude of the flux linkage is 2/3rds of
the flux linkage for the three phase machine, as was indicated from the definition
of the flux linkage expression (3.109).
Re(v) = va (3.117)
2
Re(a v) = vb (3.118)
Re(av) = vc (3.119)
The concept of the voltage space vector is quite abstract. However, its
existence can be justified from the vectors already defined. The voltage in
a machine is made up of two components; the resistive drop, and the induced
voltage from changing flux linkages. We have already defined the current vector,
and the resistive drop is simply this vector multiplied by the resistance (which is
a scalar). The flux linkages have also been defined as a vector, and taking their
derivative in a vector sense also results in a vector. Therefore both components
of the voltage are vectors, and consequently the voltage can be considered to be a
vector. It is easy to demonstrate that if one takes components of a voltage vector
for a set of three phase windings one does get the individual abc components
of the voltages. Note that this process requires that there are no zero sequence
voltages present.
Voltage in across a coil is usually related to two main things in an electrical
circuit – current through the coil resistance, or a changing linkage through the
coil (due either to time or spatial variations). For the concept of a voltage vector
to be useful it should give the correct results under these two conditions. Now
consider the situation where we have the three coils of a three phase circuit
carrying DC currents. Therefore the individual currents in the windings are
ia , ib , and ic . Now if the voltage vector concept is to useful then:
v = iR (3.120)
Now writing down the voltage vector using its definition and the individual
3.3 Space Vector Model 73
Note that under this excitation the voltage vector and the current vector are in
the same spatial direction.
The other case to consider is when the coil is excited by a change in flux
linkage. As mentioned previously there are two situations that occur – the coil
is subjected to a time varying flux linkage which is stationary in space, and
the coil is subjected to a moving sinusoidal flux density waveform. We shall
consider each of these. Firstly the time varying flux linkage. Now, realising
that θ is constant we can write:
dψ s d jθ
= ψ e
dt dt s
d ψ s
= ejθ
dt
= |v s | ejθ
= vs (3.122)
Therefore the voltage vector is in the same direction as the flux vector under
this condition.
The other situation to consider is when we have a spatial sinusoidally dis-
tributed flux distribution moving with respect to the coils. The best way to
approach this case is to again use the complex form of the flux linkage expres-
sion:
ψ s = ψ s ejθ(t) where θ(t) is the time varying vector angle
= ψ s ejωt (3.123)
Therefore the voltage vector is 90◦ out of phase with the flux linkage vector.
As can be seen from the above expression the voltage vector “leads” the flux
linkage vector by 90◦ , which is the same result that is obtained in the temporal
domain for sinusoidal variation of flux linkages in an inductor.
in fact about as simple a model as one can get for a machine. The simplicity
results from the space vector notation. A SYNCREL has only one set of three
phase windings on the stator, therefore the expression for the stator voltage in
space vector notation using stationary frame variables is:
dψ s
v s = Ris + (3.125)
dt
It is a straight forward process to verify this expression from the definitions
already presented for the various space vectors.
Evaluation of the voltage from (3.125) is complex due to the nature of the
flux linkage term in a stationary reference frame. A great simplification can
be achieved by converting this expression into a rotating frame synchronized
with the rotor (as was done with the dq equations). Applying (3.104) to the
voltage, current and flux linkage vectors, one can write the following relationship
between the stationary and rotating reference frame vectors:
v s = v r ejθrs
is = ir ejθrs (3.126)
ψ s = ψ r ejθrs
Assuming that the currents being applied to the machine are of the form
(3.87) then it is not difficult to show that:
Therefore the rotating frame current space vector is, using (3.103):
of space vectors. Assuming that there are no zero sequence components the
following expression can be written for the three phase power of the machine:
P3φ = va ia + vb ib + vc ic
= Re(v s ) Re(is ) + Re(a2 v s ) Re(a2 is ) + Re(av s ) Re(ais ) (3.132)
Re (v s is ) = Re va + avb + a vc ia + a ib + a ic (3.134)
3
2 2 3 3 3
= Re va ia + vb ib + vc ic · · ·
3 2 2 2
√
3
−j (va ia + vb ib + vc ic )
2
2
= (va ia + vb ib + vc ic ) (3.135)
3
As can be seen from (3.135) the space vector representation of the machine is
absorbing 2/3rds the power of the three phase machine. Hence the space vector
transformations we have developed are power variant transformations, as was
the case for the dq transformations.
It should also be noted that power expressions are reference frame indepen-
dent (as one would naturally expect if the reference frame concept was to be
useful). This can be shown as follows. Let use convert the voltage and current
vectors in the previous power expression to an arbitrary reference frame at some
angle θ, with respect to the ie.
v s = v s e−jθ
i∗ ∗ jθ
s = is e
Re(v s i∗
s ) = Re va + avb + a2 vc e−jθ ia + a∗ ib + a2 ic ejθ
3
2 +
2
2
, ∗ 2∗
= Re va + avb + a vc ia + a ib + a ic
3
T = Pω (3.136)
This expression can be used to develop the electro-magnetic torque for the space
vector model of the machine by utilizing the energy balance expressed in (1.44).
If one can identify the loss and field storage terms then they can be subtracted
from the total input energy to give the mechanical output energy. This can then
be substituted into (3.136) to give the electromagnetic torque.
Consider the expression (3.125). The power expression for the machine can
be written using the relationship (3.133) as follows:
3 3 dψ s ∗
P3φ = Re (v s i∗s ) = Re Ris i∗s + is (3.137)
2 2 dt
Clearly the Ris i∗s term is related to the power losses in the machine, therefore
dψ
the dts i∗s term must be related to stored field energy and mechanical output
power. Considering the last term for the special case of currents in the form
(3.87), with Ipk constant with respect to time, and using (3.115) we can write:
dψ s d
3
= Ipk L1 ej(θrs +γ) + L2 ej(θrs −γ)
dt dt
2
3
= jωrs Ipk L1 ej(θrs +γ) + L2 ej(θrs −γ)
2
= jωrs ψ s (3.138)
dθrs
where ωrs =
dt
Therefore the power expression under this steady state condition becomes:
3
P3φ = Re Ris i∗s + jωrs ψ s i∗s (3.139)
2
Clearly there is only one term related to the rotational power and that is
jωrs ψ s i∗s . Expanding this using is∗ = Ipk e−j(θrs +γ) and (3.115) one gets:
3 3 2
+ −j2γ
,
P3φ = Re jωrs Ipk L1 + L2 e
2 2
9 2
= ωrs Ipk L2 sin 2γ (3.140)
4
9 2
∴ Te = Ipk L2 sin 2γ (3.141)
4
If we remove the restriction that Ipk has to be constant, then we would end
up with Ldi/dt type terms in (3.138). These terms are not related to ω in any
way, and result in change of stored field energy terms in (3.137). Therefore
(3.140) is valid for transient conditions as well as for steady state.
