11Precipitation and Related Phenomena

Introduction vapour varies with place and region.

The phenomenon of falling off any liquid or
frozen water that is created in the atmosphere
is called precipitation. Rain, sleet and snow are
different types of precipitation. Evaporation,
condensation, and precipitation are three
components of the global water cycle.

Water Vapour
⚫ The formation of water vapour starts
when the water becomes too hot and gets
converted into water vapour, and rises
up in the upper parts of the atmosphere.
This process continuously goes on; hence
it is rightly said that water is continuously
cycling through the atmosphere.
⚫ The water cycle starts with the
condensation of water in the clouds.
The movement of clouds occurs under the
influence of wind, and eventually, in the
form of snow or rain, water comes back
to Earth. This is an important step in the
transmission of heat, and energy from the
Earth’s surface into the atmosphere.
⚫ It is a well-known fact that watervapour
acts as one of the most significant
greenhouse gases within the atmosphere.
The water vapours in the lower part of the
atmosphere absorb the heat, which is
radiated from the Earth’s surface, and in
turn, they radiate heat in all directions.
Though, some of the heat comes back to
the surface hence, water vapour acts as a
secondary source of heat at the Earth’s
surface.

Importance of Water Vapour

⚫ Water vapour directly affects the energy
balance of the Earth. It plays a significant
role in radiative balance, and the
hydrological cycle. It transports latent heat
and absorbs solar radiation when it
condenses into clouds. In the lower
atmosphere, the concentration of water

Precipitation and Related Phenomena 1

⚫ It is one of the most variable gas
substances, constituting between 2% to
4% of the total volume in a cold and
dry humid climate, respectively. More
than 90% of the water vapour
concentration is found within 6Km of
the lower part of the atmosphere.
⚫ Water vapour absorbs long-wave
terrestrial radiation from the Earth’s
radiation, which is emitted during the
night.
⚫ Upon condensation, water vapour
releases latent heat of evaporation,
hence it is a source of precipitation and
clouds.

Water Cycle
⚫ A water cycle is a path followed by
the water in all forms, and these
forms move from one state to another
state around the Earth. Let’s
understand the mechanism as liquid
water is present in the ocean, rivers,
lakes, streams, even groundwater
sources and the snow cover found in
the glaciers and both poles.
⚫ When water gets evaporated and
released as gas in the atmosphere, the
sun’s heat makes glaciers melt and get
converted into a liquid state, the same
melted water flows into the oceans,
lakes, and through the soil, it reaches
underground. This water cycle is
continuous in nature, and this process
makes water a renewable resource.
⚫ Glaciers are the most important
source of freshwater, and they are the
biggest storage for the same. But with
increasing the pressure of global
warming, these glaciers are melting
down and resulting in the discharge of
the same water in the oceans, which
consequently increases ocean water
level.
⚫ The water gets into the atmosphere in
two ways, first is by evaporation due to
the sun where the liquid water in water
bodies is evaporated and reaches the
atmosphere. The second is through
the process of

