87
CHAPTER
W
ater vapour is one of the most
important atmospheric gases. It is
odourless and invisible. Human
body can sense it only in conjunction with air
temperature — so called sensible temperature.
The atmosphere gathers moisture by process
of evaporation and looses it through
condensation and precipitation. Precipitation
and cloud potential of any given airmass,
contains within it latent heat to be released on
condensation. It is an effective absorber of
radiated heat.
Water has a number of unique properties
like high specific heat and the highest surface
tension. The specific heat is the amount of
energy needed to change the temperature of a
substance. Water needs large amount of heat to
change it into water vapour. The heat stored in
the water vapour is called latent heat. Due to
high surface tension, the water molecules are
able to attract adjoining water molecules to form
droplets, dew, fog and mist.
SOURCE AND DISTRIBUTION
OF WATER VAPOUR
Water exists in three forms or states: solid
(ice), liquid (water) and gas (water vapour).
All the three states interchange. Ice on melting
becomes liquid or sometimes even to water
vapour through the process of sublimation.
The surface of the ocean is the greatest source
of atmospheric moisture. Lesser bodies of
water, vegetation and damp land surfaces also
contribute in significant amounts. Much of
the water vapour evaporated from the oceans
is carried by winds to the land where it is
precipitated and delivered back to the oceans
by glaciers and streams. The amount of water
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE
vapour in the atmosphere is highly variable
from place to place and from time to time,
ranging almost upto 5 per cent in any one
place. It decreases rapidly with altitude.
EVAPORATION
Evaporation is the process whereby liquid
water or ice changes into water vapour. It
occurs whenever heat energy is transported to
a surface containing water and the temperature
rises. The molecules become more mobile and
overcome the forces binding them to water
surface and break away resulting in
evaporation.
The heat removed from the immediate
surrounding is trapped in water vapour as
latent heat. In this way evaporation decreases
the temperature of remaining liquid by an
amount proportional to latent heat of vapour.
The rate of evaporation is related to the
dif ference between saturation vapour
pressure at surface temperature and the
vapour pressure at the air above.
Potential Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration is the amount of moisture
transferred to the atmosphere by evaporation
of liquid and solid water plus transpiration
from living tissues principally from plants. The
term ‘potential evapotranspiration’ refers to
idealised conditions in which there would be
enough rainfall to provide sufficient moisture
for all possible evapotranspiration in an area.
In order to deter mine the potential
evapotranspiration for any place or area,
several factors like temperature, latitude,
vegetation, permeability and water retention
capacity of the soil are taken into
88
consideration. Places having surplus of
precipitation over evapotranspiration are
marked by surplus of underground water
storage.
The amount of water changing for m
through evaporation varies widely from place
to place. Since temperature is the major
control, tropical seas and forests are by far the
greatest contributors. The polar ice caps with
their permanent low temperature and tropical
deserts, despite their high temperatures,
display a consistent lack of substantial
precipitation and are largely without evapo-
ration. The amount of water vapour ranges
from almost zero above deserts of world and
above ice caps of Greenland and Antarctica to
2.5 per cent in humid equatorial areas.
HUMIDITY
Humidity refers to the condition of the air with
regard to water vapour. Absolute humidity
refers to the actual amount of water vapour
present per unit volume of air and is usually
expressed in grams per cubic metre. It is
usually, greater near the equator than the
polar region, and greater in summer than in
winter. Distance from the source of moisture
exercises important control over the amount
of water vapour in the air. Absolute humidity
is commonly greater over oceans than over the
interior of continents.
Relative humidity refers to the amount of
water vapour in the air compared with the
amount that would be present if the air were
saturated at that temperature. It is expressed
in percentage determined by dividing the
absolute humidity by water holding capacity
of air. If the air is saturated, its relative
humidity is 100 per cent; if only half saturated,
50 per cent. Since the capacity of air for
absorbing and retaining moisture varies with
temperature, the relative humidity of air mass
can be altered by merely lowering its
temperature, without changing the actual
amount of moisture present in it. The cooling
continues to decrease the moisture holding
ability of the air and the air is eventually filled
to capacity. This is saturation; the air is
holding all the water vapour that it is capable
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
of holding, and the relative humidity is 100 per
cent (Fig. 12.1). This is also dew point because
any further cooling will result in condensation.
The dew point is where condensation begins
as cooling continues. If this point is above
freezing point, condensation will be in the form
of rain; if below freezing, it will be in the form
of snow. Consequently, cooling will result in
continued condensation.
Condensation
Condensation is the process of water vapour
changing to liquid state. If the air is cooled
below its dew point, some of the air’s water
vapour becomes liquid. Thus, any amount of
cooling of the saturated air starts the process
of condensation. Whenever, the dew point
temperature falls below the freezing point,
water vapour may convert directly into ice by
the process of “crystallisation”. Condensation
may start with the addition of any further
water vapour to the saturated air, or with the
reduction of its temperature.
Condensation depends upon two factors:
relative humidity of air and degree of cooling.
Therefore, in arid lands a larger degree of
cooling is necessary before the dew point is
reached, while in humid climates a lesser
degree of cooling will start the process of
condensation. In the process of evaporation,
heat is transformed into work energy, which
results in cooling the evaporating surface.
Condensation, on the other hand, is the reverse
process. Here, an equal amount of energy is
transformed into heat.
There can be no condensation unless there
is a surface on which the liquid can condense;
thus, the significance of dust in the
atmosphere. The abundant supply of
microscopic particles of sea salt, sulphur
dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, volcanic dust and
fine dust particles are capable of attracting or
absorbing water.
Dew and Frost
On cool nights in early winters, when radiation
from the ground is relatively rapid, the air in
contact with the ground may be chilled to the
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE 89

