CHAPTER 4

Exponential, Logarithmic, and Inverse

Trigonometric Functions

EXERCISE SET 4.1

1. (a) f (g(x)) = 4(x/4) = x, g(f (x)) = (4x)/4 = x, f and g are inverse functions
(b) f (g(x)) = 3(3x − 1) + 1 = 9x − 2 = x so f and g are not inverse functions


(c) f (g(x)) = 3 (x3 + 2) − 2 = x, g(f (x)) = (x − 2) + 2 = x, f and g are inverse functions
(d) f (g(x)) = (x1/4 )4 = x, g(f (x)) = (x4 )1/4 = |x| = x, f and g are not inverse functions

2. (a) They are inverse functions. 2

-2 2

-2

(b) The graphs are not reflections of each other 2

about the line y = x.

-2 2

-2

(c) They are inverse functions provided the domain of 5

g is restricted to [0, +∞)

0 5
0

(d) They are inverse functions provided the domain of f (x) 2

is restricted to [0, +∞)

0 2
0

3. (a) yes; all outputs (the elements of row two) are distinct
(b) no; f (1) = f (6)

122
Exercise Set 4.1 123

4. (a) no; it is easy to conceive of, say, 8 people in line at two different times
(b) no; perhaps your weight remains constant for more than a year
(c) yes, since the function is increasing, in the sense that the greater the volume, the greater the
weight

5. (a) yes (b) yes (c) no (d) yes (e) no (f ) no

6. (a) no, the horizontal line test fails (b) yes, horizontal line test
6 10

-1 3

-3 3

-2 -10

7. (a) no, the horizontal line test fails 8. (d) no, the horizontal line test fails
(b) no, the horizontal line test fails (e) no, the horizontal line test fails
(c) yes, horizontal line test (f ) yes, horizontal line test

9. (a) f has an inverse because the graph passes the horizontal line test. To compute f −1 (2) start
at 2 on the y-axis and go to the curve and then down, so f −1 (2) = 8; similarly, f −1 (−1) = −1
and f −1 (0) = 0.
(b) domain of f −1 is [−2, 2], range is [−8, 8] (c) y
8

4
x
-2 1 2
-4

-8

10. (a) the horizontal line test fails

(b) −∞ < x ≤ −1; −1 ≤ x ≤ 2; and 2 ≤ x < 4.

11. (a) f  (x) = 2x + 8; f  < 0 on (−∞, −4) and f  > 0 on (−4, +∞); not one-to-one
(b) f  (x) = 10x4 + 3x2 + 3 ≥ 3 > 0; f  (x) is positive for all x, so f is one-to-one
(c) f  (x) = 2 + cos x ≥ 1 > 0 for all x, so f is one-to-one

12. (a) f  (x) = 3x2 + 6x = x(3x + 6) changes sign at x = −2, 0, so f is not one-to-one
(b) f  (x) = 5x4 + 24x2 + 2 ≥ 2 > 0; f  is positive for all x, so f is one-to-one
1
(c) f  (x) = ; f is one-to-one because:
(x + 1)2
if x1 < x2 < −1 then f  > 0 on [x1 , x2 ], so f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
if −1 < x1 < x2 then f  > 0 on [x1 , x2 ], so f (x1 ) = f (x2 )
if x1 < −1 < x2 then f (x1 ) > 1 > f (x2 ) since f (x) > 1 on (−∞, −1) and f (x) < 1 on
(−1, +∞)
124 Chapter 4

13. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = y 5 , y = x1/5 = f −1 (x)

1
14. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 6y, y = x = f −1 (x)
6
1
15. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 7y − 6, y = (x + 6) = f −1 (x)
7
y+1 x+1
16. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = , xy − x = y + 1, (x − 1)y = x + 1, y = = f −1 (x)
y−1 x−1


17. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 3y 3 − 5, y = 3 (x + 5)/3 = f −1 (x)
√ 1 5
18. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 5
4y + 2, y = (x − 2) = f −1 (x)
4
√
19. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 2y − 1, y = (x3 + 1)/2 = f −1 (x)
3


5 5−x
−1
20. y = f (x), x = f (y) = 2 ,y= = f −1 (x)
y +1 x


21. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 3/y 2 , y = − 3/x = f −1 (x)
 
−1
2y, y ≤ 0 −1
x/2, x ≤ 0
22. y = f (x), x = f (y) = 2
, y = f (x) = √
y , y>0 x, x > 0
 
−1
5/2 − y, y<2 −1
5/2 − x, x > 1/2
23. y = f (x), x = f (y) = , y=f (x) =
1/y, y≥2 1/x, 0 < x ≤ 1/2

24. y = p−1 (x), x = p(y) = y 3 − 3y 2 + 3y − 1 = (y − 1)3 , y = x1/3 + 1 = p−1 (x)

25. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = (y + 2)4 for y ≥ 0, y = f −1 (x) = x1/4 − 2 for x ≥ 16

√
26. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = y + 3 for y ≥ −3, y = f −1 (x) = x2 − 3 for x ≥ 0
√
27. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = − 3 − 2y for y ≤ 3/2, y = f −1 (x) = (3 − x2 )/2 for x ≤ 0

28. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 3y 2 + 5y − 2 for y ≥ 0, 3y 2 + 5y − 2 − x = 0 for y ≥ 0,

√
y = f −1 (x) = (−5 + 12x + 49)/6 for x ≥ −2

29. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = y − 5y 2 for y ≥ 1, 5y 2 − y + x = 0 for y ≥ 1,

√
y = f −1 (x) = (1 + 1 − 20x)/10 for x ≤ −4
5
30. (a) C = (F − 32)
9
(b) how many degrees Celsius given the Fahrenheit temperature
(c) C = −273.15◦ C is equivalent to F = −459.67◦ F, so the domain is F ≥ −459.67, the range
is C ≥ −273.15
104
31. (a) y = f (x) = (6.214 × 10−4 )x (b) x = f −1 (y) = y
6.214
(c) how many meters in y miles

32. f and f −1 are continuous so f (3) = lim f (x) = 7; then f −1 (7) = 3, and
  x→3
−1 −1 −1
lim f (x) = f lim x = f (7) = 3
x→7 x→7
Exercise Set 4.1 125

√ y
33. (a) f (g(x)) = f ( x) (b)
√
= ( x)2 = x, x > 1; y = f (x)

g(f (x)) = g(x2 )

√
= x2 = x, x > 1 y = g(x)

(c) no, because f (g(x)) = x for every x in the domain of g is not satisfied
(the domain of g is x ≥ 0)

34. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = ay 2 + by + c, ay 2 + by + c − x = 0, use the quadratic formula to get

−b ± b2 − 4a(c − x)
y= ;
2a



−1 −b + b2 − 4a(c − x) −1 −b − b2 − 4a(c − x)
(a) f (x) = (b) f (x) =
2a 2a

3−x
3−
35. (a) f (f (x)) = 1 − x = 3 − 3x − 3 + x = x so f = f −1
3−x 1−x−3+x
1−
1−x
(b) symmetric about the line y = x

36. y = m(x − x0 ) is an equation of the line. The graph of the inverse of f (x) = m(x − x0 ) will be the
reflection of this line about y = x. Solve y = m(x − x0 ) for x to get x = y/m + x0 = f −1 (y) so
y = f −1 (x) = x/m + x0 .

37. (a) f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2x = x(x − 1)(x − 2) so f (0) = f (1) = f (2) = 0 thus f is not one-to-one.
√
6 ± 36 − 24 √
(b) f  (x) = 3x2 − 6x + 2, f  (x) = 0 when x = = 1 ± 3/3. f  (x) > 0 (f is
√ 6 √ √
increasing) if x < 1 − 3/3, f  (x)
√ < 0 (f is decreasing) if 1√− 3/3 < x <√1 + 3/3, so f (x)
takes on values less than f (1 − 3/3) on both sides of 1 − 3/3 thus 1 − 3/3 is the largest
value of k.

38. (a) f (x) = x3 (x − 2) so f (0) = f (2) = 0 thus f is not one to one.