3.3 Space Vector Model 77
The same expression can be obtained if the torque is calculated using the
rotating reference frame expression of (3.127). In this case the rotational power
term is even more easily identified. Consider the power expression in this frame:
3
therefore:
3
where ia is the armature current and ψf is the flux linkage due to the field. In
a DC machine the physical arrangement with the commutator is such that the
spatial angle between these two values is 90◦ . Therefore the DC machine torque
expression is the same at that for an AC machine with a right angle between
the current and flux vectors. As we shall see in the next chapter this torque
expression is general for all AC machines satisfying sinusoidal assumptions.
3.3 Space Vector Model 78
dψ
Remark 16 In the power/torque expressions above the dts has a contribution
to the rotational power because of the saliency of the rotor. The rotational terms
result because ψ s has a spatial component due to the inductance variation with
rotor position. This situation does not occur with round rotor machines such as
the induction machine.
Using the standard transformation shown in Table 3.2 one can write:
vabc = CT vdqγ
r
(3.155)
Considering only phase a in this transformation it can be seen that (3.155) leads
to the following expression for the a phase voltage:
vdr vqr
va = [(Rird − ωrs Lrq irq ) cos θrs − (Rirq + ωrs Lrd ird ) sin θrs ] (3.156)
We wish to express the voltage in terms of the phase voltage. Consider the
following form for the time domain expression for the voltage on phase a:
va = Vm cos(ωrs t + α) (3.158)
Vm
Va = √ ejα (3.160)
2
therefore (3.159) may be written as:
-√ .
va = Re 2Va ejωrs t (3.161)
Similarly the phase current can be written in terms of the steady state dq cur-
rents:
1 + ,
Ia = √ ird + irq = Idr + jIqr (3.163)
2
Using the expressions for Va and Ia above one can write (3.162) as:
Va = Rdr Idr − ωrs Lrq Iqr + j(Rqr Iqr + ωrs Lrd Idr ) (3.164)
which allows the steady state phasor diagram of Figure 3.8 to be drawn. Notice
from this Figure that the power factor for this machine can never be leading. If
the (3.164) is written as:
Lrd r
Va = Rdr Idr − ωrs I + j(Rqr Iqr + ωrs Lrd Idr ) (3.165)
ξ q
where ξ = Ld /Lq then it can be seen that as ξ → ∞ and the d-axis flux in the
machine stays constant, then the voltage and current vectors in Figure 3.8 will
approach each other, and the power factor will be unity.
Chapter 4
4.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter we assembled much of the basic theory to tackle the
modelling of the induction machine, and the derivation of vector control of the
induction machine. In this chapter we will extend the basic theory where neces-
sary for the induction machine situation, and then apply this to the development
of a number of different vector control strategies for this machine.
bs
ar
q rs
as
br
w rs
cr
cs
ψas = Ls ias + Mss ibs + Mss ics + Msr iar cos θrs +
2π 4π
Msr ibr cos(θrs + ) + Msr icr cos(θrs + ) (4.1)
3 3
4π
ψbs = Ls ibs + Mss ias + Mss ics + Msr iar cos(θrs + )+
3
2π
Msr ibr cos θrs + Msr icr cos(θrs + ) (4.2)
3
2π
ψcs = Ls ics + Mss ias + Mss ibs + Msr iar cos(θrs + )+
3
4π
Msr ibr cos(θrs + ) + Msr icr cos θrs (4.3)
3
where:
Note the self inductance of a single stator winding can be written in terms
of a leakage inductance and a magnetising inductance:
where Lsl is a stator winding leakage inductance, and Lsm is a stator winding
magnetising inductance. If the stator has an effective number of turns equal
4.2 Vector Models for Induction Machines 83
to Nse and the rotor has an effective number of turns Nre then the stator
magnetising inductance is related to the mutual inductance between the rotor
and the stator as follows: This is a standard
result from trans-
Nse
Lsm = Msr (4.5) former theory
Nre
If these expressions are substituted into the definition of the flux linkage
vector (3.109), after considerable manipulation one can obtain the following
expression:
ψ s = Ls is + Lm ir ejθrs
= Ls is + Lm ir (4.6)
where the “ ” means that the rotor current vector has been referenced to the
stator reference frame. Notice that this expression has a marked resemblance
to the previous expression (3.112) – there is an additional term related to the
rotor. The various inductances in this expression are:
1 1
Ls = Ls − Lss = Lsl + Lsm − Mss and Mss = − Mssm = − Lsm
2 2
3
∴ Ls = Lsl + Lsm (three phase stator inductance)
2
3
Lm = Msr
2
Note that this expression can be further manipulated as follows:
3 3 Nre
ψ s = Lsl + Lsm is + Lsm ir (4.7)
2 2 Nse
re
Note that NNse ir is the rotor current referred to the stator. Therefore the ex-
pression can be written in terms of the stator magnetising current (which is the
normal form for a transformer) as follows: Note that referring
currents to the sta-
ψ s = Ls is + L̄m irs (4.8) tor using turns ra-
tios is different to
where: referencing current
3 vectors to different
L̄m = Lsm reference frames.
2
irs the rotor current referenced and referred to the stator.
where:
1 1
L̄r = Lr − Mrr = Lrl + Lrm and Mrr = − Mrrm = − Lrm
2 2
3
∴ L̄r = Lrl + Lrm (three phase rotor inductance)
2
3 3
Lm = Mrs = Msr
2 2
Nre
Lrm the rotor magnetising inductance = Mrs
Nse
Remark 18 Note that if the effective rotor and stator turns are the same (i.e.
Nse = Nre ) then Lrm = Lsm = Msr . Therefore Lm = 32 Lsm = 32 Lrm and
both (4.6) and (4.9) are in the form of the conventional transformer equation.
Referring currents to the stator or the rotor has no effect because the turns ratio
is unity.
FT = FTs + FTr
3 ( ) 3 ( )
= Nse Re is e−jθ + Nre Re ir e−jθ
2 2
3 ( −jθ ) Nre ( −jθ )
= Nse Re is e + Re ir e
2 Nse
3 Nre −jθ
= Nse Re (is + ir )e (4.10)
2 Nse
re
Notice that the N
Nse ir term is the rotor current in a referenced to a stationary
frame referred to the stator (in the same way the secondary currents can be
referred to the primary in a transformer). The current expression in (4.10) is
the magnetising current as this is the current that produces the magnetising
current in the machine:
Nre
im = is + i = is + irs (4.11)
Nse r
that is contributing to the torque. As noted in the evaluation of the torque for
the SYNCREL we only needed to consider the stator in that case because the
effects of the rotor were reflected into the stator via the spatial variation of the
stator inductances (which was caused by movement of the rotor). The rotor
had no electrical circuit, therefore was electrically passive.
