Biomes
A biome is a large, distinctive complex of plant
communities created and maintained by climate.
A study published in 1999 concluded that there
are 150 different "ecoregions" in North America
alone. But I shall cast my lot with the "lumpers"
rather than the "splitters" and lump these into 8
biomes:
• tundra
• taiga
• temperate deciduous forest
• scrub forest (called chaparral in California)
• grassland
• desert
• tropical rain forest
• temperate rain forest
The figure shows the distribution of these 8
biomes around the world.
A number of climatic factors interact in the
creation and maintenance of a biome. Where
precipitation is moderately abundant (40 inches
or more per year), and distributed fairly evenly
throughout the year, the major determinant is
temperature. It is not simply a matter of
average temperature, but includes such limiting
factors as:
• whether it ever freezes;
• length of the growing season
If there is ample rainfall, we find 4 characteristic
biomes as we proceed from the tropics (high
temperatures) to the extreme latitudes (low
temperatures). In order, they are:
• tropical rain forest or jungle
• temperate deciduous forest
• taiga
• tundra
Tropical Rain Forest
In the Western Hemisphere, the tropical rain
forest reaches its fullest development in the
jungles of Central and South America.
• The trees are very tall and of a great
variety of species.
• One rarely finds two trees of the same
species growing close to one another.
• The vegetation is so dense that little light
reaches the forest floor.
• Most of the plants are evergreen, not
deciduous.
• The branches of the trees are festooned
with vines and epiphytes
Epiphytes are plants that live perched on
sturdier plants. They do not take
nourishment from their host as parasitic
plants do. Because their roots do not reach
the ground, they depend on the air to bring
them moisture and inorganic nutrients.
Many orchids and many bromeliads
(members of the pineapple family like
"Spanish moss") are epiphytes.
The lushness of the tropical rain forest suggests a
high net productivity, but this is illusory. Many of
the frequent attempts to use the tropical rain
forest for conventional crops have been
disappointing. Two problems:
• The high rainfall leaches soil minerals
below the reach of plant roots.
• The warmth and moisture cause rapid
decay so little humus is added to the soil.
The tropical rain forest exceeds all the other
biomes in the diversity of its animals as well as
plants. Most of the animals — mammals and
reptiles, as well as birds and insects — live in the
trees.
The closest thing to a tropical rain forest in the
continental United States are the little wooded
"islands" found scattered through the Everglades
in the southern tip of Florida. Their existence
depends on the fact that it never freezes, and
they often escape the fires that periodically
sweep the Everglades.
Temperate Deciduous Forest
This biome occupies the eastern half of the
United States and a large portion of Europe. It is
characterized by:
• hardwood trees (e.g., beech, maple, oak,
hickory) which
• are deciduous; that is, shed their leaves in
the autumn.
• The number of different species is far
more limited than in the jungle.
• Large stands dominated by a single
species are common.
• Deer, raccoons, and salamanders are
characteristic inhabitants.
• During the growing season, this biome can
be quite productive in both natural and
agricultural ecosystems.
Taiga
The taiga is named after the biome in Russia.
• It is a land dominated by conifers,
especially spruces and firs.
• It is dotted with lakes, bogs, and marshes.
• It is populated by an even more limited
variety of plants and animals than is the
temperate deciduous forest.
• In North America, the moose is such a
typical member that it has led to the
name: "spruce-moose" biome.
• Before the long, snowy winter sets in,
many of the mammals hibernate, and
many of the birds migrate south.
• Although the long days of summer permit
plants to grow luxuriantly, net productivity
is low.
Tundra
At extreme latitudes, the trees of the taiga
become stunted by the harshness of the subarctic
climate. Finally, they disappear leaving a land of
bogs and lakes.
• The climate is so cold in winter that even
the long days of summer are unable to
thaw the permafrost beneath the surface
layers of soil.
• Sphagnum moss, a wide variety of lichens,
and some grasses and fast-growing
annuals dominate the landscape during
the short growing season.
• Caribou feed on this growth as do vast
numbers of insects.
• Swarms of migrating birds, especially
waterfowl, invade the tundra in the
summer to raise their young, feeding
them on a large variety of aquatic
invertebrates and vertebrates.
• As the brief arctic summer draws to a
close, the birds fly south, and
• all but a few of the permanent residents,
in one way or another, prepare themselves
to spend the winter in a dormant state.
Biomes established by altitude
Temperature is the major influence on the biomes
discussed above. Because temperatures decline
with altitude as well as latitude, similar biomes
exist on mountains even when they are at low
latitudes. As a rule of thumb, a climb of 1000 feet
is equivalent in changed flora and fauna to a trip
northward of some 600 miles.
The photo is of alpine tundra at 12,000 feet in the
Rocky Mountains.
Biomes established by rainfall
The other major biomes are controlled not so
much by temperature but by the amount and
seasonal distribution of rainfall.