(b) f  (x) = 4x3 − 6x2 = 4x2 (x − 3/2), f  (x) = 0 when x = 0 or 3/2; f is decreasing on (−∞, 3/2]
and increasing on [3/2, +∞) so 3/2 is the smallest value of k.

39. if f −1 (x) = 1, then x = f (1) = 2(1)3 + 5(1) + 3 = 10

40. if f −1 (x) = 2, then x = f (2) = (2)3 /[(2)2 + 1] = 8/5

41. 6 42. 10

-5 10
-2 6

-2 -5
126 Chapter 4

43. 3 44. 6

0 3 0 6
0 0

dx dy 1
45. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 5y 3 + y − 7, = 15y 2 + 1, = ;
dy dx 15y 2 + 1
dy dy dy 1
check: 1 = 15y 2 + , =
dx dx dx 15y 2 + 1

dx dy
46. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 1/y 2 , = −2y −3 , = −y 3 /2;
dy dx
dy dy
check: 1 = −2y −3 , = −y 3 /2
dx dx
dx dy 1
47. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 2y 5 + y 3 + 1, = 10y 4 + 3y 2 , = ;
dy dx 10y + 3y 2
4

dy dy dy 1
check: 1 = 10y 4 + 3y 2 , =
dx dx dx 10y 4 + 3y 2

dx dy 1
48. y = f −1 (x), x = f (y) = 5y − sin 2y, = 5 − 2 cos 2y, = ;
dy dx 5 − 2 cos 2y
dy dy 1
check: 1 = (5 − 2 cos 2y) , =
dx dx 5 − 2 cos 2y

49. f (f (x)) = x thus f = f −1 so the graph is symmetric about y = x.

50. (a) Suppose x1 = x2 where x1 and x2 are in the domain of g and g(x1 ), g(x2 ) are in the domain of
f then g(x1 ) = g(x2 ) because g is one-to-one so f (g(x1 )) = f (g(x2 )) because f is one-to-one
thus f ◦ g is one-to-one because (f ◦ g)(x1 ) = (f ◦ g)(x2 ) if x1 = x2 .
(b) f , g, and f ◦ g all have inverses because they are all one-to-one. Let h = (f ◦ g)−1 then
(f ◦ g)(h(x)) = f [g(h(x))] = x, apply f −1 to both sides to get g(h(x)) = f −1 (x), then apply
g −1 to get h(x) = g −1 (f −1 (x)) = (g −1 ◦ f −1 )(x), so h = g −1 ◦ f −1

51. y

52. Suppose that g and h are both inverses of f then f (g(x)) = x, h[f (g(x))] = h(x), but
h[f (g(x))] = g(x) because h is an inverse of f so g(x) = h(x).

53. F  (x) = 2f  (2g(x))g  (x) so F  (3) = 2f  (2g(3))g  (3). By inspection f (1) = 3, so g(3) = f −1 (3) = 1
and g  (3) = (f −1 ) (3) = 1/f  (f −1 (3)) = 1/f  (1) = 1/7 because f  (x) = 4x3 + 3x2 . Thus
F  (3) = 2f  (2)(1/7) = 2(44)(1/7) = 88/7.
F (3) = f (2g(3)), g(3) = f −1 (3); by inspection f (1) = 3, so g(3) = f −1 (3) = 1, F (3) = f (2) = 25.
Exercise Set 4.2 127

EXERCISE SET 4.2

1. (a) −4 (b) 4 (c) 1/4

2. (a) 1/16 (b) 8 (c) 1/3

3. (a) 2.9690 (b) 0.0341

4. (a) 1.8882 (b) 0.9381



1
5. (a) log2 16 = log2 (2 ) = 44
(b) log2 = log2 (2−5 ) = −5
32
(c) log4 4 = 1 (d) log9 3 = log9 (91/2 ) = 1/2

6. (a) log10 (0.001) = log10 (10−3 ) = −3 (b) log10 (104 ) = 4

√
(c) ln(e3 ) = 3 (d) ln( e) = ln(e1/2 ) = 1/2

7. (a) 1.3655 (b) −0.3011

8. (a) −0.5229 (b) 1.1447

1 1
9. (a) 2 ln a + ln b + ln c = 2r + s/2 + t/2 (b) ln b − 3 ln a − ln c = s − 3r − t
2 2
1 1
10. (a) ln c − ln a − ln b = t/3 − r − s (b) (ln a + 3 ln b − 2 ln c) = r/2 + 3s/2 − t
3 2
1 1
11. (a) 1 + log x + log(x − 3) (b) 2 ln |x| + 3 ln sin x − ln(x2 + 1)
2 2
1 1 1
12. (a) log(x + 2) − log cos 5x (b) ln(x2 + 1) − ln(x3 + 5)
3 2 2
√
24 (16) √ 3 100 x
13. log = log(256/3) 14. log x − log(sin 2x) + log 100 = log
3 sin3 2x
√
3
x(x + 1)2
15. ln 16. 1 + x = 103 = 1000, x = 999
cos x
√
17. x = 10−1 = 0.1, x = 0.01 18. x2 = e4 , x = ±e2

19. 1/x = e−2 , x = e2 20. x = 7

21. 2x = 8, x = 4 22. log10 x3 = 30, x3 = 1030 , x = 1010

23. log10 x = 5, x = 105

4 4 √
24. ln 4x − ln x6 = ln 2, ln5
= ln 2, 5 = 2, x5 = 2, x = 5 2
x x



25. ln 2x2 = ln 3, 2x2 = 3, x2 = 3/2, x = 3/2 (we discard − 3/2 because it does not satisfy the
original equation)
128 Chapter 4

ln 2
26. ln 3x = ln 2, x ln 3 = ln 2, x =
ln 3

ln 3
27. ln 5−2x = ln 3, −2x ln 5 = ln 3, x = −
2 ln 5

1
28. e−2x = 5/3, −2x = ln(5/3), x = − ln(5/3)
2

1
29. e3x = 7/2, 3x = ln(7/2), x = ln(7/2)
3

30. ex (1 − 2x) = 0 so ex = 0 (impossible) or 1 − 2x = 0, x = 1/2

31. e−x (x + 2) = 0 so e−x = 0 (impossible) or x + 2 = 0, x = −2

32. e2x − ex − 6 = (ex − 3)(ex + 2) = 0 so ex = −2 (impossible) or ex = 3, x = ln 3

33. e−2x − 3e−x + 2 = (e−x − 2)(e−x − 1) = 0 so e−x = 2, x = − ln 2 or e−x = 1, x = 0

34. (a) y (b) y

2
x
2 6
-2 2

x
-2 2

35. (a) y (b) y

2
6
x
4
-4 2
2
x
-2 4
-4

36. (a) y (b) y

x
-1
x
3
-10 -1

37. log2 7.35 = (log 7.35)/(log 2) = (ln 7.35)/(ln 2) ≈ 2.8777;

log5 0.6 = (log 0.6)/(log 5) = (ln 0.6)/(ln 5) ≈ −0.3174
Exercise Set 4.2 129

38. 10 39. 2

0 3

0 2

-5 -3

40. (a) Let X = logb x and Y = loga x. Then bX = x and aY = x so aY = bX , or aY /X = b, which

loga x loga x
means loga b = Y /X. Substituting for Y and X yields = loga b, logb x = .
logb x loga b
(b) Let x = a to get logb a = (loga a)/(loga b) = 1/(loga b) so (loga b)(logb a) = 1.
(log2 81)(log3 32) = (log2 [34 ])(log3 [25 ]) = (4 log2 3)(5 log3 2) = 20(log2 3)(log3 2) = 20

41. (a) x = 3.6541, y = 1.2958 (b) x ≈ 332105.11, y ≈ 12.7132

2 12.7134

2 6 332085 332125
0.6 12.7130

42. Since the units are billions, one trillion is 1,000 units. Solve 1000 = 0.051517(1.1306727)x for x by
taking common logarithms, resulting in 3 = log 0.051517 + x log 1.1306727, which yields x ≈ 77.4,
so the debt first reached one trillion dollars around 1977.