Similarly to the expression (3.133) we can write the following expression for
the total power for the induction machine:
3
P3φ = Re(us i∗s + ur i∗
r ) (4.12)
2
1
We also know from conservation of energy arguments that equation (1.44)
holds. Power is related to energy via the relation:
dEe
P3φ = ⇒ dEe = P3φ dt (4.13)
dt
Therefore the power expression (4.12) can be broken into various components
based on (1.44). The losses section of this expression is normally broken in
various losses such as friction, iron losses etc., but we for simplicity shall only
consider the resistive loss component. Let us write the expression for the stator
resistance loss:
3 Rs ∗
PleRs = Re(ule is ) (4.14)
2
3
= Re(is Rs i∗s )
2
3 2
= Re(|is | Rs ) (4.15)
2
Rs
where ule is the voltage across the stator resistance Rs .
Similarly the losses in the rotor can be written as:
3
Re(|ir | Rr )
2
PleRr = (4.16)
2
Using these two expressions we can write the increment energy loss due to
resistance losses as:
3
Note that this expression can also be written with the rotor variables referred
to the stator reference frame and vice-versa since power expressions are invariant
1 Note that the rotor variables are expressed in the stator reference frame.
4.2 Vector Models for Induction Machines 86
Rearranging (1.44) so that the mechanical energy term is the subject and
writing in terms of differentials gives:
Substituting for the terms in this expression, assuming that there is movement
of the rotor, gives:
3 3
for the same reason that the stator section terms equal zero – these terms do not
involve anything related to mechanical motion and therefore cannot contribute
to the mechanical output power. The last term on the other hand involves
ωrs and therefore must have something to do with mechanical output power.
4.2 Vector Models for Induction Machines 87
Lm is = ψ m − Lm ir
3 Lm
Trot = − (L̄s is + Lm ir ) × ir
2 L̄s
3 Lm
=− ψ × ir (4.32)
2 L̄s s
The torque can also be expressed totally in terms of stator quantities. Con-
sider (4.31), by reversing the order of the cross product we can write:
3
Trot = Lm ir × is (4.33)
2
Again using the fact that a vector crossed with itself is equal to zero we can
write this expression as:
3
Trot = (L̄s is + Lm ir ) × is
2
3
= ψ s × is (4.34)
2
This expression can be further developed. Assuming that the stator and
rotor effective turns are equal we can write:
ψ s = ψ sl + ψ m (4.35)
where:
ψ sl = Lsl is
ψ m = Lm im = Lm (is + ir )
3
Trot = (Lsl is + Lm im ) × is
2
3
= Lm im × is
2
3
= ψ m × is (4.36)
2
Note that the sta-
tor leakage flux does
not contribute to
the torque.
4.2 Vector Models for Induction Machines 89
yg ys
w rs
xr
yr
q gs - q rs
x g w gs
q rs
q gs
xs
Figure 4.2: Relationship between stationary and rotating frames and the general
reference frame for the induction machine
dψ s
v s = Rs is + (4.37)
dt
dψ r
v r = Rr ir + (4.38)
dt
We want to express these equations in a general reference frame rotating at an
angular velocity of ωg rad/sec. Figure 4.2 shows the relationship between the
stationary frame, the rotating frame and the general reference frame.
We can use the frame conversion factors to reference the stator expression
and the rotor expression to the general reference frame. Using (3.104) we can
write for a generic vector in each of the natural reference frames:
Remark 21 With equation (4.45) one can easily generate the induction ma-
chine equation in an arbitrary reference frame. This will be very handy when
we consider the various forms of vector control which result from these expres-
sions in particular reference frames.
Using reasoning similar to that in the previous section we can write that the
rotational power is due to the true rotational motion in (4.45). Therefore the
4.3 A Heuristic Explanation of Vector Control 91
One particular version of the torque expression that will be useful later is
derived as follows. From (4.33) we know that we can write the following in the
general reference frame:
3
Trot = Lm irg × isg (4.50)
2
This expression can be expanded as follows:
3 Lm
Trot = (L̄r irg + Lm isg ) × isg since isg × isg = 0
2 L̄r
3 Lm
= ψ × isg (4.51)
2 L̄r rg
sD
sQ ym' D
directions are those marked in Figure 4.3. Therefore the current flowing at some
time t+
o (where to is the time of application of the q axis current) is:
The effect of the injection of the current can be better scene from a space vector
diagram of the machine – see Figure 4.4. The resultant stator current is simply
the vector addition of the two stator currents. The induced rotor current directly
opposes the q axis stator current, and therefore there is no flux produced in the
q axis. Therefore at time t+ o the magnetising current is the d axis current, as it
would be in a compensated DC machine.
Assume that the rotor is held stationary. After the initial current induced
in the rotor the current will die away with the time constant being that of the
rotor circuit. Therefore at some time t > to the situation could be that in
Figure 4.5. The length of the ir vector will decrease in length until it is zero. It
is clear that under this condition that the magnetising current vector and flux
no longer coincide with the d axis of the machine. Therefore this situation is
now different from that of the DC machine.
What happens if we can move the stator so that the d axis remains aligned
with the magnetising current vector? That is, as the magnetising current vector
moves by δµm toward is we move the stator by the same amount. This move-
ment of the stator can also be viewed as a movement of the rotor in a clockwise
direction if the stator is taken as the reference frame. If we have relative mo-
tion between the stator and the rotor then we have the rotor bars cutting flux
and consequently there will be voltage produced in the bars. If one used the
4.3 A Heuristic Explanation of Vector Control 93
is
iqs i r '
D
i m ' = ids ym'
Movement of i m '
is ir '
iqs
im'
mm
D
ids
Q
sQ
i r ' = iq
is
D
i m ' = id
mm
sD
Figure 4.6: Position of the space vectors after the stator has been rotated.
F = qv × B expression the voltage induced for the relative motion in this exam-
ple is such that the decreasing rotor current will be increased. Note that the B
field would be slightly offset from the d axis because the iqs current is no longer
fully compensated. This in turn changes the orientation of the induced voltage
in the rotor and a consequent shift in the resultant rotor current so that com-
pensation is reestablished. Figure 4.6 shows the situation where the stator has
been rotated so that the d axis still lies along the magnetising current vector.
Note that this also implies that the rotor current, ir is still orthogonal to the
magnetising flux.
Remark 22 If one keeps the d axis winding aligned with the magnetising cur-
rent vector, then the is vector will move by the same angular displacement as the
d axis. Therefore implicitly the ir vector must be orthogonal to the magnetising
current vector.
In a real situation one would not move the stator winding, but the same
effect could be achieved by controlling the stator d and q axis currents so that
the resultant mmf (and hence current vector is ) produced by the winding moves
around the machine by µm .
The movement of the stator current vector in relation to the magnetising
flux linkage phasor has important implications on the torque production of the
machine. This will be investigated in the next section.
y
sQ
y m ' = y mm = y mx
iqs
wm
isy i s , i sm x
isx
mm
sD
ids
Figure 4.7: Relationship between the dq frame and the special xy frame.