The prevailing winds in the western half of North
America blow in from the Pacific laden with
moisture. Each time this air rises up from the
western slopes of, successively, the Coast
Ranges, the Sierras and Cascades, and finally the
Rockies, it expands and cools. Its moisture
condenses to rain or snow, which drenches the
mountain slopes beneath. When the air reaches
the eastern slopes, it is relatively dry, and much
less precipitation falls. How much falls and when
determine whether the biome will be
• temperate rain forest
• grassland
• desert or
• chaparral
Temperate Rain Forest
The temperate rain forest combines high annual
rainfall with a temperate climate. The Olympic
Peninsular in North America is a good example.
An annual rainfall of as much as 150 inches
produces a lush forest of conifers.
Grasslands
Grasslands are also known as prairie or plains.
The annual precipitation in the grasslands
averages 20 in./year. A large proportion of this
falls as rain early in the growing season. This
promotes a vigorous growth of perennial grasses
and herbs, but — except along river valleys — is
barely adequate for the growth of forests.
The photo shows grassland in the Badlands
National Monument in South Dakota.
Fire is probably the factor that tips the balance
from forest to grasslands. Fires — set by lightning
and by humans — regularly swept the plains in
earlier times. Thanks to their underground stems
and buds, perennial grasses and herbs are not
harmed by fires that destroy most shrubs and
trees.
The abundance of grass for food, coupled with
the lack of shelter from predators, produces
similar animal populations in grasslands
throughout the world. The dominant vertebrates
are swiftly-moving, herbivorous ungulates. In
North America, bison and antelope were
conspicuous members of the grassland fauna
before the coming of white settlers.
Now the level grasslands supply corn, wheat, and
other grains, and the hillier areas support
domesticated ungulates: cattle and sheep.
When cultivated carefully, the grassland biome is
capable of high net productivity. A major reason:
rainfall in this biome never leaches soil minerals
below the reach of the roots of crop plants.
Desert
Annual rainfall in the desert is less than 10 in.
and, in some years, may be zero. Because of the
extreme dryness of the desert, its colonization is
limited to
• plants such as cacti, sagebrush, and
mesquite that have a number of
adaptations that conserve water over long
periods;
• fast-growing annuals whose seeds can
germinate, develop to maturity, flower,
and produce a new crop of seeds all within
a few weeks following a rare, soaking rain.
The photo shows the desert in the Anza-Borego
park in southern California.
Many of the animals in the desert (mammals,
lizards and snakes, insects, and even some birds)
are adapted for burrowing to escape the
scorching heat of the desert sun. Many of them
limit their forays for food to the night.
The net productivity of the desert is low. High
productivity can sometimes be achieved with
irrigation, but these gains are often only
temporary. The high rates of evaporation cause
minerals to accumulate near the surface and
soon their concentration may reach levels toxic to
plants.
Chaparral
The annual rainfall in the chaparral biome may
reach 20–30 in., but in contrast to the grasslands,
almost all of this falls in winter. Summers are very
dry and all the plants — trees, shrubs, and
grasses — are more or less dormant then.
The chaparral is found in California. (The photo
shows the chaparral-clad foothills of the Sierra
Nevada in California.) Similar biomes (with other
names, such as scrub forest, are found around
much of the Mediterranean Sea and along the
southern coast of Australia.
The trees in the chaparral are mostly oaks, both
deciduous and evergreen. Scrub oaks and shrubs
like manzanita and the California lilac (not a
relative of the eastern lilac) form dense,
evergreen thickets. All of these plants are
adapted to drought by such mechanisms as
waxy, waterproof coatings on their leaves.
The chaparral has many plants brought to it from
similar biomes elsewhere. Vineyards, olives, and
figs flourish just as they do in their native
Mediterranean biome. So, too, do eucalyptus
trees transplanted from the equivalent biome in
Australia.
Marine Biome
LOCATION: The marine biome is the biggest
biome in the world! It covers about 70% of the
earth. It includes five main oceans: the Pacific,
Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Southern; as well as
many smaller Gulfs and Bays. Marine regions are
usually very salty! There is about one cup of salt
per gallon of water in the ocean. The ocean is
divided up into three vertical zones. The top layer
is called the euphotic zone, and it is there area of
the ocean where light can penetrate. The next
layer is the disphotic zone. This area is too deep
for lots of light to reach. Instead, the light here
looks like our twilight on land. The deepest part of
the ocean is called the aphotic zone, or deep sea.
The water here is awfully cold, completely dark,
and low in nutritional content. The deep sea
comprises 80% of all the habitats on earth, which
makes it the largest habitat on the planet. The
deepest point in the ocean, the Mariana Trench is
deeper than Mt. Everest is tall! The Mariana
Trench is about 36,200 feet deep.