43. (a) no, the curve passes through the origin (b) y = 2x/4
−x
√
(c) y = 2 (d) y = ( 5)x
5

-1 2
0

44. (a) As x → +∞ the function grows very slowly, but it is always increasing and tends to +∞. As
x → 1+ the function tends to −∞.
(b) y
5

x
1 2

-5
130 Chapter 4

45. log(1/2) < 0 so 3 log(1/2) < 2 log(1/2)

46. Let x = logb a and y = logb c, so a = bx and c = by .

First, ac = bx by = bx+y or equivalently, logb (ac) = x + y = logb a + logb c.
Secondly, a/c = bx /by = bx−y or equivalently, logb (a/c) = x − y = logb a − logb c.
Next, ar = (bx )r = brx or equivalently, logb ar = rx = r logb a.
Finally, 1/c = 1/by = b−y or equivalently, logb (1/c) = −y = − logb c.

47. 75e−t/125 = 15, t = −125 ln(1/5) = 125 ln 5 ≈ 201 days.

48. (a) If t = 0, then Q = 12 grams (b) Q = 12e−0.055(4) = 12e−0.22 ≈ 9.63 grams

(c) 12e−0.055t = 6, e−0.055t = 0.5, t = −(ln 0.5)/(0.055) ≈ 12.6 hours

49. (a) 7.4; basic (b) 4.2; acidic (c) 6.4; acidic (d) 5.9; acidic

50. (a) log[H + ] = −2.44, [H + ] = 10−2.44 ≈ 3.6 × 10−3 mol/L

(b) log[H + ] = −8.06, [H + ] = 10−8.06 ≈ 8.7 × 10−9 mol/L

51. (a) 140 dB; damage (b) 120 dB; damage

(c) 80 dB; no damage (d) 75 dB; no damage

52. Suppose that I1 = 3I2 and β1 = 10 log10 I1 /I0 , β2 = 10 log10 I2 /I0 . Then
I1 /I0 = 3I2 /I0 , log10 I1 /I0 = log10 3I2 /I0 = log10 3 + log10 I2 /I0 , β1 = 10 log10 3 + β2 ,
β1 − β2 = 10 log10 3 ≈ 4.8 decibels.

53. Let IA and IB be the intensities of the automobile and blender, respectively. Then
log10 IA /I0 = 7 and log10 IB /I0 = 9.3, IA = 107 I0 and IB = 109.3 I0 , so IB /IA = 102.3 ≈ 200.

54. The decibel level of the nth echo is 120(2/3)n ;

log(1/12) log 12
120(2/3)n < 10 if (2/3)n < 1/12, n < = ≈ 6.13 so 6 echoes can be heard.
log(2/3) log 1.5

55. (a) log E = 4.4 + 1.5(8.2) = 16.7, E = 1016.7 ≈ 5 × 1016 J

(b) Let M1 and M2 be the magnitudes of earthquakes with energies of E and 10E,
respectively. Then 1.5(M2 − M1 ) = log(10E) − log E = log 10 = 1,
M2 − M1 = 1/1.5 = 2/3 ≈ 0.67.

56. Let E1 and E2 be the energies of earthquakes with magnitudes M and M + 1, respectively. Then
log E2 − log E1 = log(E2 /E1 ) = 1.5, E2 /E1 = 101.5 ≈ 31.6.

57. If t = −2x, then x = −t/2 and lim (1 − 2x)1/x = lim (1 + t)−2/t = lim [(1 + t)1/t ]−2 = e−2 .
x→0 t→0 t→0

58. If t = 3/x, then x = 3/t and lim (1 + 3/x)x = lim+ (1 + t)3/t = lim+ [(1 + t)1/t ]3 = e3 .
x→+∞ t→0 t→0

EXERCISE SET 4.3

1 1
1. (2) = 1/x 2. (3x2 ) = 3/x
2x x3
 
1 2 ln x 1
3. 2(ln x) = 4. (cos x) = cot x
x x sin x
Exercise Set 4.3 131

 
1 sec2 x 1 1 1
5. (sec2 x) = 6. √ √ = √ √
tan x tan x 2+ x 2 x 2 x(2 + x)


1 (1 + x2 )(1) − x(2x) 1 − x2
7. =
x/(1 + x2 ) (1 + x2 )2 x(1 + x2 )
 
1 1 1 3x2 − 14x
8. = 9.
ln x x x ln x x3 − 7x2 − 3

   
1 1 1 1
10. x 3
+ (3x2 ) ln x = x2 (1 + 3 ln x) 11. (ln x)−1/2 = √
x 2 x 2x ln x

1
2 2(ln x)(1/x) ln x 1
12.
=
13. − sin(ln x)
2
1 + ln x x 1 + ln2 x x

1 sin(2 ln x) sin(ln x2 )
14. 2 sin(ln x) cos(ln x) = =
x x x

−2x3
15. 3x2 log2 (3 − 2x) +
(ln 2)(3 − 2x)

3
2 2x − 2
16. log2 (x2 − 2x) + 3x log2 (x2 − 2x)
(x2 − 2x) ln 2

2x(1 + log x) − x/(ln 10)

17. 18. 1/[x(ln 10)(1 + log x)2 ]
(1 + log x)2

2
19. 7e7x 20. −10xe−5x

1 1/x
21. x3 ex + 3x2 ex = x2 ex (x + 3) 22. − e
x2

dy (ex + e−x )(ex + e−x ) − (ex − e−x )(ex − e−x )

23. =
dx (ex + e−x )2

(e2x + 2 + e−2x ) − (e2x − 2 + e−2x )

= = 4/(ex + e−x )2
(ex + e−x )2

24. ex cos(ex )

dy (ln x)ex − ex (1/x) ex (x ln x − 1)

25. (x sec2 x + tan x)ex tan x 26. = =
dx (ln x)2 x(ln x)2

15 2

x (1 + 5x3 )−1/2 exp( 1 + 5x3 )
3x
27. (1 − 3e3x )e(x−e )
28.
2

(x − 1)e−x x−1 1
29. = x 30. [− sin(ex )]ex = −ex tan(ex )
1 − xe−x e −x cos(ex )
132 Chapter 4

 
dy 1 dy dy y
31. + x +y = 0, =−
dx xy dx dx x(y + 1)

 
dy 1 2 dy dy tan y
32. = x sec y + tan y , =
dx x tan y dx dx x(tan y − sec2 y)


d 1 3x
33. ln cos x − ln(4 − 3x2 ) = − tan x +
dx 2 4 − 3x2

   
d 1 1 1 1
34. [ln(x − 1) − ln(x + 1)] = −
dx 2 2 x−1 x+1


1 2 dy 1 2x
35. ln |y| = ln |x| + ln |1 + x |,
3 2
=x 1+x +
3 dx x 3(1 + x2 )

 
1 dy 1 x−1 1 1
36. ln |y| = [ln |x − 1| − ln |x + 1|], = 5
−
5 dx 5 x+1 x−1 x+1

1 1
37. ln |y| = ln |x2 − 8| + ln |x3 + 1| − ln |x6 − 7x + 5|
3 2
√ 
dy (x2 − 8)1/3 x3 + 1 2x 3x2 6x5 − 7
= + −
dx x6 − 7x + 5 3(x2 − 8) 2(x3 + 1) x6 − 7x + 5

1
38. ln |y| = ln | sin x| + ln | cos x| + 3 ln | tan x| − ln |x|
2

dy sin x cos x tan3 x 3 sec2 x 1
= √ cot x − tan x + −
dx x tan x 2x

1 
39. f  (x) = 2x ln 2; y = 2x , ln y = x ln 2, y = ln 2, y  = y ln 2 = 2x ln 2
y

1 
40. f  (x) = −3−x ln 3; y = 3−x , ln y = −x ln 3, y = − ln 3, y  = −y ln 3 = −3−x ln 3
y

41. f  (x) = π sin x (ln π) cos x;

1 
y = π sin x , ln y = (sin x) ln π, y = (ln π) cos x, y  = π sin x (ln π) cos x
y

42. f  (x) = π x tan x (ln π)(x sec2 x + tan x);

1 
y = π x tan x , ln y = (x tan x) ln π, y = (ln π)(x sec2 x + tan x)
y
y  = π x tan x (ln π)(x sec2 x + tan x)
Exercise Set 4.3 133