Now let us consider the implications of the magnetising flux reference frame on
the torque production of the machine.
The following discussion is with reference to Figure 4.7. As can be seen we
have defined a reference axes (the xy axes) that are rotating with the magnetis-
ing current vector. Therefore the xy axes are rotating at:
dµm
ωm = (4.53)
dt
One can also see that the relationship between the stator current in the mag-
netising reference frame and the stator current in the stator frame is (using
(3.104)):
From (4.36) we can deduce that the torque in a magnetising flux reference
frame is:
3
Trot = ψ × ism
2 m
3
= ψ m isy (4.55)
2
since there is no orthogonal component of the magnetising flux with this par-
ticular orientation of the reference axes. Clearly the:
ψ m = Lm (ism + irm )
= Lm isx (4.56)
= ψsm (4.57)
4.4 Special Reference Frames 96
y
sQ
iqs wr
w mr
isy i s , i syr y ryr x
i mr = i mr
isx
as
rr qr
sD
ids
Figure 4.8: Relationship between various space phasors in the stator and rotor
flux linkage reference frames
therefore:
3
Trot = ψsm isy
2
3
= Lm isx isy
2
The basic principle of alignment with the magnetising axis forms the basis
of magnetising flux vector orientated control. This shall be considered in more
detail later.
3 L2m
Trot = |i | isy (4.64)
2 L̄r mr
3 Lm
= |i | isy using L̄r = (1 + σr )Lm (4.65)
2 (1 + σr ) mr
As with the magnetising flux alignment case the torque can be controlled
separately from the flux in the machine if one can keep the |imr | value constant
and use the isy current for the torque control.
y
sQ
iqs
y s , y sys = y sx
i s , i sy s w ms
isy x
as
isx i ms = i ms
rs
sD
ids
Figure 4.9: Relationship between the stationary reference frame and the special
reference frame fixed to the stator flux linkage space phasor.
where irψs is the rotor current referenced to the special stator flux reference
frame. Let us consider this current vector further:
Now let us define the stator magnetising current in the stator flux linkage
reference frame:
ψ sψs L̄s
ims = = i + irψs = (1 + σs )isψs + irψs (4.69)
Lm Lm sψs
Lsl
where σs = (4.70)
Lm
Since the ψ sψs is coincident with the x axis of the reference frame then so is
ims . Therefore ψsx = Lm ims . Substituting for ψsx in (4.66) we can write:
3
Trot = Lm |ims | isy (4.71)
2
As with the previous special reference frames the torque is related to the
interaction of a current and a flux linkage vector that are in space quadrature.
Remark 23 In all these special reference frames one can see that the form of
the torque expressions is identical to those for a separately excited DC machine.
Furthermore the currents in these expressions are DC values in steady state.
Therefore the choice of the reference frame is very important in simplifying a
complex model to that of a DC machine. The fact that the rotating reference
frames chosen create steady state DC currents has important implications on
the control strategies employed.
4.5 Derivation of Rotor Flux Oriented Vector Control 99
dψ sg
v sg = Rs isg + + jωg ψ sg (4.72)
dt
dψ rg
v rg = Rr irg + + j(ωg − ωr )ψ rg (4.73)
dt
In a frame rotating with the rotor flux the speed of the frame is ωmr therefore
these expressions are modified as follows:
dψ sψr
v sψr = Rs isψr + + jωmr ψ sψr (4.74)
dt
dψ rψr
v rψr = Rr irψr + + j(ωmr − ωr )ψ rψr (4.75)
dt
Let us firstly consider the stator voltage equation. We know that the stator
flux can be expresses as follows:
d
v sψr = Rs isψr + (L̄s isψr + Lm irψr ) + jωmr (L̄s isψr + Lm irψr )
dt
disψr dirψr
= Rs isψr + L̄s + Lm + jωmr L̄s isψr
dt dt
+ jωmr Lm irψr (4.77)
From the expression for the rotor magnetising current (4.63) we can write:
imr − isψr
irψr = (4.78)
(1 + σr )
Because of the choice of the frame, we know that the frame lies along the imr
vector and consequently there is no orthogonal component to imr . Therefore
the expression for the rotor current can be rewritten as:
|imr | − isψr
irψr = (4.79)
(1 + σr )
4.5 Derivation of Rotor Flux Oriented Vector Control 100
Now manipulating this equation to make the derivative of the stator current the
subject of the expression we get:
disψr v sψr Rs isψr Lm d |imr | − isψr
= − −
dt L̄s L̄s L̄s dt (1 + σr )
Lm |imr | − isψr
− jωmr isψr − jωmr (4.81)
L̄s (1 + σr )
Breaking this into real and imaginary parts we get two coupled differential
equations for the stator circuit when rotor flux orientation is implemented:
Remark 25 If we are using a voltage source inverter to control the above stator
equations, we need a parameter dependent decoupler in order to gain decoupled
control of isx and isy .
Remark 26 If the stator is being fed from an ideal current source then the
values of isx and isy are “impressed” on the stator. In this situation the current
sources are producing whatever voltage is required to make the currents in the x
and y axes the current source value.
Following on from the last remark, if we do not have an ideal current source
then we can still achieve most of the advantages of the ideal current source. We
can generate an current source by applying current feedback around a voltage
source inverter. Clearly this cannot be an ideal current source as it has a certain
bandwidth in relation to reacting to changes in the load, and there is a finite
voltage that can be applied to the machine. However, even with these limitations
a reasonable current source can be obtained.
The main advantage of using current source feed to the inverter is that
the complex dynamics of the stator are removed from the system. Let us for
the moment assume that the stator dynamics can be ignored due to an ideal
current source, and then consider the rotor circuit. Realising that the rotor of
an induction machine is short circuited then we can write (4.75) as:
dψ rψr
0 = Rr irψr + + j(ωmr − ωr )ψ rψr (4.87)
dt
Now for rotor orientation, then by definition we have:
|imr | − isψr Lm + ,
irψr = = |imr | − isψr (4.90)
(1 + σr ) L̄r
4.5 Derivation of Rotor Flux Oriented Vector Control 102
Rearranging the second of these equations and adding the torque expression
(4.64) we end up with the conventional electrical rotor flux orientated equations
for the induction machine:
d|imr |
Tr dt + |imr | = isx
i
ωmr = ωr + T sy (4.95)
r |imr |
L2
Trot = 32 L̄mr |imr | isy
Remark 27 The first equation in (4.95) is the flux equation since imr is directly
related to ψ rψr in the machine.
Remark 28 The second equation can be rearranged so that the last term is the
subject of the expression:
isy
= ωmr − ωr (4.96)
Tr |imr |
This is clearly in the form ωsl = ωe − ωr where ωsl is the slip frequency. There-
i
fore T sy is the slip frequency of the machine.
r |imr |
Remark 30 One of the main control techniques used with these equations is
that |imr | is kept constant at the isx value, and the torque can be controlled
separately by the use of isy .