WEATHER: Climate does not have much affect on
the marine biome, but the marine biome largely
affects our terrestrial climate! It provides rain for
crops through evaporation, wind to help circulate
air, and affects coastal temperatures. The ocean
is a large influence on whether the weather may
be sunny or cloudy, especially here in Santa
Barbara because the ocean is right out our back
door!
The constant motion of the ocean results in
currents and waves that may either be warm or
cold depending on the weather and temperature
of that area. Temperatures in the ocean range
from just around freezing at the pole and in the
deep waters, to tropical clear waters that are as
warm as a bathtub. The average temperature of
all oceans is about 39°F. Heat from the sun
warms only the surface of the water. Deep down,
oceans everywhere are cold and dark.
PLANTS: Over 1 million species of plants and
animals have been discovered in the oceans, and
scientists say there may be as many as 9 million
species we haven't found yet. One reason the
ocean is very important is because of all the
algae. If it weren't for marine algae we would not
be able to breathe!
Through photosynthesis, marine plants and algae
provide much of the worlds oxygen supply and
take in huge amounts of carbon dioxide. This
absorption of carbon dioxide may be a useful tool
in reducing the severity of climate change. One
type of marine algae is kelp. Kelp is important
because it provides shelter and food for a lot of
sea creatures. Kelp is also used by humans for
many products, including toothpaste and ice
cream. Kelp also serves as a buffer by absorbing
energy from waves before the waves hit the
shoreline, protecting many of the sandy beaches
along the California coast. Another important
marine plant is phytoplankton. These are tiny
plants that serve as food to many of the ocean
creatures from the smallest of fish to large
whales. Some scientists estimate that
phytoplankton provide the earth with almost half
of its oxygen! Marine plants live in the euphotic
zone of the ocean because they need energy
from the sun for photosynthesis.
ANIMALS: The Earth's oceans are home to most of
the planet’s biodiversity. Here we can find
mollusks, fish, whales, crustaceans, bacteria,
fungi, sea anemones and many other animals.
Animals have to deal with unique living situations
in all zones of the ocean. The ocean is a salty
place that is often cold. Many animals have
special adaptations to handle this difficult
environment. Most marine mammals have
blubber to survive in the cold water, but sea
otters are unique because they don’t have
blubber. Instead, they have fur more dense than
any other mammal, with up to one million hairs
per square inch. Most people have ten times less
than that on their heads! The ocean can also
support very large life forms. The blue whale is
the biggest animal on earth. It can be over 100
feet long. Blue whales are so large that a small
person could crawl through their main arteries,
and 20 people could stand on their tongue!
Animals in the deep sea also live in a tough
environment. One creature, the anglerfish, deals
with the darkness by attracting its prey with a
lure lit up by light producing bacteria. When the
prey is drawn to the lure, the anglerfish captures
it with its big mouth for a tasty meal.
PEOPLE AND THIS BIOME: Do you like seafood?
How about snorkeling or surfing? People
everywhere heavily use the ocean for food,
medicines, oil, other resources, and recreation.
Demand for resources from the ocean is
damaging ecosystems and depleting these
resources. Around the world, unsustainable
fishing practices, including the poisoning and
dynamiting of coral reefs, catching unwanted fish,
dragging nets on the sea floor, overfishing
popular species, and fishing in critical
reproductive areas are making the problem
worse. Pollution is also harming the marine
ecosystem. Pollutants, like fertilizers and
household products put down the drain make
their way through streams and rivers into
estuaries, and eventually to the ocean where
they badly disrupt the ecosystem and can cause
harm to sea life. Oil spills are also a large source
of pollution in the oceans. Many organizations
and people are currently trying to help protect
and clean our oceans.
There are many simple things that you can do to
help protect the ocean. Recycling, and making
sure that chemicals don’t go down your
household drains is an easy way to start. Also, cut
all of your 6 pack rings before you throw them
away. This will keep sea creatures from getting
caught in the plastic rings. Buy seafood that is
sustainably harvested to make sure that more
sea creatures don’t get hurt by fishing. Lastly,
learn more about the ocean, with knowledge you
will be able to help save our threatened oceans.
The freshwater and marine biomes are
probably the most important of all the biomes.
Their medium, water, is a major natural resource.
Water is the basis of life, it supports life, and
countless species live in it for all or part of their
lives. Freshwater biomes supply us with our
drinking water and water for crop irrigation. The
world's oceans have an even greater effect on
global climate than forests do. Water has a high
capacity for heat, and because the Earth is
mostly covered with water, the temperature of
the atmosphere is kept fairly constant and able to
support life. In addition to this climate-buffering
capacity, the oceans contain several billion
photosynthetic plankton which account for most
of the photosynthesis occuring on Earth. Without
these, there might not be enough oxygen to
support such a large world population and
complex animal life.