1 dy 3x2 − 2 1
43. ln y = (ln x) ln(x3 − 2x), = 3 ln x + ln(x3 − 2x),
y dx x − 2x x
 2
dy 3x − 2 1
= (x3 − 2x)ln x 3 ln x + ln(x3 − 2x)
dx x − 2x x


1 dy sin x dy sin x sin x
44. ln y = (sin x) ln x, = + (cos x) ln x, =x + (cos x) ln x
y dx x dx x

1 dy 1
45. ln y = (tan x) ln(ln x), = tan x + (sec2 x) ln(ln x),
y dx x ln x

dy tan x
= (ln x)tan x + (sec2 x) ln(ln x)
dx x ln x

1 dy 2x 1
46. ln y = (ln x) ln(x2 + 3), = 2 ln x + ln(x2 + 3),
y dx x +3 x

dy 2 ln x 2x 1 2
= (x + 3) ln x + ln(x + 3)
dx x2 + 3 x

47. f  (x) = exe−1

48. (a) because xx is not of the form ax where a is constant

1
(b) y = xx , ln y = x ln x, y  = 1 + ln x, y  = xx (1 + ln x)
y

ln e 1 d 1
49. (a) logx e = = , [logx e] = −
ln x ln x dx x(ln x)2
ln 2 d ln 2
(b) logx 2 = , [logx 2] = −
ln x dx x(ln x)2

ln b ln e 1
50. (a) From loga b = for a, b > 0 it follows that log(1/x) e = =− , hence
ln a ln(1/x) ln x
d  1
log(1/x) e =
dx x(ln x)2
ln e 1 d 1 1 1
(b) log(ln x) e = = , so log(ln x) e = − =−
ln(ln x) ln(ln x) dx (ln(ln x))2 x ln x x(ln x)(ln(ln x))2

51. (a) f  (x) = kekx , f  (x) = k 2 ekx , f  (x) = k 3 ekx , . . . , f (n) (x) = k n ekx
(b) f  (x) = −ke−kx , f  (x) = k 2 e−kx , f  (x) = −k 3 e−kx , . . . , f (n) (x) = (−1)n k n e−kx

dy
52. = e−λt (ωA cos ωt − ωB sin ωt) + (−λ)e−λt (A sin ωt + B cos ωt)
dt
= e−λt [(ωA − λB) cos ωt − (ωB + λA) sin ωt]
134 Chapter 4

  2    2 
 1 1 x−µ d 1 x−µ
53. f (x) = √ exp − −
2πσ 2 σ dx 2 σ
  
2     
1 1 x−µ x−µ 1
= √ exp − −
2πσ 2 σ σ σ
  2 
1 1 x−µ
= −√ (x − µ) exp −
2πσ 3 2 σ

54. y = Aekt , dy/dt = kAekt = k(Aekt ) = ky

55. y = Ae2x + Be−4x , y  = 2Ae2x − 4Be−4x , y  = 4Ae2x + 16Be−4x so

y  + 2y  − 8y = (4Ae2x + 16Be−4x ) + 2(2Ae2x − 4Be−4x ) − 8(Ae2x + Be−4x ) = 0

56. (a) y  = −xe−x + e−x = e−x (1 − x), xy  = xe−x (1 − x) = y(1 − x)

2 2 2 2
(b) y  = −x2 e−x /2
+ e−x /2
= e−x /2
(1 − x2 ), xy  = xe−x /2
(1 − x2 ) = y(1 − x2 )

 ln(1 + h) − ln 1 ln(1 + h) 1 
57. (a) f (w) = ln w; f (1) = lim = lim =  =1
h→0 h h→0 h w w=1
 
10h − 1 d w 
 
w 
(b) f (w) = 10 ; f (0) = lim = (10 ) = 10 ln 10
w
= ln 10
h→0 h dw w=0 w=0

 
ln(e2 + ∆x) − 2 d  1 

58. (a) f (x) = ln x; f (e ) = lim 2
= 
(ln x) =  = e−2
∆x→0 ∆x dx x=e2 x x=e2
 
2w − 2 d w  
w 
(b) f (w) = 2 ; f (1) = lim = (2 ) = 2 ln 2
w
= 2 ln 2
w→1 w − 1 dw w=1 w=1

EXERCISE SET 4.4

1. (a) −π/2 (b) π (c) −π/4 (d) 0

2. (a) π/3 (b) π/3 (c) π/4 (d) 2π/3

√ √ √
3. θ = −π/3; cos θ = 1/2, tan θ = − 3, cot θ = −1/ 3, sec θ = 2, csc θ = −2/ 3
√ √ √ √
4. θ = π/3; sin θ = 3/2, tan θ = 3, cot θ = 1/ 3, sec θ = 2, csc θ = 2/ 3

5. tan θ = 4/3, 0 < θ < π/2; use the triangle shown to

get sin θ = 4/5, cos θ = 3/5, cot θ = 3/4, sec θ = 5/3,
csc θ = 5/4
5 4

␪
3
Exercise Set 4.4 135

6. sec θ = 2.6, 0 < θ < π/2; use the triangle shown to get
sin θ = 2.4/2.6 = 12/13, cos θ = 1/2.6 = 5/13,
2.6
tan θ = 2.4 = 12/5, cot θ = 5/12, csc θ = 13/12 2.4

␪
1

7. (a) π/7
(b) sin−1 (sin π) = sin−1 (sin 0) = 0
(c) sin−1 (sin(5π/7)) = sin−1 (sin(2π/7)) = 2π/7
(d) Note that π/2 < 630 − 200π < π so
sin(630) = sin(630 − 200π) = sin(π − (630 − 200π)) = sin(201π − 630) where
0 < 201π − 630 < π/2; sin−1 (sin 630) = sin−1 (sin(201π − 630)) = 201π − 630.

8. (a) π/7
(b) π
(c) cos−1 (cos(12π/7)) = cos−1 (cos(2π/7)) = 2π/7
(d) Note that −π/2 < 200 − 64π < 0 so cos(200) = cos(200 − 64π) = cos(64π − 200) where
0 < 64π − 200 < π/2; cos−1 (cos 200) = cos−1 (cos(64π − 200)) = 64π − 200.

9. (a) 0 ≤ x ≤ π (b) −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
(c) −π/2 < x < π/2 (d) −∞ < x < +∞

10. Let θ = sin−1 (−3/4) then sin θ = −3/4, −π/2 < θ < 0 and
√
(see figure) sec θ = 4/ 7
√7
␪
-3
4

11. Let θ = cos−1 (3/5), sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ = 2(4/5)(3/5) = 24/25

5 4

␪
3

√
−1
√ −1 1 − x2
12. (a) sin(cos x) = 1− x2 (b) tan(cos x) =
x

1 √1 - x2 1 √1 - x2

cos-1 x
cos-1 x
x
x
136 Chapter 4

√
1 + x2 x
(c) csc(tan−1 x) = (d) sin(tan−1 x) = √
x 1 + x2

√1 + x2 x 1 + x2 x

tan-1 x tan-1 x
1 1
√
1 1 − x2
13. (a) cos(tan−1 x) = √ (b) tan(cos−1 x) =
1 + x2 x

1
1 + x2
x 1 – x2

cos-1 x
tan-1 x
x
1
√
−1 x2 − 1 1
(c) sin(sec x) = (d) cot(sec−1 x) = √
x x2 − 1

x x
x2 - 1
x2 – 1

sec-1 x sec-1 x
1 1

14. (a) x −1.00 −0.80 −0.6 −0.40 −0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00
sin−1 x −1.57 −0.93 −0.64 −0.41 −0.20 0.00 0.20 0.41 0.64 0.93 1.57
cos−1 x 3.14 2.50 2.21 1.98 1.77 1.57 1.37 1.16 0.93 0.64 0.00

(b) y (c) y
3
2
1
1
x
x
0.5 1
1
-1

c
15. (a) y y
c/2

x
c/2 5

x
-10 10
Exercise Set 4.4 137

(b) The domain of cot−1 x is (−∞, +∞), the range is (0, π); the domain of csc−1 x is
(−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞), the range is [−π/2, 0) ∪ (0, π/2].