4.6 Structure of a Rotor Oriented Vector Drive 103
Remark 31 The above equations are fundamentally based on the fact that we
are assuming that the position of the rotor flux is known. Therefore the isx
and isy currents can be accurately applied at the correct position spatially in the
machine.
Remark 33 There is no break away torque limit in rotor flux field oriented
control – the torque increases linearly with isy .
Torque control based on the equations in (4.95) are generally used in two
control philosophies – direct field oriented control, and indirect field oriented
control. In direct field oriented control the position of the rotor flux is deter-
mined using flux feedback, the flux magnitude and position being obtained from
measurements of the flux via Hall Effect sensors or search coils, or via a flux
model of the machine. Indirect field orientation on the other hand uses a feed-
forward technique to calculate the position of the flux using the current rotor
position and the reference position of the slip frequency. The latter technique
has proved to be very popular as it does not involve sensors or a flux model.
Note that this technique implicitly has parameter sensitivity since the reference
position is calculated using an expression that involves Tr .
Tr
Tr i sxref
q slref + rr
¸ ò S
+
isyref IM
w slref =
Tr isxref
qr
d
dt
Figure 4.10: Block diagram of a indirect rotor flux vector oriented control
scheme
The field weakening block in the diagram generates the imrref value above
the base speed. Therefore, this contains a function generator that drops the
rotor flux in a prescribed way so that the machine will operate in a constant
power mode above base speed. Below base speed the rotor flux is usually kept
constant at the maximum desired flux so that the transient performance of the
drive will be at its maximum.
The speed control block is usually implemented as a PI controller. The
output of the speed control block can be interpreted as the desired torque. If
one wishes to implement position control then a further loop can be added
outside the speed control loop. The control type is again usually a PI controller
(although other more sophisticated control strategies can be used). The output
of this block is interpreted by the speed control loop as a desired speed.
T
wrref Speed rotref
+ Torque ia
S Controller S
+ Controller ib
wr - - ic
Trot
rr
3L2m isy Flux
2Lr Model
i mr
wr
IM
qr
d
dt
Figure 4.11: Block diagram of a direct rotor flux field oriented vector controller.
Tr
1 yr
ia isx i mr
d Lm
ib 3® 2 e - jr r 1 + Tr
ic isy dt
Tr
rr - qr
+ rr
¸ ò S
+
qr w mr - w r
mm |
disx isx |imm | + Tr d|idt
+ − ωsl isy = (4.99)
dt Trl Trl
disy isy Tr
+ = ωsl |imm | − isx (4.100)
dt Trl Trl
where:
Lrl
Trl =
Rr
ωsl = ωm − ωr
imm = irm + ism where the m subscript means magnetising frame
Notice that the cross coupling in these equations is much more complex than
in the case of rotor flux orientation. Therefore to gain decoupled control of the
torque and flux using this frame we require decoupling equations.
Remark 34 Clearly rotor flux orientation gives the classical DC machine equa-
tions for the control without any decoupling equations when the system is being
current fed.
Appendix A
Calculation of Inductances
for Salient Pole Machines
5. The stator turns are all full pitched (i.e. they cover π electrical radians).
6. There is no leakage flux – i.e. there is perfect coupling between the wind-
ings.
Remark 38 If there is less iron in the coils flux path then it is harder to produce
flux for a given amount of current in the coil. Clearly if the q-axis is aligned
with the axis of the coil then there is a larger air path and less iron for the flux
to travel through.
Conjecture 39 As the rotor is rotated between these two positions the self in-
ductance varies. The period of the phase inductance variation is half the period
of the mmf variation for the phase winding.
Conjecture 41 There is mutual inductance between the three phase stator wind-
ings that is a function of the rotor position.
Remark 42 Clearly as the rotor is rotated the amount of iron in the paths that
would be taken by the mutual flux will vary, and hence the amount of flux linking
the windings will vary.
Consequently, the air gap flux density distribution is also a complex function of
the rotor angle.
The sinusoidally distributed mmf on the stator of the machine can be broken
into two sinusoidal components which are centred on the d and q-axes respec-
tively, regardless of the position of the rotor. These component mmfs are then
acting on the d and q-axis permeances, Pd and Pq . Since these permeances are
constant, this is equivalent to saying that the component mmfs are acting on two
constant air gaps, gd and gq , for the d and q-axes [2]. Therefore the resultant
component air gap flux densities should be spatially sinusoidal, and consequently
the resultant total air gap flux density should also be sinusoidal. This contra-
dicts the statements made in the previous paragraph about the complex nature
of the air gap flux density. However, the fundamental of the actual air gap flux
density is, in practice, very close to that obtained using this approximation, and
measured inductances for real machines are in reasonable agreement with the
calculated values based on the approximation. The reason for this is that sinu-
soidally distributed windings will only link to the components on a flux density
waveform that have the same pole number as the winding, as was previously
shown in Section 1.2. Therefore, for an ideal sinusoidally distributed winding
only the fundamental component of the flux density can link to the winding,
and consequently harmonic flux densities only contribute to leakages.
Addition Could add a section here examining the assumption that the d and
q-axes air gaps can be modelled as constant air gaps. Could consider an
ideal 2 pole axially laminated machine, looking at the effective air gap
seen by the mmf in both the axes.
The following is with reference to Figure A.2, which is a laid out diagram of
Figure A.1. This diagram shows the two fictitious air gaps, with the component
mmfs acting on the d and q-axes respectively. The resultant air gap flux density
distributions are shown for the two axis waveforms. Notice that the resultant
air gap flux density waveform is distorted away from the d-axis of the rotor by
the q-axis flux waveform, the degree of distortion being related to the difference
between the air gap lengths and the mmf applied in the axes.
In order to calculate the self inductance of the a-phase winding the total
self flux linkage must be calculated for the winding. This self flux linkage has
separate components contributed by both the d and q-axis fluxes.
Using the approach in [2] we calculate the flux due to one of the component
mmfs acting on one of the air gaps by proceeding in the following manner:
3. Calculate the flux linking all the coils that have their axes at some angular
position around the machine. This is achieved by multiplying the value
obtained in point 2 by the number of turns that lie in the same position
as the single coil.
4. Finally integrate up the previous value over the coil span accounting for
the change in the number of turns with angular spatial variation.
5. Once the flux linkage for each air gap is found then the total flux linkage
to the a-phase is found by adding together the linkages due to the d and
q axes.
Consider the d-axis, as shown in Figure A.3. The expression for the flux
over a 180◦ electrical span of the d-axis mmf can be found as follows. Consider
the incremental permeance over an angle of dβ:
µo dA
dPd = (A.1)
gd
A.1 Calculation of Inductances 112
where:
To find the total flux linking a single coil whose most clockwise coil side starts
at α radians relative to the d-axis position, we integrate the d-axis incremental
fluxes dφd for the dA elements using the following integration:
α+π
φd = dφd
α+π
α
F̂d µo lm r
= cos β dβ
α gd
−2F̂d µo lm r
= sin α (A.3)
gd
where:
F̂d = F̂a cos θpd the component mmf at θpd , and (A.4)
F̂a the peak mmf of the a-phase.