Freshwater biomes have suffered mainly from
pollution. Runoff containing fertilizer and other
wastes and industrial dumpings enter into rivers,
ponds, and lakes and tend to promote abnormally
rapid algae growth. When these algae die, dead
organic matter accumulates in the water. This
makes the water unusable and it kills many of the
organisms living in the habitat. Stricter laws have
helped to slow down this thoughtless pollution.
Overfishing and pollution have threatened to
make oceans into ecological disaster areas.
Industrial pollutants that are dumped upstream of
estuaries have rendered many marine habitats
unsuitable for life. Again, tighter regulations have
been used to prevent further destruction of the
ocean biomes.
By educating people about the consequences of
our actions, we can all gain a better
understanding of how to preserve the Earth's
natural biomes. The areas that have been
destroyed the most will never regain their original
forms, but conservation will help to keep them
from getting worse.
The tundra biome
Tundra is the coldest of all the biomes. Tundra
comes from the Finnish word tunturi, meaning
treeless plain. It is noted for its frost-molded
landscapes, extremely low temperatures, little
precipitation, poor nutrients, and short growing
seasons. Dead organic material functions as a
nutrient pool. The two major nutrients are
nitrogen and phosphorus. Nitrogen is created by
biological fixation, and phosphorus is created by
precipitation.
Characteristics of tundra include:
Extremely cold climate
Low biotic diversity
Simple vegetation structure
Limitation of drainage
Short season of growth and reproduction
Energy and nutrients in the form of dead organic
material
Large population oscillations
Tundra is separated into two types:
-Arctic tundra
-Alpine tundra
Arctic tundra
Arctic tundra is located in the northern
hemisphere, encircling the north pole and
extending south to the coniferous forests of the
taiga. The arctic is known for its cold, desert-like
conditions. The growing season ranges from 50 to
60 days. The average winter temperature is -34°
C (-30° F), but the average summer temperature
is 3-12° C (37-54° F) which enables this biome to
sustain life. Rainfall may vary in different regions
of the arctic. Yearly precipitation, including
melting snow, is 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 inches). Soil
is formed slowly. A layer of permanently frozen
subsoil called permafrost exists, consisting mostly
of gravel and finer material. When water
saturates the upper surface, bogs and ponds may
form, providing moisture for plants. There are no
deep root systems in the vegetation of the arctic
tundra, however, there are still a wide variety of
plants that are able to resist the cold climate.
There are about 1,700 kinds of plants in the arctic
and subarctic, and these include:
-low shrubs, sedges, reindeer mosses, liverworts,
and grasses
-400 varieties of flowers
-crustose and foliose lichen
All of the plants are adapted to sweeping
winds and disturbances of the soil. Plants are
short and group together to resist the cold
temperatures and are protected by the snow
during the winter. They can carry out
photosynthesis at low temperatures and low light
intensities. The growing seasons are short and
most plants reproduce by budding and division
rather than sexually by flowering. The fauna in
the arctic is also diverse:
Herbivorous mammals: lemmings, voles, caribou,
arctic hares and squirrels
Carnivorous mammals: arctic foxes, wolves, and
polar bears
Migratory birds: ravens, snow buntings, falcons,
loons, ravens, sandpipers, terns, snow birds, and
various species of gulls
Insects: mosquitoes, flies, moths, grasshoppers,
blackflies and arctic bumble bees
Fish: cod, flatfish, salmon, and trout
Animals are adapted to handle long, cold
winters and to breed and raise young quickly in
the summer. Animals such as mammals and birds
also have additional insulation from fat. Many
animals hibernate during the winter because food
is not abundant. Another alternative is to migrate
south in the winter, like birds do. Reptiles and
amphibians are few or absent because of the
extremely cold temperatures. Because of
constant immigration and emigration, the
population continually oscillates.
Alpine tundra
Alpine tundra is located on mountains
throughout the world at high altitude where trees
cannot grow. The growing season is
approximately 180 days. The nighttime
temperature is usually below freezing. Unlike the
arctic tundra, the soil in the alpine is well drained.
The plants are very similar to those of the arctic
ones and include:
-tussock grasses, dwarf trees, small-leafed
shrubs, and heaths
Animals living in the alpine tundra are also well
adapted:
Mammals: pikas, marmots, mountain goats,
sheep, elk
Birds: grouselike birds
Insects: springtails, beetles, grasshoppers,
butterflies
The desert biome
Deserts cover about one fifth of the
Earth's surface and occur where rainfall is less
than 50 cm/year. Although most deserts, such as
the Sahara of North Africa and the deserts of the
southwestern U.S., Mexico, and Australia, occur at
low latitudes, another kind of desert, cold
deserts, occur in the basin and range area of
Utah and Nevada and in parts of western Asia.
Most deserts have a considerable amount of
specialized vegetation, as well as specialized
vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Soils often
have abundant nutrients because they need only
water to become very productive and have little
or no organic matter. Disturbances are common
in the form of occasional fires or cold weather,
and sudden, infrequent, but intense rains that
cause flooding.