16. (a) y = cot−1 x; if x > 0 then 0 < y < π/2 and x = cot y, tan y = 1/x, y = tan−1 (1/x);
1
if x < 0 then π/2 < y < π and x = cot y = cot(y − π), tan(y − π) = 1/x, y = π + tan−1
x
(b) y = sec−1 x, x = sec y, cos y = 1/x, y = cos−1 (1/x)
(c) y = csc−1 x, x = csc y, sin y = 1/x, y = sin−1 (1/x)

17. (a) 55.0◦ (b) 33.6◦ (c) 25.8◦

18. (a) Let x = f (y) = cot y, 0 < y < π, −∞ < x < +∞. √ Then f is differentiable and one-to-one
x2 + 1

and f  (f −1 (x)) = cot(cot−1 x) cos(cot−1 x) = −x = − x2 + 1 = 0, and
x


d  1
[cot−1 x] = lim  −1 = − lim x2 + 1 = −1.
dx x=0
x→0 f (f (x)) x→0

(b) If x = 0 then, from Exercise 16(a),

d d 1 1 1 1
cot−1 x = tan−1 = − 2
= −√ . For x = 0, Part (a) shows the
dx dx x x 1 + (1/x)2 x2 + 1
d 1
same; thus for −∞ < x < +∞, [cot−1 x] = − √ .
dx 2
x +1

d 1 du
(c) For −∞ < u < +∞, by the chain rule it follows that [cot−1 u] = − √ .
dx u + 1 dx
2

d 1 1 −1
19. (a) By the chain rule, [csc−1 x] = − 2
= √
dx x 1 − (1/x)2 |x| x2 − 1
d du d −1 du
(b) By the chain rule, [csc−1 u] = [csc−1 u] = √
dx dx du |u| u − 1 dx
2

20. (a) x = π − sin−1 (0.37) ≈ 2.7626 rad (b) θ = 180◦ + sin−1 (0.61) ≈ 217.6◦

21. (a) x = π + cos−1 (0.85) ≈ 3.6964 rad (b) θ = − cos−1 (0.23) ≈ −76.7◦

22. (a) x = tan−1 (3.16) − π ≈ −1.8773 (b) θ = 180◦ − tan−1 (0.45) ≈ 155.8◦

1


23. (a)
(1/3) = 1/ 9 − x2 (b) −2/ 1 − (2x + 1)2
1− x2 /9
 
1 1 −1/2 1
24. (a) 2x/(1 + x4 ) (b) − x =− √
1+x 2 2(1 + x) x

1 7 √
25. (a) √ (7x6 ) = √ (b) −1/ e2x − 1
|x|7 x −1
14 |x| x14 − 1

26. (a) y = 1/ tan x = cot x, dy/dx = − csc2 x

 
−1 −1 −1 −2 1
(b) y = (tan x) , dy/dx = −(tan x)
1 + x2

1 1 sin x sin x 1, sin x > 0
27. (a)
(−1/x2 ) = − √ (b) √ = =
1− 1/x2 |x| x2 − 1 1 − cos2 x | sin x| −1, sin x < 0
138 Chapter 4

1 1
28. (a) − √ (b) − √
(cos−1 x) 1 − x2 −1
2 cot x(1 + x2 )

ex 3x2 (sin−1 x)2

29. (a) √ + ex sec−1 x (b) √ + 2x(sin−1 x)3
|x| x2 − 1 1 − x2

30. (a) 0 (b) 0

x  −1 y   (3x2 + tan−1 y)(1 + y 2 )

31. x3 + x tan−1 y = ey , 3x2 + y + tan y = e y , y =
1 + y2 (1 + y 2 )ey − x

1 1
32. sin−1 (xy) = cos−1 (x − y),
(xy  + y) = −
(1 − y  ),
1−x y 2 2 1 − (x − y)2



 y 1 − (x − y)2 + 1 − x2 y 2
y =


1 − x2 y 2 − x 1 − (x − y)2

33. (a) y (b) y

c/2 c/2
x
-0.5 0.5 x

– c/2
– c/2

34. (a) sin−1 0.9 > 1, so it is not in the domain of sin−1 x

(b) −1 ≤ sin−1 x ≤ 1 is necessary, or −0.841471 ≤ x ≤ 0.841471

R 6378
35. (b) θ = sin−1 = sin−1 ≈ 23◦
R+h 16, 378



36. (a) If γ = 90◦ , then sin γ = 1, 1 − sin2 φ sin2 γ = 1 − sin2 φ = cos φ,
D = tan φ tan λ = (tan 23.45◦ )(tan 65◦ ) ≈ 0.93023374 so h ≈ 21.1 hours.
(b) If γ = 270◦ , then sin γ = −1, D = − tan φ tan λ ≈ −0.93023374 so h ≈ 2.9 hours.

37. sin 2θ = gR/v 2 = (9.8)(18)/(14)2 = 0.9, 2θ = sin−1 (0.9) or 2θ = 180◦ − sin−1 (0.9) so
θ = 12 sin−1 (0.9) ≈ 32◦ or θ = 90◦ − 12 sin−1 (0.9) ≈ 58◦ . The ball will have a lower
parabolic trajectory for θ = 32◦ and hence will result in the shorter time of flight.

38. 42 = 22 + 32 − 2(2)(3) cos θ, cos θ = −1/4, θ = cos−1 (−1/4) ≈ 104◦

√
39. y = 0 when x2 = 6000v 2
√ /g, x = 10v 60/g
√ = 1000 30 for v = 400 and g = 32;
tan θ = 3000/x = 3/ 30, θ = tan−1 (3/ 30) ≈ 29◦ .
x x
40. (a) θ = α − β, cot α = and cot β = so
a+b b
x   a
−1 −1 x
θ = cot − cot
a+b b
  ␪
b
dθ 1 1 1 1
(b) =− 2 2
− ␣
␤
dx a + b 1 + x /(a + b) b 1 + (x/b)2
x
a+b b
=− 2 2
− 2
(a + b) + x b + x2
which is negative for all x. Thus θ is a decreasing function of x, and it has no maximum
since lim θ = +∞.
x→0+
Exercise Set 4.5 139

41. (a) Let θ = sin−1 (−x) then sin θ = −x, −π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π/2. But sin(−θ) = − sin θ and
−π/2 ≤ −θ ≤ π/2 so sin(−θ) = −(−x) = x, −θ = sin−1 x, θ = − sin−1 x.
(b) proof is similar to that in Part (a)

42. (a) Let θ = cos−1 (−x) then cos θ = −x, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. But cos(π − θ) = − cos θ and
0 ≤ π − θ ≤ π so cos(π − θ) = x, π − θ = cos−1 x, θ = π − cos−1 x
(b) Let θ = sec−1 (−x) for x ≥ 1; then sec θ = −x and π/2 < θ ≤ π. So 0 ≤ π − θ < π/2 and
π − θ = sec−1 sec(π − θ) = sec−1 (− sec θ) = sec−1 x, or sec−1 (−x) = π − sec−1 x.

x
43. (a) sin−1 x = tan−1 √ (see figure)
1 − x2
x
(b) sin−1 x + cos−1 x = π/2; cos−1 x = π/2 − sin−1 x = π/2 − tan−1 √
1 − x2 1 x

sin-1 x

√1 - x2

tan α + tan β
44. tan(α + β) = ,
1 − tan α tan β
tan(tan−1 x) + tan(tan−1 y) x+y
tan(tan−1 x + tan−1 y) = =
1 − tan(tan−1 x) tan(tan−1 y) 1 − xy
x+y
so tan−1 x + tan−1 y = tan−1
1 − xy

1 1 1/2 + 1/3
45. (a) tan−1 + tan−1 = tan−1 = tan−1 1 = π/4
2 3 1 − (1/2) (1/3)
1 1 1 1/3 + 1/3 3
(b) 2 tan−1 = tan−1 + tan−1 = tan−1 = tan−1 ,
3 3 3 1 − (1/3) (1/3) 4
1 1 3 1 3/4 + 1/7
2 tan−1 + tan−1 = tan−1 + tan−1 = tan−1 = tan−1 1 = π/4
3 7 4 7 1 − (3/4) (1/7)
  2 √
−1 −1 1 x2 − 1
46. sin(sec x) = sin(cos (1/x)) = 1− =
x |x|