2 Precipitation and Related

 Fig. 11.1: The Water Cycle
“ĒranspiraĒion”, where water from the flora
enters the atmosphere.
Humidity
⚫ The dampness of the atmosphere is
measured in terms of humidity. The
humidity varies across places and times.
⚫ Absolute humidity is the actual amount of
water vapour available in the atmosphere.
It is measured in grams per cubic meter.
The relative humidity is more important
than absolute humidity as the former holds
more utility in the study of weather.
⚫ At a given temperature, the ratio
between the actual amount of water
vapour, and the total amount of water
vapour that air can hold is called relative
humidity. It is expressed in terms of
percentage.
⚫ When relative humidity reaches 100%, then
it is said that air is saturated, and the air
temperature is at the “dew poinĒ”. If
the water cools further, it turns into water
vapour and forms clouds, and this leads to
rainfall.
Precipitation and Related Phenomena
Forcalculatingrelativehumidity,a
hygrometer is used; it is made of wet and
dry bulb thermometers. They are placed
side by side on a Stevenson screen. At
night the upper limit capacity is low, so the
relative humidity will be higher.
⚫ The relative humidity is inversely
proportional to temperature. It is highest
at the equator, and decreases towards
the poles. It is minimum in subtropical
anticyclones.
⚫ The proportional variation in the
temperature has a direct bearing on the
capacity to retain moisture within the
air, and this decides the volume of water
vapour within a parcel of the air. The
relative humidity is always higher in the
oceans than over the continent.
Condensation
⚫ Through this mechanism, water vapour
turns into liquid, and it is completely
opposite to the evaporation mechanism
where liquid water turns into the vapour
3
 of water. The condensation occurs either Dew Point
when air gets cooled at the dew point, or ⚫ Dew point is the temperature that air
when the saturation level reaches the requires to be cooled to (at constant
state where it cannot hold any more pressure) in order to reach a relative
water. humidity (RH) of 100%.
⚫ Dew points suggest that air is now unable
Saturation to carry more water in gaseous form. If the
⚫ When more and more water droplets come air is cooled, even more, water vapour
together, they become saturated to form would have to come out of the atmosphere
clouds, or it can be said that clouds are in the liquid state, usually as fog or
saturated forms of water droplets. The precipitation.
density of water molecules increases when
the clouds get saturated and are unable Frost
to hold any more water. Hence, vapour
⚫ The water vapour or water in gaseous form
condenses to form rain.
that solidifies is called frost. Severe frosts
⚫ The case with the cold air is different
are formed in regions of intense fog, and
compared to the warm air as cold air is
they are formed over solid objects like
incapable of holding much water vapour.
windows, cars and plants.
This is the reason why the warm climate
⚫ When the temperature of the surface is
is more humid than the cold climatic
past the dew point, the formation of frost
regions. Instead of condensing into the
starts. The liquid freezes when it comes in
rain, the water vapours are held in the air.
contact with the surface.
Condensation of water vapour takes place
⚫ They are mostly formed in low-lying
easily in the cold climate; hence it is more
regions, and also in the valley when the
likely to have rain.
cool air descends from the mountains, and
accumulates in the valley.
Hygroscopic Nuclei
Water seeking nuclei are hygroscopic nuclei as Types of Frost
they help water droplets accumulate together,
The Frosts are of the Following Types
and become large enough to fall on the Earth.
⚫ Radiation frost: They are formed in the
The nuclei of microscopic dust, salt, and other
shape of tiny crystals, which can be seen
water absorption particles offer a good surface
on the ground, and uncovered objects.
for the water droplets or vapours to condense
Deposits of ice crystals on the objects
upon. There is an instant condensation of
exposed to air are hoarfrost, which can be
water vapour on a hygroscopic substance
seen in refrigerators and freezers.
when relative humidity gets more than 100
⚫ Advection frost: When the cold wind blows
percent. Dust particles, various other solid
over the poles, branches of trees and any
materials, which are floating in the
other surface, advection frosts are formed.
atmosphere and have the capacity to absorb
It is an accumulation of ice spikes.
water, are called hygroscopic nuclei.
⚫ Rime: This type of frost is formed in cold,
Latent Heat wet climates and windy weather. Rime
covers the exposed part of a ship that
Without a change in temperature, the amount
travels through cold places. Rime can also
of energy absorbed or released by a substance
be seen as solid ice
when the change of physical state appears
⚫ Haze: Haze is the mixture of smoke, and
is called latent heat. Usually, it is expressed
dust particles. In industrial regions, smoke
as the amount of heat (In units of joules or
and dust particles are profoundly present. It
calories) per mole or unit of mass of substance
can also be found due to uneven refraction
undergoing a state of change.

Precipitation and Related 21

 of light in the lower part of the anthropogenic emission is higher both
atmosphere. The lower visibility in regions
with lower humidity (typically less than
75%.) indicates haze. It is said that if
visibility is less than
1.4 miles, haze is present.
o Brown haze constitutes black carbon,
ash, sulphates, nitrates, mineral dust-
75% of the cloud is man-made.

Mist
⚫ Mist is defined as a cloud that is formed of
small water drops in the air. The suspension
of water vapour in the air causes mist to
occur. The water vapour in the air causes
small drops of water to hover about,
forming clouds at the ground level called
‘mist’.
⚫ Mist is significantly dense, and causes a
huge reduction in visibility to about 1000
meters. Mist is found in those areas
where the air is wet and relative humidity
is above 75%.