Fig.12.1 : Relationship Between Moisture Holding Capacity and Relative Humidity

90
dew point and moisture condenses on the
leaves and grass in the form of dews. If the dew
point is at or below the freezing point, the
condensation takes the form of tiny ice crystals,
or frost. Dew and frost form on grass quite
readily, because grass is a good radiator and
therefore, cools quickly. Furthermore, grass
and other plants give off moisture which is not
readily evaporated at night when the air cools.
The formation of dew or frost is impeded by (i)
dry air, which must be sufficiently cooled to
reach the dew point; (ii) wind mixes the air and
prevents its lower portion from reaching the
dew point; and (iii) clouds, which slow down
terrestrial radiation. Low ground moisture and
also cold air from the uplands flow down the
slope into valleys, causing the formation of dew
and frost on low flat grounds rather than on
slopes.
Clouds and Fog
Clouds are formed by the condensation of
water vapour around nuclei of minute dust
particles in the air. In most cases, clouds
consist of tiny droplets of water, but they may
also consist of ice particles if the temperature
is below freezing point. Most clouds are formed
by the rising war m and moist air. The
ascending air expands and cools until the dew
Fig.12.2 : Cloud Types and Their Location
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
point is reached and some of the moisture
condenses into clouds. Other clouds result from
mixing between two air masses of different
temperatures (Fig. 12.2). Clouds at and near the
earth’s surface are known as fog.
The ten genera of clouds are combined into
three groups based mainly on the average
height of the cloud base. They are as follows:
(i) High clouds (5 to14 km);
(ii) Middle clouds (2 to 7 km);
(iii) Low clouds (below 2 km).
High Clouds
• Cirrus (Ci) : These are fibrous clouds with
a delicate, silky appearance. When
detached and arranged irregularly in the
sky, they are harbingers of fair weather. On
the other hand, when they are
systematically arranged, as in bands, or
connected with cirrostratus or altostratus,
they usually foretell wet weather.
• Cirrostratus (Cs) : A thin, whitish sheet of
cloud covering the whole sky and giving it
a milky appearance is called cirrostratus.
These clouds commonly produce a halo
around the sun and the moon. They are
usually signs of the approaching storm.
• Cirrocumulus (Cc) : These clouds appear as
small white flakes or small globular
ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE
masses, usually without shadows. They are
usually arranged in groups, lines or ripples
resulting from undulation of the cloud sheet.
Such an arrangement is called mackerel
sky.
Middle Clouds
• Altostratus (As) : A uniform sheet of cloud,
gray or bluish in color, and usually having
a fibrous structure belong to this group. It
often merges gradually with cirrostratus.
The sun and the moon shine wanely
through these clouds. Sometimes it also
presents a corona. Altostratus commonly
is followed by widespread and relatively
continuous precipitation.
• Altocumulus (Ac) : These are flattened
globular masses of clouds , arranged in
lines or waves. They dif fer from
cirrocumulus as they have larger globules,
often with shadows.
Low Clouds
• Stratocumulus (Sc) : Large globular masses
or rolls of soft gray clouds with brighter
interstices belong to this group. The
masses are commonly arranged in a
regular pattern.
• Stratus (St) – These are low uniform layers
of clouds resembling fog , but not resting
on the ground. Thin stratus clouds
produce a corona.
• Nimbostratus (Ns) : They are dense,
shapeless, and often ragged layers of low
clouds, which commonly cause conti-
nuous rainfall.
• Cumulus (Cu) : These are thick, dense
clouds with vertical development. The
upper sur face is dome shaped with a
cauliflower structure, while the base is