EXERCISE SET 4.5

x2 − 4 (x − 2)(x + 2) x+2 2
1. (a) lim = lim = lim =
x→2 x2 + 2x − 8 x→2 (x + 4)(x − 2) x→2 x + 4 3
5
2x − 5 2 − lim 2
x→+∞ x
(b) lim = =
x→+∞ 3x + 7 7 3
3 + lim
x→+∞ x

sin x cos x sin x

2. (a) = sin x = cos x so lim = lim cos x = 1
tan x sin x x→0 tan x x→0

x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1) x+1 x2 − 1 2
(b) = = 2 so lim 3 =
x −1
3 (x − 1)(x + x + 1)
2 x +x+1 x→1 x − 1 3
140 Chapter 4

1/x 2 cos 2x
3. lim =1 4. lim = 2/5
x→1 1 x→0 5 cos 5x

ex 1
5. lim =1 6. lim = 1/5
x→0 cos x x→3 6x − 13

sec2 θ tet + et
7. lim =1 8. lim = −1
θ→0 1 t→0 −et
cos x cos x
9. lim = −1 10. lim = +∞
x→π + 1 x→0+ 2x

1/x 3e3x 9e3x

11. lim =0 12. lim = lim = +∞
x→+∞ 1 x→+∞ 2x x→+∞ 2

− csc2 x −x −1
13. lim = lim+ 2 = lim+ = −∞
x→0+ 1/x x→0 sin x x→0 2 sin x cos x

−1/x x
14. lim = lim+ 1/x = 0
x→0+ (−1/x2 )e1/x x→0 e

100x99 (100)(99)x98 (100)(99)(98) · · · (1)

15. lim = lim = · · · = lim =0
x→+∞ ex x→+∞ ex x→+∞ ex
√
cos x/ sin x 2 2/ 1 − 4x2
16. lim+ = lim cos x = 1 17. lim =2
x→0 sec2 x/ tan x x→0+ x→0 1

1
1− 1 1 x 1
18. lim 1 + x2 = lim = 19. lim xe−x = lim = lim x = 0
x→0 3x2 x→0 3(1 + x2 ) 3 x→+∞ x→+∞ ex x→+∞ e

x−π 1
20. lim (x − π) tan(x/2) = lim = lim = −2
x→π x→π cot(x/2) x→π −(1/2) csc2 (x/2)

sin(π/x) (−π/x2 ) cos(π/x)

21. lim x sin(π/x) = lim = lim = lim π cos(π/x) = π
x→+∞ x→+∞ 1/x x→+∞ −1/x2 x→+∞

ln x 1/x − sin2 x −2 sin x cos x

22. lim tan x ln x = lim = lim+ = lim = lim+ =0
x→0+ +x→0 cot x x→0 − csc2 x x→0+ x x→0 1

cos 5x −5 sin 5x −5(+1) 5

23. lim sec 3x cos 5x = lim = lim = =−
x→(π/2)− x→(π/2)− cos 3x x→(π/2)− −3 sin 3x (−3)(−1) 3

x−π 1
24. lim (x − π) cot x = lim = lim =1
x→π x→π tan x x→π sec2 x

ln(1 − 3/x) −3
25. y = (1 − 3/x)x , lim ln y = lim = lim = −3, lim y = e−3
x→+∞ x→+∞ 1/x x→+∞ 1 − 3/x x→+∞

3 ln(1 + 2x) 6
26. y = (1 + 2x)−3/x , lim ln y = lim − = lim − = −6, lim y = e−6
x→0 x→0 x x→0 1 + 2x x→0

ln(ex + x) ex + 1
27. y = (ex + x)1/x , lim ln y = lim = lim x = 2, lim y = e2
x→0 x→0 x x→0 e + x x→0
Exercise Set 4.5 141

b ln(1 + a/x) ab
28. y = (1 + a/x)bx , lim ln y = lim = lim = ab, lim y = eab
x→+∞ x→+∞ 1/x x→+∞ 1 + a/x x→+∞

ln(2 − x) 2 sin2 (πx/2)

29. y = (2 − x)tan(πx/2) , lim ln y = lim = lim = 2/π, lim y = e2/π
x→1 x→1 cot(πx/2) x→1 π(2 − x) x→1

2 ln cos(2/x) (−2/x2 )(− tan(2/x))

30. y = [cos(2/x)]x , lim ln y = lim = lim
x→+∞ x→+∞ 1/x2 x→+∞ −2/x3
− tan(2/x) (2/x2 ) sec2 (2/x)
= lim = lim = −2, lim y = e−2
x→+∞ 1/x x→+∞ −1/x2 x→+∞

 
1 1 x − sin x 1 − cos x sin x
31. lim − = lim = lim = lim =0
x→0 sin x x x→0 x sin x x→0 x cos x + sin x x→0 2 cos x − x sin x

1 − cos 3x 3 sin 3x 9 9
32. lim 2
= lim = lim cos 3x =
x→0 x x→0 2x x→0 2 2
(x2 + x) − x2 x 1
33. lim √ = lim √ = lim
= 1/2
x→+∞ 2
x +x+x x→+∞ 2
x + x + x x→+∞ 1 + 1/x + 1

ex − 1 − x ex − 1 ex
34. lim = lim x = lim x = 1/2
x→0 xe − x
x x→0 xe + e − 1
x x→0 xe + 2ex

ex
35. lim [x − ln(x2 + 1)] = lim [ln ex − ln(x2 + 1)] = lim ln ,
x→+∞ x→+∞ x→+∞ x2 + 1
x x x
e e e
lim = lim = lim = +∞ so lim [x − ln(x2 + 1)] = +∞
x→+∞ x2 + 1 x→+∞ 2x x→+∞ 2 x→+∞

x 1
36. lim ln = lim ln = ln(1) = 0
x→+∞ 1+x x→+∞ 1/x + 1

ln x 1/x 1
38. (a) limn
= lim n−1
= lim =0
x→+∞ x x→+∞ nx x→+∞ nxn

xn nxn−1
(b) lim = lim = lim nxn = +∞
x→+∞ ln x x→+∞ 1/x x→+∞

3x2 − 2x + 1 0
39. (a) L’Hôpital’s Rule does not apply to the problem lim because it is not a form.
x→1 3x2 − 2x 0
3x2 − 2x + 1
(b) lim =2
x→1 3x2 − 2x

4x3 − 12x2 + 12x − 4 12x2 − 24x + 12 24x − 24

40. lim = lim = lim =0
x→1 4x − 9x + 6x − 1
3 2 x→1 12x2 − 18x + 6 x→1 24x − 18

1/(x ln x) 2
41. lim √ = lim √ =0 0.15
x→+∞ 1/(2 x) x→+∞ x ln x

100 10000
0
142 Chapter 4

ln x
42. y = xx , lim ln y = lim = lim −x = 0, lim y = 1 1
x→0+ x→0+ 1/x x→0+ x→0+

0 0.5
0

43. y = (sin x)3/ ln x , 25

3 ln sin x x
lim+ ln y = lim+ = lim (3 cos x) = 3,
x→0 x→0 ln x x→0 + sin x
lim y = e3
x→0+

0 0.5
19

4 sec2 x 4
44. lim = lim =4
x→π/2− sec x tan x x→π/2− sin x

1 e−x ln x − 1
45. ln x − ex = ln x − = ; 0
e−x e−x 0 3

ln x 1/x
lim e−x ln x = lim x
= lim = 0 by L’Hôpital’s Rule,
x→+∞ x→+∞ e x→+∞ ex
e−x ln x − 1
so lim [ln x − ex ] = lim = −∞
x→+∞ x→+∞ e−x
-16

ex
46. lim [ln ex − ln(1 + 2ex )] = lim ln -0.6
x→+∞ x→+∞ 1 + 2ex 0 12
1 1
= lim ln = ln ;
x→+∞ e−x +2 2
horizontal asymptote y = − ln 2