Fog
⚫ Fog is formed when water gets condensed
on dust particles and other smoke
particles of households and industries. It is
formed within the lower atmospheric part
like sort dense clouds. Visibility in fog is
reduced to less than 1000 meters.
⚫ In industrial areas, thick smoky fog is
formed, which is called smog, and this
causes very limited visibility. Hill fogs
appear on the hills and are very common
in the morning, and disappear after sunrise.

Types of Smog
Photochemical Smog
⚫ It is formed from the pollutants like
nitrogen
oxides and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), and they react in sunlight, forming
a brown haze above cities. Photochemical
smog mostly occurs during the summer
months because of the ample amount of
available sunlight.
⚫ While nitrogen oxides and VOCs are
generated biogenically (in nature),

22 Precipitation and Related

 pollutants. Natural emissions tend to regional concerns like changes in patterns
span over large areas, reducing their of rainfall along with the
effects, but man-made emissions
tend to be concentrated close to their
source, such as a city.

Asian Brown Cloud

These clouds are region-specific and
found as slums of air pollution that
consist of a significant amount of the tiny
particles of the shoot, sulphates, fly ash
and many other pollutants. Asian Brown
Cloud has now become the ABC’s. Brown
clouds have been seen all around the
world, including in Europe, the US, India
and China. The absorption and scattering
of solar radiation take place by fly ash,
soil dust particles, anthropogenic black
carbon, and nitrogen dioxide gas. This
causes the occurrence of brown colour in
the column of ABC’s.
The main hotspots of ABC’s are across the East
Asia, Southeast Asia, Indo-Gangetic Plain
in South Asia, Southern Africa, and the
Amazon Basin.
⚫ Causes of ABC’s: Forest fires,
factories, inefficient cooking fuels, and
motor vehicle use.
⚫ Effects:
o Significant decline of solar radiation
to the surface by as much as 15%.
o Altered regional monsoon paths
(less sea evaporation from sunlight
means less rain)
o Lesser rain in northwest India,
Pakistan, Afghanistan, and western
China by as much as 40% and more
rain and flooding in other areas.
o Decline in photosynthesis (drop in
agricultural productivity)
o Acid deposition and plant damage
o Respiratory ailments

Impacts
⚫ A study conducted in 2002 indicates
that in India, due to symptoms related
to brown clouds, around two million
people die annually. The second
assessment study of 2008 brought

Precipitation and Related 22

 monsoon. The drought in Northern China
and simultaneous flooding in southern
China are influenced by the clouds. Even
the weakening of the Indian monsoon is
associated with Asian Brown Clouds.
o Due to the cooling of air over East
Asia, the thermal equator, is displaced
towards the south. Hence, there is a
shift of monsoon towards the south,
which is responsible for heavy rain in
these areas.
o A cumulative warming impact of
greenhouse gases, and the Asian Brown
Cloud is responsible for increasing air
temperature, which can be witnessed in
regions. The increased concentration of
black carbon decreases the reflection
aggravates.
o The ABCs are significantly responsible
for the melting of the glaciers, which
is the main reason behind the water
scarcity and floods affecting millions
of people who are living downstream
of rivers or dams. The water scarcity
results in a decrease in crop production
and also increased ozone concentration
in the lower part of the atmosphere,
which is affecting crop yields, and this
impact can be seen crop-specific.
Clouds
Clouds are the accumulation of very small
drops of water floating in the sky. Due to
the increase in the concentration of water
vapour, condensation takes place within
the atmosphere when the air reaches the
dew point. For the metrological purpose, the
amount of cloud cover in the sky is expressed
in the eighths or oktas. On maps, the places
joining equal degrees of cloudiness are
joined by lines which are known as
“isonephs”.
Types of Clouds
⚫ High clouds extend from 6-20km: Mainly,
cirrus of feathery form at 20000-40000 m
above ground.
o Cirrus (Ci): This type of cloud appears
fibrous and wisps in the blue sky. It is
22
frequently called ‘mare’s tails’. This
type of cloud gives a glimpse of fair
weather and often gives a brilliant
Sunset.
o Cirrocumulus (Cc): These are white
globular masses of clouds forming
ripples in the mackerel sky.
o Cirrostratus (Cs): The Sun or Moon gives
a characteristic halo when they shine
through these clouds. This cloud looks
like a veil or white sheet.
⚫ Medium clouds: Mainly, alto or middle
height clouds, found at 7000–20000 m
o Altocumulus (Alt-Cu): They usually
indicate fair weather. They resemble
waves and are arranged in layers, and
appear woolly and bumpy.
o Altostratus (Alt-St): Owing to their
fibrous or striated structures, the Sun’s
rays shine faintly through them. These
are dense, grey in colour and have a
watery look.
⚫ Low clouds: These are mainly, stratus or
sheet clouds below 7000 feet.
o Stratocumulus (St-Cu): It also has
waves like Altocumulus, but more
pronounced. The bright and the shaded
part have stark differences. They are
rough, and bumpy in appearance.
o Stratus (St): They are found at low
elevations and have uniform grey
colour. Their thickness appears like a
low ceiling or a highland fog. Their
presence results in dull weather and
light drizzle, and low visibility of
aircraft.
o Nimbostratus (Ni-St): It brings rain,
snow and sleet, hence called “rain
cloud”. It is a dark and dull cloud.
⚫ Cloud With great vertical extent:
o Cumulus (Cu): Cumulus clouds are also
known as vertical clouds, and have a
rounded top and horizontal base. They
are commonly found in humid tropical
regions, and are associated with rising
convection currents. White globular
masses of the cloud may look grey
against the Sun, but it is a fair-weather
cloud.
o Cumulonimbus (Cu-Ni): These can be
Precipitation and Related
found at the height of 2000 feet
up to