θpd the angle of the d-axis around the machine periphery (elec-rad) (A.5)
Remark 44 Note that the above definition of the flux linkage per turn implies
that the normal vector for the coil area is at the angle α+ π/2 radians. Realising
this is important in getting the correct sign for the total flux linkage of the coil.
Clearly the maximum flux of 2F̂d µo lm r/gd is obtained when the coil side
α = −π/2 – this means that the coil axis is a 0 radians and hence aligns with
the component mmf axis. Equation (A.3) can be written in terms of the total
d-axis permeance by utilising the following expression:
π2
Pd = dPd
−π
2
π
2 µo lm r
= dβ
−π
2
gd
µo lm rπ
= (A.6)
gd
therefore (A.3) can be written as:
−2F̂d Pd
φd (α) = sin α (A.7)
π
If a coil side starts at some angle α with respect to the d-axis then the coil
axis is at α + π/2. Define:
and hence:
π
αa = α + (A.8)
2
and consequently:
π
α = αa − (A.9)
2
A.1 Calculation of Inductances 114
Substituting this into (A.7) we can write the flux for a single turn whose axis
is at αa with respect to the d-axis as:
−2F̂d Pd π
φd (αa ) = sin(αa − )
π 2
2F̂d Pd
= cos αa (A.10)
π
This expression can be further manipulated so that the flux is a function of the
angle of the d-axis and the coil axis with respect to the axis of the a-phase. Let:
therefore:
αa = θa − θpd (A.11)
2F̂d Pd
φd (θa , θpd ) = cos(θa − θpd ) (A.12)
π
We are now in a position to calculate the flux linkage to the turns of a-phase
at some particular coil axis angle θa for some constant d-axis. The number of
turns that have their coil axis at angle θa can be deduced from the turns density
function (1.1) as:
Remark 45 Clearly nta (θa ) can be negative. The concept of a negative number
of turns/radian at a particular coil axis angle is related to the concept of a nega-
tive number of conductors around the periphery of the machine (the sign in this
case arising from the direction of current in the conductors at that point).The
turns density function expressed in θa is essentially the mmf/ampere for the
winding at a particular position. This is also known as a winding function.
Therefore the negative sign indicates that the flux produced is in the opposite
direction across the air gap (i.e. from the stator to the rotor instead of from
the rotor to the stator).
Therefore the total flux linkage for the number of turns at θa is:
2F̂d Pd na
ψd (θa ) = cos θa cos(θa − θpd ) (A.14)
π
We are now in the position to calculate the total flux linkage of the d-axis
flux to the a-phase by integrating the flux linkage ψd (θa ) at each position θa for
the coil span of the winding. Therefore the total flux linkage is:
2F̂d Pd na γ+π
ψad (θpd ) = cos θa cos(θa − θpd )dθa (A.15)
π γ
In a similar fashion, the flux linkage of the q-axis flux with the a-phase can
be found. The procedure is identical to the above so it will not be presented
in detail. Instead we will simply state the results of the intermediate steps and
then present the final flux linkage result.
The incremental permeance for the q-axis is:
µo lm r dβ
dPq = (A.17)
gq
and therefore the total permeance of over a coil span is:
π
Pq = dPq
0
µo lm rπ
= (A.18)
gq
The q-axis is at an angle of π/2 radians with respect to the d-axis. Therefore
the variation of the q-axis mmf is:
π
Fq = F̂q cos(β − ) (A.19)
2
Therefore the q-axis incremental flux linkage is:
π
dφq = dPq F̂q cos(β − ) (A.20)
2
Since cos(β − π2 ) = sin β, and substituting for dPq in (A.20) gives:
µo F̂q lm r F̂q Pq
dφq = sin β dβ = sin β dβ (A.21)
gq π
Consequently the expression for the flux linkage for a single coil can be written
as:
α+π
φq (α) = dφq
α
α+π
F̂q Pq
= sin β dβ
π α
2F̂q Pq
= cos α (A.22)
π
where α an angle relative to the d-axis.
Carrying out the angle conversion to the coil axes relative to the a-phase as
was done in the d-axis case we can write:
2F̂q Pq
φq (θa ) = − sin(θa − θpd ) (A.23)
π
The total flux linkage of the q-axis flux to the a-phase can therefore be
written as:
γ+π
ψaq (θpd ) = nta (θa )φq (θa ) dθa
γ
−2F̂q Pq na γ+π
= cos θa sin(θa − θpd ) dθa
π γ
In the above expressions the peak values of the d and q-axes mmfs are found
by taking components of the a-phase mmf onto the d and q-axes respectively
as follows:
where F̂a the peak of the a-phase mmf = na ia (from (1.2)). Note that the
negative sign in front of the θpd terms results from the fact that the angle is
measured relative to the d-axis, and not the a-phase axis,since we are projecting
the a-phase mmf onto the d and q axes.
The total flux linkage to the a-phase can now be calculated by using super-
position and adding the components linking to it from the d and q-axes. Using
(A.16) and (A.24) we get:
Figure A.4 shows a plot of (A.28). Notice that the inductance varies as a
function of cos 2θpd with a constant offset as mentioned in conjecture 39.
The self inductances for the other two phases can be found similarly as:
2π
Lbb = L1 + L2 cos 2 θpd − (A.29)
3
2π
Lcc = L1 + L2 cos 2 θpd + (A.30)
3
Addition Perhaps a remark about the fact that this analysis gives accurate
inductance results since only the fundamental components of the flux den-
sity distribution link to the sinusoidal winding, as proved in a previous
section.
A.1 Calculation of Inductances 117
αa = θa − θpd (A.34)
2F̂d Pd
φd (θa , θpd ) = cos(θa − θpd ) (A.35)
π
We can now write the flux expression for the coils that have their axis at θa as:
2F̂d Pd nb 2π
ψd (θa , θpd ) = cos(θa − ) cos(θa − θpd ) (A.36)
π 3
Finally we now find the total linkage of the d -axis flux by integrating over a coil
span of the b-phase:
2F̂d Pd nb γ+π 2π
ψdba = cos(θa − ) cos(θa − θpd )dθa (A.37)
π γ 3
2F̂q Pq
φq (αaq ) = cos αaq (A.40)
π
The αaq angle con be converted to angle relative to the a-phase:
π
θa = θpd + αaq + (A.41)
2
and therefore:
π
αaq = θa − (θpd + ) (A.42)
2
Hence φq can be written as:
2F̂q Pq π
φq (θa , θpd ) = cos(θa − θpd − ) (A.43)
π 2
2F̂q Pq
= sin(θa − θpd ) (A.44)
π
Now using the winding function we can write:
2F̂q Pq nb 2π
ψq (θa , θpd ) = cos(θa − ) sin(θa − θpd ) (A.45)
π 3
A.1 Calculation of Inductances 119
After manipulation we get the following expression for this mutual inductance:
na nb ia −(Pd + Pq ) 2π
ψba = + (Pd − Pq ) cos(2θpd − ) (A.50)
2 2 3
L1 π
Lba = Lab = − + L2 cos 2(θpd − ) (A.52)
2 3
where L1 and L2 are as defined in (A.28).