-1.2

47. y = (ln x)1/x , 1.02

ln(ln x) 1
lim ln y = lim = lim = 0;
x→+∞ x→+∞ x x→+∞ x ln x

lim y = 1, y = 1 is the horizontal asymptote

x→+∞

100 10000
1
Exercise Set 4.5 143

 x x+1
x+1 ln
48. y = , lim ln y = lim x+2 1
x+2 x→+∞ x→+∞ 1/x
−x2
= lim = −1;
x→+∞ (x + 1)(x + 2)

lim y = e−1 is the horizontal asymptote

x→+∞
0 50
0

49. (a) 0 (b) +∞ (c) 0 (d) −∞ (e) +∞ (f ) −∞

(ln a) ln x (ln a)/x

50. (a) Type 00 ; y = x(ln a)/(1+ln x) ; lim+ ln y = lim+ = lim = lim ln a = ln a,
x→0 x→0 1 + ln x x→0+ 1/x x→0+
lim y = eln a = a
x→0+

(b) Type ∞0 ; same calculation as Part (a) with x → +∞

(ln a) ln(x + 1) ln a
(c) Type 1∞ ; y = (x + 1)(ln a)/x , lim ln y = lim = lim = ln a,
x→0 x→0 x x→0 x + 1

lim y = eln a = a
x→0
 
1 + 2 cos 2x x + sin 2x sin 2x
51. lim does not exist, nor is it ±∞; lim = lim 1+ =1
x→+∞ 1 x→+∞ x x→+∞ x

2 − cos x 2x − sin x 2 − (sin x)/x 2

52. lim does not exist, nor is it ±∞; lim = lim =
x→+∞ 3 + cos x x→+∞ 3x + sin x x→+∞ 3 + (sin x)/x 3

x(2 + sin 2x) 2 + sin 2x

53. lim (2 + x cos 2x + sin 2x) does not exist, nor is it ±∞; lim = lim ,
x→+∞ x+1
x→+∞ x→+∞ 1 + 1/x
which does not exist because sin 2x oscillates between −1 and 1 as x → +∞
 
1 1 sin x
54. lim + cos x + does not exist, nor is it ±∞;
x→+∞ x 2 2x
x(2 + sin x) 2 + sin x
lim 2
= lim =0
x→+∞ x +1 x→+∞ x + 1/x
V t −Rt/L
L e Vt
55. lim+ =
R→0 1 L

π/2 − x −1
56. (a) lim (π/2 − x) tan x = lim = lim = lim sin2 x = 1
x→π/2 x→π/2 cot x x→π/2 − csc2 x x→π/2
   
1 1 sin x cos x − (π/2 − x) sin x
(b) lim − tan x = lim − = lim
x→π/2 π/2 − x x→π/2 π/2 − x cos x x→π/2 (π/2 − x) cos x
−(π/2 − x) cos x
= lim
x→π/2 −(π/2 − x) sin x − cos x
(π/2 − x) sin x + cos x
= lim =0
x→π/2 −(π/2 − x) cos x + 2 sin x

(c) 1/(π/2 − 1.57) ≈ 1255.765849, tan 1.57 ≈ 1255.765592;

1/(π/2 − 1.57) − tan 1.57 ≈ 0.000265
144 Chapter 4

kt − 1 (ln k)k t
57. (b) lim x(k 1/x − 1) = lim+ = lim = ln k
x→+∞ t→0 t t→0 + 1
 √ 
(c) ln 0.3 = −1.20397, 1024 1024 0.3 − 1 = −1.20327;
 √ 
ln 2 = 0.69315, 1024 1024 2 − 1 = 0.69338

58. (a) No; sin(1/x) oscillates as x → 0. (b) 0.05

-0.35 0.35

-0.05

(c) For the limit as x → 0+ use the Squeezing Theorem together with the inequalities
−x2 ≤ x2 sin(1/x) ≤ x2 . For x → 0− do the same; thus lim f (x) = 0.
x→0

k + cos 3x
59. If k = −1 then lim (k + cos 3x) = k + 1 = 0, so lim = ±∞. Hence k = −1, and by the
x→0 x→0 x2
rule
−1 + cos 3x −3 sin 3x −32 cos 3x 32 √
lim = lim = lim = − = −4 if 3 = ±2 2.
x→0 x2 x→0 2x x→0 2 2

− cos(1/x) + 2x sin(1/x)
60. (a) Apply the rule to get lim which does not exist (nor is it ±∞).
x→0 cos x
 x x 1
(b) Rewrite as lim [x sin(1/x)], but lim = lim = 1 and lim x sin(1/x) = 0,
x→0 sin x x→0 sin x x→0 cos x x→0
 x
thus lim [x sin(1/x)] = (1)(0) = 0
x→0 sin x

sin(1/x) sin x
61. lim , lim = 1 but lim+ sin(1/x) does not exist because sin(1/x) oscillates between
x→0+ (sin x)/x x→0+ x x→0

x sin(1/x)
−1 and 1 as x → +∞, so lim+ does not exist.
x→0 sin x

CHAPTER 4 SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES

1. (a) f (g(x)) = x for all x in the domain of g, and g(f (x)) = x for all x in the domain of f .
(b) They are reflections of each other through the line y = x.
(c) The domain of one is the range of the other and vice versa.
(d) The equation y = f (x) can always be solved for x as a function of y. Functions with no
inverses include y = x2 , y = sin x.
(e) Yes, g is continuous; this is evident from the statement about the graphs in Part (b) above.
(f ) Yes, g must be differentiable (where f  = 0); this can be inferred from the graphs. Note that
if f  = 0 at a point then g  cannot exist (infinite slope).

2. (a) For sin x, −π/2 ≤ x ≤ π/2; for cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π; for tan x, −π/2 < x < π/2; for sec x,
0 ≤ x < π/2 or π/2 < x ≤ π.
Chapter 4 Supplementary Exercises 145

(b) y y = sin-1 x y = cos-1 x y

1 y = sin x
x
c/2
x
-1 c
-1
y = cos x

y y
y = tan x y = sec-1 x y = sec x
2 2
y= tan -1 x y = sec-1 x
x
x
- c/2 c/2
c/2
-2 -1
y = sec x

 1/3
x+1 1
3. (a) x = f (y) = 8y 3 − 1; y = f −1 (x) = = (x + 1)1/3
8 2
(b) f (x) = (x − 1)2 ; f does not have an inverse because f is not one-to-one, for example
f (0) = f (2) = 1.
√
(c) x = f (y) = (ey )2 + 1; y = f −1 (x) = ln x − 1 = 12 ln(x − 1)
y+2 x+2
(d) x = f (y) = ; y = f −1 (x) =
y−1 x−1

ad − bc
4. f  (x) = ; if ad − bc = 0 then the function represents a horizontal line, no inverse.
(cx + d)2
ay + b
If ad − bc = 0 then f  (x) > 0 or f  (x) < 0 so f is invertible. If x = f (y) = then
cy + d
b − xd
y = f −1 (x) = .
xc − a
 
5. 3 ln e2x (ex )3 + 2 exp(ln 1) = 3 ln e2x + 3 ln(ex )3 + 2 · 1 = 3(2x) + (3 · 3)x + 2 = 15x + 2

6. Draw equilateral triangles of sides 5, 12, 13, and 3, 4, 5. Then sin[cos−1 (4/5)] = 3/5,
sin[cos−1 (5/13)] = 12/13, cos[sin−1 (4/5)] = 3/5, cos[sin−1 (5/13)] = 12/13
(a) cos[cos−1 (4/5) + sin−1 (5/13)] = cos(cos−1 (4/5)) cos(sin−1 (5/13))
− sin(cos−1 (4/5)) sin(sin−1 (5/13))
4 12 3 5 33
= − = .
5 13 5 13 65
(b) sin[sin−1 (4/5) + cos−1 (5/13)] = sin(sin−1 (4/5)) cos(cos−1 (5/13))
+ cos(sin−1 (4/5)) sin(cos−1 (5/13))
4 5 3 12 56
= + = .
5 13 5 13 65

7. (a) f  (x) = −3/(x + 1)2 . If x = f (y) = 3/(y + 1) then y = f −1 (x) = (3/x) − 1, so

d −1 3 1 (f −1 (x) + 1)2 (3/x)2 3
f (x) = − 2 ; and  −1 =− =− = − 2.
dx x f (f (x)) 3 3 x
146 Chapter 4

d −1 2
(b) f (x) = ex/2 , f  (x) = 12 ex/2 . If x = f (y) = ey/2 then y = f −1 (x) = 2 ln x, so f (x) = ;
dx x
1 −1 2
and  −1 = 2e−f (x)/2 = 2e− ln x = 2x−1 =
f (f (x)) x

8. Y = ln(Cekt ) = ln C + ln ekt = ln C + kt, a line with slope k and Y -intercept ln C

9. (a) y
2

x
4

-2

(b) The curve y = e−x/2 sin 2x has x-intercepts at x = −π/2, 0, π/2, π, 3π/2. It intersects the
curve y = e−x/2 at x = π/4, 5π/4, and it intersects the curve y = −e−x/2 at x = −π/4, 3π/4.