nearly horizontal. Most cumulus clouds
are of fair weather type, although towering
cumulus may develop into cumulonimbus
or thunderheads.
• Cumulonimbus (Cs) : Heavy masses of
cloud with great vertical development
whose summits rise like mountains or
towers is called cumulonimbus. An anvil
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shaped top is its characteristic. It is often
accompanied by heavy showers, squalls,
thunderstorms, and sometimes hail.
Clouds of Large Vertical Extent
The high clouds are composed entirely of ice
crystals, Clouds for med by vertical
development have a water droplet composition
in their lower part, but those with a very large
vertical extent have tops that are composed
entirely of ice crystals.
Precipitation
The word precipitation is derived from a latin
word ‘precipitatio’ meaning a headlong falling
down. In the meterological language it means
condensed or frozen water vapour that falls on
the ground. It not only includes rain or snow
but also hail, sleet and fog. These forms depend
upon the following conditions:
• The temperature at which condensation
takes place.
• The condition encountered as the particles
pass through the air.
• The type of clouds and their height from the
ground.
• The process generating phenomena.
Forms of Precipitation
Precipitation results from the continued
condensation and growth of the moisture
particles until they become too large to remain
suspended in the air. If condensation takes
place at a temperature above 00 C, the resulting
precipitation is in the form of rain. If rain passes
through a layer of colder air on the way down
it may freeze and fall as sleet. In a strong
turbulent currents of thunderstorms, water
drops may be carried upward into freezing
temperatures and eventually fall as hail. In fact,
violent air currents may keep hailstones
shuttling up and down until they grow to
enormous sizes. Snow is not frozen rain, but
forms when moisture crystallises directly from
vapour at a temperature below freezing. If
snowflakes grow without interference they form
beautiful symmetrical, six-sided crystals. Ice
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storms result when rain, already near the freezing
point, falls on the colder ground and vegetation
and freezes upon contact.
Types of Rainfall
It is now apparent that rainfall is caused by the
cooling of relatively warm, moist air. This could
happen in three ways (Fig. 12.3):
(i) Convectional rainfall occurs when moist
air over the heated ground becomes warmer
than the surrounding air and is forced to rise,
expand, cool, and yield some of its moisture
(Fig.12.3). Convectional rain is common in low
latitudes and on summer days in middle
latitudes, and usually comes in the form of short
heavy showers just after the hottest part of the
day. Thunder and lightning generally,
accompany the showers and, if the convection
Fig.12.3 : Types of Rainfall — Orographic, Frontal and Convection
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
currents are especially strong and turbulent,
hail is formed.
(ii) Orographic rainfall occurs when moist
wind is forced to rise over a mountain or other
elevation in its path. Thus, the windward sides
of many mountain ranges receive heavy
rainfall, whereas the leeward sides, along which
the air moves down receives less rainfall
(Fig.12.4). Such situation occurs widely, along
the western coasts of India, North America and
South America. The moist air from the Arabian
Sea is forced by Sahyadri hills of the Western
Ghats to rise up resulting in expansion, cooling
and rainfall. The amount of precipitation
depends on slope, height of hill, temperature
and moisture content of the air mass. On the
other side of the mountain, the descending
wind is devoid of moisture and hence, does not
give rain. Hence, this region is dry and is known
 ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE

Fig.12.4 : Orographic Rainfall

Ascending and descending of winds may be noted.
93
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FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Fig.12.5 : Distribution of Precipitation in the World

ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE
as rain shadow. The eastern slopes of Sahyadri
falls in rain shadow.
(iii) Cyclonic rainfall occurs in low-pressure
areas, where cyclonic winds coming from
various directions converge and force the large
volumes of light air to rise and cause rain.
Distribution of Precipitation
Different places on the earth’s surface receive
different amounts of precipitation in a year, and
in different seasons. Nevertheless, the main
features can be explained with the help of global
pressure and wind systems, distribution of land
and water, and the nature of the relief features.
High latitudes generally, have high pressure
associated with subsiding and diverging winds,
and hence, inherit dry conditions. On the other
hand, the equatorial belt with low pressure and
its converging winds, and ascending air receives
ample precipitation. Besides wind pressure
systems, the inherent nature of the air involved,
is also an important factor in determining the
potential for precipitation. Since, cold air has low
capacity to hold moisture than the warm air, a
general decrease in precipitation is revealed with
the increasing distance of latitude from the
equator towards the poles.
In addition to the latitudinal variation in
precipitation, the distribution of land and water
complicates the global precipitation pattern.
Large land masses in the middle latitudes
generally, experience a decrease in precipitation
towards their interiors. Further, the mountain
barriers alter the ideal precipitation pattern that
one would expect from the global wind systems.
Windward mountain slopes receive abundant
precipitation, while leeward slopes and adjacent
low lands fall in rain shadow.
On the basis of the total amount of annual
precipitation, major precipitation regimes of
the world are as follows:
The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of
the mountains along the western coasts in the cool
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temperate zone and the coastal areas of the
monsoon lands, receive heavy precipitation of
over 200 centimetres per annum.
Areas adjacent to the high precipitation
regime receive moderate rainfall varying from
100 to 200 centimetres per annum. The coastal
areas in the warm temperate zone also receive
moderate amount of rainfall.
The central parts of the tropical land and the
eastern and interior parts of the temperate lands
receive inadequate precipitation varying
between 50 to 100 centimetres per annum
(Fig. 12.5).
Areas lying in the rain shadows, the interior
of the continents and high latitudes receive low
precipitation of less than 50 centimetres per
annum. The western margins of the continents
in the tropical lands, and the arid deserts come
under this category.
Seasonal distribution of rainfall provides an
important aspect to judge the effectiveness of
precipitation. In some regions, precipitation is
distributed evenly throughout the year such as
in the equatorial belt and the western parts of
cool temperate regions. On contrary, some of the
regions such as monsoon lands and the
Mediterranean regions experience seasonal
rainfall. For example, in our country, too much
of rain in one season is often followed by long dry
season. This leads to the wastage of rain-water
in one season and an appalling scarcity in the
other.
Even if the precipitation is scanty but
concentrates in a short growing season, as in
high latitudes, its maximum utilisation is
possible.
Precipitation even in the form of fog, mist or
dew in certain parts has an appreciable effect on
vegetation. The dense fog nourishes vegetation
in the Kalahari Desert, and dew and mist in
winter nourishes wheat crops in parts of Central
India.
96 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

EXERCISES

Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) What is sublimation?
(ii) What is the greatest source of atmospheric moisture?
(iii) Why does the amount of water vapour decrease rapidly with altitude?
(iv) What is meant by humidity?
(v) What is condensation and how does it take place?
(vi) What is the common basis of classifying the clouds into three main groups?
(vii) What is precipitation? What conditions determine the form of precipitation?
2. Distinguish between:
(i) Specific heat and latent heat;
(ii) Absolute humidity and relative humidity;
(iii) Evaporation and Evapotranspiration;
(iv) Dew and frost;
(v) Cloud and fog;
(vi) Convectional and cyclonic rainfall.
3. Write short notes on:
(i) Condensation;
(ii) Orographic rainfall;
(iii) High clouds;
(iv) Rain shadow.
4. Describe the factors controlling the rate of evaporation and evapotranspiration.
5. How are clouds formed? Describe the three types of clouds based on their average height.
6. Discuss the salient features of the world distribution of precipitation and controlling factors.