By a similar process it can be shown that the other mutual inductances are:
L1 π
Lca = Lac = − + L2 cos 2(θpd + ) (A.53)
2 3
L1
Lcb = Lbc =− + L2 cos 2θpd (A.54)
2
A.1 Calculation of Inductances 120
A.1.3 Summary
Assuming that the mmf for each phase varies sinusoidally around the machine,
and that the resultant mmf in the machine acts on two different air gaps for the
low and high permeance axes, then the self and mutual inductances of a phase
winding vary as follows with θpd (the angle of the d-axis with the a-phase). In
the above derivations we did not take into account the leakage inductance term
in each of the self inductances. If we assume that the leakage does not change
with rotor position (which may not be a valid assumption) then the leakage can
be included by the addition of the term Ll as shown below:
Self Inductances
Laa = Ll + L1 + L2 cos 2θ+pd ,
Lbb = Ll + L1 + L2 cos 2 +θpd − 2π
3 , (A.55)
Lcc = Ll + L1 + L2 cos 2 θpd + 2π3
Mutual Inductances
Lba = Lab = − L21 + L2 cos 2(θpd − π3 )
Lcb = Lbc = − L21 + L2 cos 2θpd (A.56)
Lca = Lac = − L21 + L2 cos 2(θpd + π3 )
where:
N2
L1 = (Pd + Pq )
8
N2
L2 = (Pd − Pq )
8
N total number of turns in sinusoidal winding
= 2na
Ll the leakage inductance of each phase
Appendix B
Winding Functions
B.1 Introduction
The computation of self and mutual inductances for machines is crucial when
one is trying to develop a set of dynamic equations for the performance of a
machine. A technique using the concept of winding functions has been shown
to be useful for developing inductance expressions for complex machine and
winding configurations [1, 7]. Because of the difficulty of obtaining the original
source for this technique [3], this appendix will attempt to develop the basis of
the technique for some very simple winding configurations, and then show that
the basic idea can be extended to more complex geometries.
The winding function based expression for the mutual inductance between
two arbitrary windings , i and j, in a machine is:
2π
Lij = µ0 rl g −1 (θ, θrm )Ni (θ, θrm )Nj (θ, θrm ) dθ (B.1)
0
where:
Remark 46 θrm is the angle of the rotor with respect to a reference. This
angle is only relevant in relation to the calculation of inductance if the rotor has
saliency – that is the air gap function is not a constant with respect to θ.
Remark 47 The radius r is not obvious when we are dealing with singly or
doubly salient structures. The value must be chosen in such a way as to ensure
B.2 Ideal Sinusoidal Winding 122
nb ( ) nb sin( )
na ( ) na sin
(Rad)
that the flux linking into the winding is correct, since the radius is a crucial
component in determining the dA areas when computing incremental fluxes.
around the path shown in Figure B.2, and realising that H = F/l, where F is
the mmf.
For some small increment dδ the amount of enclosed current is:
di = na ia sin δ dδ (B.3)
For a typical machine we assume that the magnetic materials have infinite
permeability. This in turn means that no magnetic field intensity is required
to force flux through the iron. Consequently all of the H, and therefore F , is
expended to force flux across the airgap.
The mmf for the ‘a’ phase can be found from iT (θ) by realising that the
integration path in Figure B.2 crossing two air gaps, therefore half the mmf
calculated is used to cross each air gap. Therefore the mmf expression for the
‘a’ phase becomes:
B = µo H (B.6)
B.2 Ideal Sinusoidal Winding 124
dφ = Ba (θ)dA (B.8)
dA = rl dθ (B.9)
dφ = Ba (θ)rl dθ (B.10)
To get the total flux linking a single turn of the ‘b’ phase whose coil side starts
at γ we need to integrate up the incremental fluxes for the total coil span of the
B.2 Ideal Sinusoidal Winding 125
2µo rlF̂a
=− sin γ (B.11)
g
In order to find the total flux linkage for the whole phase we need to integrate
up the flux for each coil of the phase.
The number of turns whose coil sides start in the ‘b’ phase at some particular
angle θ around the machine is:
Finally in order to get the total flux linkage for the entire phase we need to
integrate up the flux linking the coils for each value of θ for the entire phase
span. Therefore the expression for the flux linking from the ‘a’ phase to the ‘b’
phase is:
α+π
λab = nb (θ)φ(θ) dθ
α
α+π
2µo rlF̂a nb
=− sin(θ − α) sin θ dθ
g α
µo rlF̂a nb π
∴ λab = − cos α (B.14)
g
Therefore general cumulative coil number expression for any arbitrary angle
θ is:
θ
C(θ) = n sin(θ − α) dθ
α
= n [1 − cos(θ − α)] (B.15)
This function is plotted in Figure B.4. Notice that the maximum number of
cumulative turns occurs at α + π (i.e. after the pole pitch of the winding) as
intuition would tell us.
In order to calculate the total mutual flux between the ‘a’ and ‘b’ phases
using this approach we have to add up the incremental mutual flux linkages
for the cumulative number of ‘b’ phase coils over the 2π radian span of the ‘b’
phase. Using (B.15) the ‘b’ phase cumulative number of coils at any position θ
is:
Using (B.7) and (B.8) we can expand the dφ expression so that we get:
2π
µ0 rl
λab = Cb (θ)Fa (θ) dθ (B.18)
g 0
B.2 Ideal Sinusoidal Winding 127
2n
This can be further expanded by substituting for Cb (θ) and Fa (θ) to give:
µ0 rlF̂a nb 2π
λab = [1 − cos(θ − α)] cos θ dθ
g 0
2π 2π
µ0 rlF̂a nb
= cos θ dθ − cos(θ − α) cos θ dθ
g 0 0
µ0 rlF̂a nb 2π
=− cos(θ − α) cos θ dθ
g 0
µ0 rlia 2π
=− nb cos(θ − α)na cos θ dθ (B.19)
g 0
Notice in (B.19) that the terms inside the integral are Fb (θ)/ib and Fa (θ)/ia .