10. (a) y (b) y

c/2

c/2
x x
1 1

(c) y (d) y
c/2
x
1
x
5

-c/2

11. (a) The function ln x − x0.2 is negative at x = 1 and positive at x = 4, so it must be zero in
between (IVT).
(b) x = 3.654

ln x 1 y
x
12. (a) If xk = ex then k ln x = x, or = . The steps are reversible.
x k 2
(b) By zooming it is seen that the maximum value of y is -2
approximately 0.368 (actually, 1/e), so there are two distinct
solutions of xk = ex whenever k > 1/0.368 ≈ 2.717.
(c) x ≈ 1.155

dy/dx dy
13. ln y = ln 5000 + 1.07x; = 1.07, or = 1.07y
y dx

dy/dx dy
14. ln y = 2x ln 3 + 7x ln 5; = 2 ln 3 + 7 ln 5, or = (2 ln 3 + 7 ln 5)y
y dx
Chapter 4 Supplementary Exercises 147

abe−x
15. (a) y = x3 + 1 so y  = 3x2 . (b) y  =
(1 + be−x )2
1 1
(c) y = ln x + ln(x + 1) − ln sin x + ln cos x, so
2 3
 1 1 cos x sin x 5x + 3
y = + − − = − cot x − tan x.
2x 3(x + 1) sin x cos x 6x(x + 1)
ln(1 + x) y  x/(1 + x) − ln(1 + x) 1 ln(1 + x)
(d) ln y = , = = − ,
x y x2 x(1 + x) x2

dy 1 (1 + x)(1/x)
= (1 + x)(1/x)−1 − ln(1 + x)
dx x x2
     x
y 1 dy ex x 1 x
x
(e) ln y = e ln x, =ex
+ ln x , =x e + ln x = ex xe −1 + xe ln x
y x dx x
(1 + ex + e2x ) x dy ex
(f ) y = ln = − ln(1 − e ), =
(1 − ex )(1 + ex + e2x ) dx 1 − ex

16. y  = aeax sin bx + beax cos bx and y  = (a2 − b2 )eax sin bx + 2abeax cos bx, so y  − 2ay  + (a2 + b2 )y
= (a2 − b2 )eax sin bx + 2abeax cos bx − 2a(aeax sin bx + beax cos bx) + (a2 + b2 )eax sin bx = 0.

√ √ 1 −2x
17. sin(tan−1 x) = x/ 1 + x2 and cos(tan−1 x) = 1/ 1 + x2 , and y  = , y  = , hence
1 + x2 (1 + x2 )2
−2x x 1
y  + 2 sin y cos3 y = + 2√ = 0.
(1 + x2 )2 1 + x2 (1 + x2 )3/2

18. (a) Find x when y = 5 · 12 = 60 in. Since y = log x, x = 10y = 1060 in. This is approximately
2.68 × 1042 light-years, so even in astronomical terms it is a fabulously long distance.
(b) Find x when y = 100(5280)(12) in. Since y = 10x , x = log y = 6.80 in or 0.57 ft, approxi-
mately.

1
19. Set y = logb x and solve y  = 1: y  = = 1 y
x ln b
1
so x = . The curves intersect when (x, x) lies
ln b 2
on the graph of y = logb x, so x = logb x. From
x
ln x
Formula (9), Section 4.2, logb x = from which 2
ln b
ln x = 1, x = e, ln b = 1/e, b = e1/e
≈ 1.4447.

√ y
20. (a) Find the point of intersection: f (x) = x + k = ln x. The
1 1 √ 2
slopes are equal, so m1 = = m2 = √ , x = 2, x = 4. x
√ x 2 x
2
Then ln 4 = 4 + k, k = ln 4 − 2.

k 1 √
(b) Since the slopes are equal m1 = √ = m2 = , so k x = 2. y
√ 2 x x
2
At the point of intersection k x = ln x, 2 = ln x, x = e2 ,
x
k = 2/e.
0 5
148 Chapter 4

dy dx dy dy dx dx
21. Solve =3 given y = x ln x. Then = = (1 + ln x) , so 1 + ln x = 3, ln x = 2,
dt dt dt dx dt dt
x = e2 .

22. Let P (x0 , y0 ) be a point on y = e3x then y0 = e3x0 . dy/dx = 3e3x so mtan = 3e3x0 at P and an
equation of the tangent line at P is y − y0 = 3e3x0 (x − x0 ), y − e3x0 = 3e3x0 (x − x0 ). If the line
passes through the origin then (0, 0) must satisfy the equation so −e3x0 = −3x0 e3x0 which gives
x0 = 1/3 and thus y0 = e. The point is (1/3, e).

 
dk q(T − T0 )  q  qk0 q(T − T0 )
23. = k0 exp − − 2 = − 2 exp −
dT 2T0 T 2T 2T 2T0 T

dβ 10
24. β = 10 log I − 10 log I0 , =
dI I ln 10

dβ 1 dβ 1
(a) = db/W/m2 (b) = db/W/m2
dI I=10I0 I0 ln 10 dI I=100I0 10I0 ln 10

dβ 1
(c) = db/W/m2
dI I=100I0 100I0 ln 10

25. (a) 100

0 8
20

(b) as t tends to +∞, the population tends to 19

95 95 95
lim P (t) = lim = = = 19
t→+∞ t→+∞ 5 − 4e−t/4 5 − 4 lim e −t/4 5
t→+∞
0
0 8
(c) the rate of population growth tends to zero

-80

26. (a) 12

0 9
0

60 60 60
(b) P tends to 12 as t gets large; lim P (t) = lim −t
= −t = = 12
t→+∞ t→+∞ 5 + 7e 5 + 7 lim e 5
t→+∞
Chapter 4 Supplementary Exercises 149

(c) the rate of population growth tends to zero

3.2

0 9
0

dy 1 1 dy dy
27. (b) y (c) = − so < 0 at x = 1 and > 0 at x = e
dx 2 x dx dx
6

2
x
1 2 3 4

(d) The slope is a continuous function which goes from a negative value to a positive value;
therefore it must take the value zero in between, by the Intermediate Value Theorem.
dy
(e) = 0 when x = 2
dx

28. In the case +∞ − (−∞) the limit is +∞; in the case −∞ − (+∞) the limit is −∞, because
large positive (negative) quantities are added to large positive (negative) quantities. The cases
+∞ − (+∞) and −∞ − (−∞) are indeterminate; large numbers of opposite sign are subtracted,
and more information about the sizes is needed.

29. (a) when the limit takes the form 0/0 or ∞/∞
(b) Not necessarily; only if lim f (x) = 0. Consider g(x) = x; lim g(x) = 0. For f (x) choose
x→a x→0
cos x x2 |x|1/2
cos x, x2 , and |x|1/2 . Then: lim does not exist, lim = 0, and lim = +∞.
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x2

ex ex ex
30. (a) lim (ex − x2 ) = lim x2 (ex /x2 − 1), but lim= lim = lim = +∞
x→+∞ x→+∞ x→+∞ x2 x→+∞ 2x x→+∞ 2

so lim (ex /x2 − 1) = +∞ and thus lim x2 (ex /x2 − 1) = +∞

x→+∞ x→+∞
 
ln x 1/x 1 ln x ln x 1
(b) lim 4 = lim = ; lim = lim =
x→1 x − 1 x→1 4x3 4 x→1 x4 − 1 x→1 x4 − 1 2

(c) lim ax ln a = ln a
x→0