Precipitation and Related 22

 Fig. 11.2: Types of Clouds
30,000 feet. They are black and white
in colour, usually appear like globular
masses, and can take a wide variety of
shapes. It appears in tropical afternoons
and are called “Thunder Cloud” as they
are responsible for “convenĒional rain”.
They are accompanied by lightning
and thunder. They are often called
“overgrown cumulus clouds”.
What is the Rainfall
When water is pouring from the sky in liquid
form, it is called rainfall. Millions of water
droplets come together and become clouds.
These clouds get saturated with water droplets
and fall on the Earth’s surface; this is known
as precipitation. When these millions of water
droplets collide with each other and grow
bigger and bigger. With this, they become
heavier and heavier, consequently, droplets
cannot float in the air; hence it falls on the
ground as precipitation. Rainfall also has other
forms of precipitation: snow, sleet and hails.
Types of Rainfall
Orographic or Relief Rain
Convectional Rainfall
⚫ Orographic
⚫ It occurs when during the daytime, there
is excessive heating, like in the tropics or
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the temperate summers. For conventional
rainfall to take place, the surface of the
Earth is heated due to conduction
consequently; water vapour rises with air.
Later, when the air descends, the vapour
gets condensed into cumulonimbus
clouds, having a great vertical extent.
o The convection reaches its optimum
in the afternoon, and this convectional
system is at its peak during this time.
The hot air has enough capacity to
hold moisture, and this air reaches the
saturation point, “ĒorrenĒial downpour”
occurs accompanied by thunder and
lightning.
o During the summer season, temperate
regions experience heavy rainfall, and
occasional thunderstorms. This rainfall
is not fully useful for agriculture
because the rain is so intense that it
does not sink, or the soil does not
absorb it properly, and almost all water
is drained out.
rainfall occurs when
moisture- laden onshore winds force to
ascend against the mountain barrier. This
Precipitation and Related
wind sheds most of its moisture on
this side of

Precipitation and Related 22

 Fig. 11.3: Convectional Rainfall

the mountains, hence the windward side

of the mountain, gets a huge amount of OROGRAPHIC EFFECT
WINDWARD SIDE LEEWARD SIDE

rainfall. In this rain type, the moisture-laden RAIN SHADOW

air is compelled to rise and get cool down

with the expansion of air once they reach Condensing Water Vapor

higher latitude, and consequently reduces

Dry,

atmospheric pressure. Further ascending Descending Air

results in cool and fully saturated air.

Condensation occurs after the formation of
clouds, and eventually results in rain. Water Vapor

o Since relief of the region is responsible WARM OCEAN

for this rain, it is also called relief rain.