These terms are called the winding functions for the winding and are usually
given the notation below:
Na (θ) Fa (θ)/ia (B.20)
Nb (θ) Fb (θ)/ia (B.21)
allowing the above expression to be written as:
µ0 rlia 2π
λab = − Nb (θ)Na (θ) dθ (B.22)
g 0
As a test we can substitute the appropriate expressions for our example
system into the above and we get:
µ0 rlia 2π
λab = − nb cos(θ − α)na cos θ dθ
g 0
µ0 rlia πna nb
=− cos α
g
µ0 rlF̂a nb π
=− cos α (B.23)
g
B.3 Non-sinusoidal winding 128
The situation used for the above development is very simple. Consequently
(B.24) is a simpler function form compared to what can happen in more complex
machines. For example, one of the windings can be located on a rotor, and
therefore the winding function for this winding can become a function of the
rotor position as well as θ. Also in the above development the air gap g has been
assumed to be constant. However, if saliency is present in a machine structure
then g will be a function of θ. The situation is even more complex if the saliency
is on the rotor, as g then also becomes a function of the rotor angle as well.
Therefore, the general form of the mutual inductance expression becomes:
2π
Lab = µ0 rl g −1 (θ, θrm )Na (θ, θrm )Nb (θ, θrm ) dθ (B.25)
0
Remark 48 The span of the coil defined in Figure B.5 is arbitrary. There are
two possible definitions for coil span for both coils, and it does not matter which
is chosen.
The mmf diagram for the ‘a’ winding can be determined by using the mag-
netic circuit concept. The current in the winding produces a flux φ across an air
gap of length g an area rlτa , where r is the circumference of the machine, and
l is the axial length as in previous derivations. This same flux has to cross the
return air gap, which is the same length but has an area of rl(2π − τa ). Clearly
the first air gap and the second air gaps have different reluctances due to the
B.3 Non-sinusoidal winding 129
nb
Fa ( )
2 a
na ia
2
2
a
na ia
2
Figure B.5: Turns function and mmf distribution for two fractional pitch wind-
ings.
different areas of the air gaps. This can be clearly seen from the definition of
reluctance:
g
R= (B.26)
µ0 A
where A is the area orthogonal to the flux.
Using these ideas we can write the following expression for the flux produced
by the ‘a’ winding:
na i a
φ= (B.27)
Rτa + Rτ̃a
where Rτa and Rτ̃a correspond to the reluctance of the τa and 2π − τa air gaps
that the flux has to cross. Since magnetic circuits obey the analogous relation-
ships as conventional electrical circuits, we can write the following expressions
for the mmf required for the flux to bridge each of the air gaps:
Rτa
Faτa = na i a (B.28)
Rτa + Rτ̃a
Rτ̃a
Faτ̃a = na i a (B.29)
Rτa + Rτ̃a
Now:
g
Rτa = (B.30)
µ0 rlτa
g
Rτ̃a = (B.31)
µ0 rl(2π − τa )
therefore:
g
µ0 rlτa
Faτa = g g na i a
µ0 rlτa + µ0 rl(2π−τa )
2π − τa
= na i a (B.32)
2π
and
g
µ0 rl(2π−τa )
Faτ̃a = g g na i a
µ0 rlτa + µ0 rl(2π−τa )
τa
= na i a (B.33)
2π
Clearly Fa = Faτa + Faτ̃a = na ia . The negative sign results in Figure B.5 due to
the convention that flux flowing out of the rotor is due to positive mmf.
Given this information we can now write down the flux density produced by
the ‘a’ winding in the air gap corresponding to τa :
Faτa
Baτa = µ0
g
µ0 2π − τa
= na i a (B.34)
g 2π
B.3 Non-sinusoidal winding 131
This flux density links the ‘b’ phase winding from α to τa , therefore the flux
through the winding due to this flux density is:
τa
µ0 2π − τa
φτaba = na ia rl dθ
α g 2π
µ0 2π − τa
= na ia rl(τa − α) (B.35)
g 2π
Similarly the remaining section of the ‘b’ phase is linked by the return flux
from the ‘a’ winding. The return flux density is:
Faτ̃a
Baτ̃a = µ0
g
µ0 τa
=− na i a (B.36)
g 2π
Therefore the flux component linking to the ‘b’ winding is:
τb +α
µ0 τa
τ̃a
φab = − na ia rl dθ
τa g 2π
µ0 τa
=− na ia rl(τb + α − τa ) (B.37)
g 2π
The total flux linkage from winding ‘a’ to ‘b’ is therefore:
+ − dθ + − − dθ (B.42)
τa 2π 2π τb +α 2π 2π
µ0 na nb rl 2π − τa τb
2π − τa 2π − τb
∴ λab = − α+ (τa − α)
g 2π 2π 2π 2π
τ
2π − τ τ
τ
a b a b
+ − (τb + α − τa ) + − − (2π − τb − τa ) (B.43)
2π 2π 2π 2π
which is exactly the same as that derived using the basic principles approach.
and substituting (B.47) for Fi (θ, θrm ) in this we can then write the following
for the general mutual flux linkage expression:
2π
λij = rl Bi (θ, θrm )Nj (θ, θrm ) dθ (B.49)
0
B.5 A Note on Winding Functions for Multi-pole Machines 133
where:
Assuming that the poles are series connected, the total number of turns in
the winding is equal to the number of turns in a pole pair multiplied by the
number of pole pairs. We can find the number of turns in a pole pair by adding
up the number of conductors in π electrical radians of the winding,which is π/p
mechanical radians. We can therefore write the total turns for a phase of the
winding as follows:
π
pp
N =p npk sin pp θdθ
0
πp
npk
=p − cos pp θ
pp 0
= 2npk (B.51)
Now let use consider the mmf for a winding with the distribution as in (B.50).
Assume that the winding is carrying a current of i Amp in each conductor.
Therefore we can see that for an angle dθ we have the following total current in
an element of the winding at some angle θ :
To find the mmf produced by the winding we employ Ampere’s Law and inte-
grate to get the total current enclosed by a coil span at some angle γ :
γ+ π
p
FT = npk i sin pp θdθ
γ
2npk i
= cos pp θ
pp
Ni
= cos pθ
pp
= N i cos pθ (B.53)
where:
FT is the total mmf, which is expended across two air gaps in a machine.
Therefore the mmf/air gap is:
FT N i
F = = cos pp θ (B.54)
2 2
Ni 2npk i
= cos pp θ = cos pp θ
2pp 2pp
npk i
= cos pp θ (B.55)
pp
N
NA (θ) = cos pp θ (B.56)
2
npk
= cos pp θ (B.57)
pp
Therefore we can express the amplitude of the winding function in terms of the
turns/phase/pole pair, or alternatively in the peak conductors/rad/pole pair.
B.6 Conclusion
This appendix has attempted to show the basis for the use of winding functions
for the calculation of the mutual inductance between windings. Two examples
have been used to achieve this, one involving idealised sinusoidal windings, and
the other an unusual set of windings. In a real machine one does not have
pure sinusoidally distributed windings. In these situations one can compute
the winding functions by simply evaluating the mmf waveforms that are pro-
duced by the real windings. These mmf waveforms will contain all the winding
harmonics, therefore the inductances calculated will be accurate subject to the
infinite permeability assumption and the modelling of the air gap function.
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