There are relatively few large mammals in
deserts because most are not capable of storing
sufficient water and withstanding the heat.
Deserts often provide little shelter from the sun
for large animals. The dominant animals of warm
deserts are nonmammalian vertebrates, such as
reptiles. Mammals are usually small, like the
kangaroo mice of North American deserts.
Desert biomes can be classified according to
several characteristics.
There are four major types of deserts:
Hot and dry
Semiarid
Coastal
Cold
Hot and dry desert
The four major North American deserts of this
type are the Chihuahuan, Sonoran, Mojave and
Great Basin. Others outside the U.S. include the
Southern Asian realm, Neotropical (South and
Central America), Ethiopian (Africa) and
Australian.
The seasons are generally warm throughout the
year and very hot in the summer. The winters
usually bring little rainfall.
Temperatures exhibit daily extremes because the
atmosphere contains little humidity to block the
Sun's rays. Desert surfaces receive a little more
than twice the solar radiation received by humid
regions and lose almost twice as much heat at
night. Many mean annual temperatures range
from 20-25° C. The extreme maximum ranges
from 43.5-49° C. Minimum temperatures
sometimes drop to -18° C.
Rainfall is usually very low and/or concentrated in
short bursts between long rainless periods.
Evaporation rates regularly exceed rainfall rates.
Sometimes rain starts falling and evaporates
before reaching the ground. Rainfall is lowest on
the Atacama Desert of Chile, where it averages
less than 1.5 cm. Some years are even rainless.
Inland Sahara also receives less than 1.5 cm a
year. Rainfall in American deserts is higher —
almost 28 cm a year.
Soils are course-textured, shallow, rocky or
gravely with good drainage and have no
subsurface water. They are coarse because there
is less chemical weathering. The finer dust and
sand particles are blown elsewhere, leaving
heavier pieces behind.
Canopy in most deserts is very rare. Plants are
mainly ground-hugging shrubs and short woody
trees. Leaves are "replete" (fully supported with
nutrients) with water-conserving characteristics.
They tend to be small, thick and covered with a
thick cuticle (outer layer). In the cacti, the leaves
are much-reduced (to spines) and photosynthetic
activity is restricted to the stems. Some plants
open their stomata (microscopic openings in the
epidermis of leaves that allow for gas exchange)
only at night when evaporation rates are lowest.
These plants include: yuccas, ocotillo, turpentine
bush, prickly pears, false mesquite, sotol,
ephedras, agaves and brittlebush.
The animals include small nocturnal (active at
night) carnivores. The dominant animals are
burrowers and kangaroo rats. There are also
insects, arachnids, reptiles and birds. The animals
stay inactive in protected hideaways during the
hot day and come out to forage at dusk, dawn or
at night, when the desert is cooler.
Semiarid desert
The major deserts of this type include the
sagebrush of Utah, Montana and Great Basin.
They also include the Nearctic realm (North
America, Newfoundland, Greenland, Russia,
Europe and northern Asia).
The summers are moderately long and dry, and
like hot deserts, the winters normally bring low
concentrations of rainfall. Summer temperatures
usually average between 21-27° C. It normally
does not go above 38° C and evening
temperatures are cool, at around 10° C. Cool
nights help both plants and animals by reducing
moisture loss from transpiration, sweating and
breathing. Furthermore, condensation of dew
caused by night cooling may equal or exceed the
rainfall received by some deserts. As in the hot
desert, rainfall is often very low and/or
concentrated. The average rainfall ranges from 2-
4 cm annually.
The soil can range from sandy and fine-textured
to loose rock fragments, gravel or sand. It has a
fairly low salt concentration, compared to deserts
which receive a lot of rain (acquiring higher salt
concentrations as a result). In areas such as
mountain slopes, the soil is shallow, rocky or
gravely with good drainage. In the upper bajada
(lower slopes) they are coarse-textured, rocky,
well-drained and partly "laid by rock bench." In
the lower bajada (bottom land) the soil is sandy
and fine-textured, often with "caliche hardpan." In
each case there is no subsurface water.
The spiny nature of many plants in semiarid
deserts provides protection in a hazardous
environment. The large numbers of spines shade
the surface enough to significantly reduce
transpiration. The same may be true of the hairs
on the woolly desert plants. Many plants have
silvery or glossy leaves, allowing them to reflect
more radiant energy. These plants often have an
unfavorable odor or taste. Semiarid plants
include: Creosote bush, bur sage (Franseria
dumosa or F. deltoidea), white thorn, cat claw,
mesquite, brittle bushes (Encelia farinosa),
lyciums, and jujube.