For example, western ghats, and Assam
hills of India, west Malaysia etc.
o This air descending towards the leeward
side experiences an increase in pressure
and temperature, eventually becoming
warm. This results in a decrease in
moisture and humidity drops.
Therefore, the leeward side of these
mountains increases evaporation and
less rainfall; hence this region is called
the “rainfall
Fig. 11.4: Orographic
Rain
shadow region”. For example, the
eastern side of the western ghats is
called rain shadow areas.
Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall
It is accompanied by cyclonic activity, and
independent of any relief or any convectional
current. It occurs either in temperate regions

22 Precipitation and Related

(depressions) or tropical regions (cyclones).
On the convergence of two different air
masses having different temperatures, warm
air rises due to the light mass, but cold air
naturally remains on the ground due to its
dense, and heavy nature. The warm air cools
down by condensation, and a light shower
occurs, known as frontal or cyclonic rainfall.
The heavier and colder air mass pushes
warmer air further upward, and the sky is clear
again.
an irregular frozen lump or separately.
Hailstones are ¼ inch (5 mm) or bigger
in diameter. Severe thunderstorms are
indicated when hailstones are of a size of
more than 1 inch.
⚫ Small hail (Snow Pellets): Small hails
are the precipitation of the white, and

Types of Precipitation
Drizzle
It is light rain with small drops which have
uniform precipitation. Along with air current,
it flows in the air. Fog differs from drizzles in
the fact that fog falls on the ground, whereas
drizzles float in the air. Fog and drizzle occur
together quite frequently. Fig. 11.6: Sleet (Ice Pellets)

Ice Pellets (Sleet)

⚫ They are transparent or translucent
pellets of ice that precipitate in the form
of a mixture of rain and snow. They are
composed of frozen raindrops or refrozen
snowflakes. They can be irregular hard
grain or spherical in shape.

Hail
⚫ It is precipitation that has solid ice, which
is formed inside a thunderstorm. Ice
precipitates in the form of fragmented
ice or small balls. They either fall like Fig. 11.7: Hail

Fig. 11.5: Drizzle Fig. 11.8: Small Hails

Precipitation and Related 22

 opaque grains of ice that are spherical,
or sometimes conical and have diameters
less than ¼ inch (5 mm).
Snow
⚫ Precipitation of snow crystals that are
majorly branched, and in the shape of six-
pointed stars.
⚫ Snow grains: It is a frozen drizzle and
precipitation of small, white, and opaque
ice grains.
⚫ Ice crystals: They are also called ‘diamond
dusĒ’, and are found in very cold regions.
They are in the shape of needles, columns
or plates. When they are illuminated with
light, they give a ‘lighĒ pillar’ optical effect.
Rain
⚫ Raindrops larger than drizzle (0.02 inch
/ received at the western coastal margins
0.5 mm or more) are most common and
are considered rain. If small drops are
Fig. 11.9: Snow
Fig. 11.10: Snow Grains
22
widely separated, unlike drizzles, they are
considered as raindrops.
World Distribution of Rainfall
⚫ As we move from the equator towards
the poles, a decrease in the amount of
rainfall is observed.
⚫ As compared to the interior part of the
continents, the coastal regions receive
more rainfall.
⚫ Due to ample sources of moisture Oceans
get more rain, when compared with the
land.
⚫ In between 350 to 400, NS of the equator,
the eastern coastal margins of continents
receive more rain, and it decreases as we
move towards the western side.
⚫ Due to the effect of westerlies, between
450-650 NS of the equator, the rainfall is first
of continents. A decreasing trend is
observed when we move towards the
east.
Fig. 11.11: Ice Crystals
Fig. 11.12: Rain
Precipitation and Related
⚫ The occurrence of rain is more on coastal
plains in regions, where the mountains
run parallel to the coast. It decreases on
moving towards the leeward side.
⚫ So, it is rightly said that precipitation
and other related phenomena are very
significant from the weather, climate, and
human life’s point of view. They play a key
Precipitation and Related
role in determining economic, and social
life in any region. For example, in high
rainfall areas, tropical fruits and vegetables
are taken as primary economic activities.
Anthropogenic pressure on all these
phenomena has increased nowadays, which
brings destruction to agriculture and other
economic activities.
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