During the day, insects move around twigs to
stay on the shady side; jack rabbits follow the
moving shadow of a cactus or shrub. Naturally,
many animals find protection in underground
burrows where they are insulated from both heat
and aridity. These animals include mammals such
as the kangaroo rats, rabbits, and skunks; insects
like grasshoppers and ants; reptiles are
represented by lizards and snakes; and birds such
as burrowing owls and the California thrasher.
Coastal desert
These deserts occur in moderately cool to warm
areas such as the Nearctic and Neotropical realm.
A good example is the Atacama of Chile.
The cool winters of coastal deserts are followed
by moderately long, warm summers. The average
summer temperature ranges from 13-24° C;
winter temperatures are 5° C or below. The
maximum annual temperature is about 35° C and
the minimum is about -4° C. In Chile, the
temperature ranges from -2 to 5° C in July and
21-25° C in January.
The average rainfall measures 8-13 cm in many
areas. The maximum annual precipitation over a
long period of years has been 37 cm with a
minimum of 5 cm.
The soil is fine-textured with a moderate salt
content. It is fairly porous with good drainage.
Some plants have extensive root systems close to
the surface where they can take advantage of
any rain showers. All of the plants with thick and
fleshy leaves or stems can take in large
quantities of water when it is available and store
it for future use. In some plants, the surfaces are
corrugated with longitudinal ridges and grooves.
When water is available, the stem swells so that
the grooves are shallow and the ridges far apart.
As the water is used, the stem shrinks so that the
grooves are deep and ridges close together. The
plants living in this type of desert include the salt
bush, buckwheat bush, black bush, rice grass,
little leaf horsebrush, black sage, and
chrysothamnus.
Some animals have specialized adaptations for
dealing with the desert heat and lack of water.
Some toads seal themselves in burrows with
gelatinous secretions and remain inactive for
eight or nine months until a heavy rain occurs.
Amphibians that pass through larval stages have
accelerated life cycles, which improves their
chances of reaching maturity before the waters
evaporate. Some insects lay eggs that remain
dormant until the environmental conditions are
suitable for hatching. The fairy shrimps also lay
dormant eggs. Other animals include: insects,
mammals (coyote and badger), amphibians
(toads), birds (great horned owl, golden eagle and
the bald eagle), and reptiles (lizards and snakes).
Cold desert
These deserts are characterized by cold winters
with snowfall and high overall rainfall throughout
the winter and occasionally over the summer.
They occur in the Antarctic, Greenland and the
Nearctic realm. They have short, moist, and
moderately warm summers with fairly long, cold
winters. The mean winter temperature is between
-2 to 4° C and the mean summer temperature is
between 21-26° C.
The winters receive quite a bit of snow. The mean
annual precipitation ranges from 15-26 cm.
Annual precipitation has reached a maximum of
46 cm and a minimum of 9 cm. The heaviest
rainfall of the spring is usually in April or May. In
some areas, rainfall can be heavy in autumn. The
soil is heavy, silty, and salty. It contains alluvial
fans where soil is relatively porous and drainage
is good so that most of the salt has been leached
out.
The plants are widely scattered. In areas of
shadscale, about 10 percent of the ground is
covered, but in some areas of sagebush it
approaches 85 percent. Plant heights vary
between 15 cm and 122 cm. The main plants are
deciduous, most having spiny leaves. Widely
distributed animals are jack rabbits, kangaroo
rats, kangaroo mice, pocket mice, grasshopper
mice, and antelope ground squirrels. In areas like
Utah, population density of these animals can
range from 14-41 individuals per hectare. All
except the jack rabbits are burrowers. The
burrowing habit also applies to carnivores like the
badger, kit fox, and coyote. Several lizards do
some burrowing and moving of soil. Deer are
found only in the winter.
The freshwater biome
Freshwater is defined as having a low salt
concentration — usually less than 1%. Plants and
animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to the
low salt content and would not be able to survive
in areas of high salt concentration (i.e., ocean).
There are different types of freshwater regions:
Ponds and lakes
Streams and rivers
Wetlands
Ponds and lakes
These regions range in size from just a few
square meters to thousands of square kilometers.
Scattered throughout the earth, several are
remnants from the Pleistocene glaciation. Many
ponds are seasonal, lasting just a couple of
months (such as sessile pools) while lakes may
exist for hundreds of years or more. Ponds and
lakes may have limited species diversity since
they are often isolated from one another and
from other water sources like rivers and oceans.
Lakes and ponds are divided into three different
“zones” which are usually determined by depth
and distance from the shoreline.
The topmost zone near the shore of a lake or
pond is the littoral zone. This zone is the warmest
since it is shallow and can absorb more of the
Sun's heat. It sustains a fairly diverse community,
which can include several species of algae (like
diatoms), rooted and floating aquatic plants,
grazing snails, clams, insects, crustaceans, fishes,
and amphibians. In the case of the insects, such
as dragonflies and midges, only the egg and
larvae stages are found in this zone. The
vegetation and animals living in the littoral zone
are food for other creatures such as turtles,
snakes, and ducks.
The near-surface open water surrounded by the
littoral zone is the limnetic zone. The limnetic
zone is well-lighted (like the littoral zone) and is
dominated by plankton, both phytoplankton and
zooplankton. Plankton are small organisms that
play a crucial role in the food chain. Without
aquatic plankton, there would be few living
organisms in the world, and certainly no humans.
A variety of freshwater fish also occupy this zone.
Plankton have short life spans — when they die,
they fall into the deep-water part of the
lake/pond, the profundal zone. This zone is much
colder and denser than the other two. Little light
penetrates all the way through the limnetic zone
into the profundal zone. The fauna are
heterotrophs, meaning that they eat dead
organisms and use oxygen for cellular respiration.
Temperature varies in ponds and lakes seasonally.
During the summer, the temperature can range
from 4° C near the bottom to 22° C at the top.
During the winter, the temperature at the bottom
can be 4° C while the top is 0° C (ice). In between
the two layers, there is a narrow zone called the
thermocline where the temperature of the water
changes rapidly. During the spring and fall
seasons, there is a mixing of the top and bottom
layers, usually due to winds, which results in a
uniform water temperature of around 4° C. This
mixing also circulates oxygen throughout the
lake. Of course there are many lakes and ponds
that do not freeze during the winter, thus the top
layer would be a little warmer.
Streams and rivers
These are bodies of flowing water moving in one
direction. Streams and rivers can be found
everywhere — they get their starts at
headwaters, which may be springs, snowmelt or
even lakes, and then travel all the way to their
mouths, usually another water channel or the
ocean. The characteristics of a river or stream
change during the journey from the source to the
mouth. The temperature is cooler at the source
than it is at the mouth. The water is also clearer,
has higher oxygen levels, and freshwater fish
such as trout and heterotrophs can be found
there. Towards the middle part of the
stream/river, the width increases, as does species
diversity — numerous aquatic green plants and
algae can be found. Toward the mouth of the
river/stream, the water becomes murky from all
the sediments that it has picked up upstream,
decreasing the amount of light that can penetrate
through the water. Since there is less light, there
is less diversity of flora, and because of the lower
oxygen levels, fish that require less oxygen, such
as catfish and carp, can be found.
Wetlands
Wetlands are areas of standing water that
support aquatic plants. Marshes, swamps, and
bogs are all considered wetlands. Plant species
adapted to the very moist and humid conditions
are called hydrophytes. These include pond lilies,
cattails, sedges, tamarack, and black spruce.
Marsh flora also include such species as cypress
and gum. Wetlands have the highest species
diversity of all ecosystems. Many species of
amphibians, reptiles, birds (such as ducks and
waders), and furbearers can be found in the
wetlands. Wetlands are not considered freshwater
ecosystems as there are some, such as salt
marshes, that have high salt concentrations —
these support different species of animals, such
as shrimp, shellfish, and various grasses.
Taiga
The taiga is the biome of the needleleaf forest.
Living in the taiga is cold and lonely. Coldness
and food shortages make things very difficult,
mostly in the winter. Some of the animals in the
taiga hibernate in the winter, some fly south if
they can, while some just cooperate with the
environment, which is very difficult. (Dillon
Bartkus)
Taiga is the Russian word for forest and is the
largest biome in the world. It stretches over
Eurasia and North America. The taiga is located
near the top of the world, just below the tundra
biome. The winters in the taiga are very cold with
only snowfall. The summers are warm, rainy, and
humid. A lot of coniferous trees grow in the taiga.
The taiga is also known as the boreal forest. Did
you know that Boreal was the Greek goddess of
the North Wind?
The taiga doesn't have as many plant and animal
species as the tropical or the deciduous forest
biomes. It does have millions of insects in the
summertime. Birds migrate there every year to
nest and feed.
Here is some information about the temperatures
and weather in the taiga. The average
temperature is below freezing for six months out
of the year. The winter temperature range is -54
to -1° C (-65 to 30° F). The winters, as you can
see, are really cold, with lots of snow.
Temperature range in the summer gets as low as
-7° C (20° F). The high in summer can be 21° C
(70° F). The summers are mostly warm, rainy and
humid. They are also very short with about 50 to
100 frost free days. The total precipitation in a
year is 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in) . The forms the
precipitation comes in are rain, snow and dew.
Most of the precipitation in the taiga falls as rain
in the summer.
The main seasons in the taiga are winter and
summer. The spring and autumn are so short, you
hardly know they exist. It is either hot and humid
or very cold in the taiga.
There are not a lot of species of plants in the
taiga because of the harsh conditions. Not many
plants can survive the extreme cold of the taiga
winter. There are some lichens and mosses, but
most plants are coniferous trees like pine, white
spruce, hemlock and douglas fir.
Coniferous trees are also known as evergreens.
They have long, thin waxy needles. The wax
gives them some protection from freezing
temperatures and from drying out. Evergreens
don't loose their leaves in the winter like
deciduous trees. They keep their needles all year
long. This is so they can start photosynthesis as
soon as the weather gets warm. The dark color of
evergreen needles allows them to absorb heat
from the sun and also helps them start
photosynthesis early.
Evergreens in the taiga tend to be thin and grow
close together. This gives them protection from
the cold and wind. Evergreens also are usually
shaped like an upside down cone to protects the
branches from breaking under the weight of all
that snow. The snow slides right off the slanted
branches.
The taiga is susceptible to many wildfires. Trees
have adapted by growing thick bark. The fires will
burn away the upper canopy of the trees and let
sunlight reach the ground. New plants will grow
and provide food for animals that once could not
live there because there were only evergreen
trees.
Animals of the taiga tend to be predators like the
lynx and members of the weasel family like
wolverines, bobcat, minks and ermine. They hunt
herbivores like snowshoe rabbits, red squirrels
and voles. Red deer, elk, and moose can be found
in regions of the taiga where more deciduous
trees grow.
Many insect eating birds come to the taiga to
breed. They leave when the breeding season is
over. Seed eaters like finches and sparrows, and
omnivorous birds like crows stay all year long.
Climate
Taiga is in Köppen's Dfc climate category. The Dis
a snow climate, while the fmeans there is enough
precipitation in all months. The cmeans that
fewer than 4 months have an average
temperature over 50° F (10° C).
The taiga climate is for the most part dominated
by cold arctic air. Exceptionally cold winds bring
bitterly cold air from the Arctic Circle: the
temperatures fall even more on clear nights when
there is no cloud cover. Because of earth's tilt,
the taiga is turned away from the sun in the
winter. Less of the sun's radiation reaches the
ground to warm it up.
Winter, with it's freezing cold temperatures, lasts
for six to seven months. Summer is a rainy, hot
and short season in the taiga. Fall is the shortest
season for taiga. Spring brings flowers, the frozen
ponds melt, and the animals come out from
hibernation.
The lowest and highest temperatures that occur
for taiga are the following:
Winter's LOWEST temperature in taiga is -65°F.
Winter's HIGHEST temperature is 30° F.
Summer's LOWEST temperature is 30° F.
Summer's HIGHEST temperature is 70° F.
The temperature range, as you can see, is -65° F
to 70°F (-54 to 21° C). For half of the year, the
average temperature is below freezing. In the
winter the average air temperature is warmer
than it is for tundra, which lies north of the taiga.
The taiga climate has an average annual rainfall
of 12 - 33 inches (30 - 84 cm). Most of it falls in
the summer as rain.
The corresponding biome would be the Taiga
biome. The global range for taiga goes all around
the world from Alaska, to Canada, Scandinavia,
Russia and China. Taiga climate is only found in
the northern hemisphere, because there isn't
enough land mass in the southern hemisphere to
create a taiga climate there.
-Over many years, evergreen species have
gained adaptations to improve their chances of
surviving the taiga.
Trees in the temperate deciduous biome drop
their leaves in the fall. That way they can survive
a heavy snowstorm without risking their
branches. Evergreen trees in the taiga keep their
leaves, but their cone shape helps prevent
damage. Branches droop downward, which helps
shed excess snow. If the branches held more
snow it would increase the chance of them
breaking during a heavy storm. The needles help
keep the trees warm during the winter.
-Taiga trees tend to be conifers. Conifers, many of
which are evergreen, produce cones in late winter
or early fall. If a cone becomes fertilized, it grows
bigger. Only then do the seeds inside develop.
Once the seeds ripen, the cone dries up and the
seed falls out.
It can take up to two years to produce a mature
seed. Squirrels like to feed on these seeds.
-Needles on evergreen trees of the taiga are thin
and wax-covered. They do not fall off in the fall.
Needles are leaves. Most taiga conifers, with the
exception of the tamarack and a few other
species, keep their leaves in the winter. Most
conifers keep their leaves for 2 - 3 years. A
spruce can keep its needles for 15 years! Conifers
lose their leaves a few at a time, so the change is
not always noticeable.
Needles are adapted to the taiga environment.
Needles lose less water and shed snow more
easily than broad leaves.
-In the temperate deciduous forest most leaves
fall off in autumn. In the taiga, the change is
much more subtle. Leaves slow down the
chemical process for winter.
The tamarack's leaves turn brown and drop. It is
one of only a handful of evergreen species that
drop their leaves for the fall.
The leaves of many shrubs turn deep red.
Aspen Trees Birch Trees
Aspen and birch, deciduous trees, have leaves
that turn golden before falling for the winter.
All in all, the taiga fall show is less dramatic than
the temperate deciduous show.
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