COMPUTER

NETWORKS
By
ASHWINI AVABHRAT
(01)
SHWETA DESHPANDE
(10)
SANDEEPA GUPTA (17)
 INTRODUCTION
Two or more than two computer systems
connected by means of a communication
medium like cables is termed as a
Network.

Computer Network is a communication

systems, which links computers and their
resources.

Computer Resources are storage devices

e.g. HDD, tape drive, CDROM,
MODEM,RDBMS like Oracle, MS-SQL etc
BENEFITS OF A NETWORK
Following are the benefits of a
networking which help to increase
the productivity:
Information Sharing
Printer Sharing
Hard Disk Sharing
Modem Sharing
Hardware Sharing
Software Sharing
Service Access
Easy Back-Up Management
Security
 TYPES OF NETWORK

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN) :

 LAN connects computers that are located near
each other or at the same location.
 A corporate network consisting of several
building in a campus an example of a LAN

• WIDE AREA NETWORKS (WAN—LONG HAUL

NETWORKS) :
WAN connects a numbers of computers which
are located at a greater distance from one other
or at different location.
Internet is an example of WAN
 The key characteristics, which are often used to
differentiate between these two types of
networks, are as follows:
Geographic Distribution
Data Rate
Error Rate
Communication Link
Ownership
Communication Cost

Note:
Networks that share some of the characteristics
of both LANs and WANs are sometimes referred
to as Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN). The
MANs usually cover a wider geographic area than
LANs. The main objective of MANs is to
interconnect LANs located in a entire city or
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY
It refers to the physical layout of the network,
especially the location of the computers and how
the cable is run between them.

The choice of the networks topology for installing

a computer network depends upon a combination
of factors, such as:
 The desired performance of the system.
The desired reliability of the system.
 Size of the system..
 Expandability of the system.
 Availability of communication lines.
 Delays involved in routing information from
 BUS TOPOLOGY
The bus topology refers to a linear
arrangement of computers that are
connected together by a single cable
referred to as the trunk or backbone. It
is often used when a network
installation is small, simple or
temporary.
Advantages:
Simple,Reliable,Easy to use and
understand.
Least amount of cable to connect
a computers.
 STAR TOPOLOGY
A star network consists of one central switch,
hub or computer which acts as a router to
transmit messages.

Advantages:
Good Performance
Easy to set up and to expand.
Any non-centralized failure will have very
little effect on the network, whereas on a
ring network it would all fail with one fault.

Disadvantages:
Expensive to install
Extra hardware required
 RING TOPOLOGY
A ring network is a topology of computer
networks where each connected to node is two
other nodes, so as to create a ring.

Advantages:
Data is quickly transferred without a ‘bottle
neck’. (very fast, all data traffic is in the same
direction)
The transmission of data is simple as packets
travel in one direction only.
Adding additional nodes has very little impact on
Disadvantages:
Data packets must pass through every
computer between the sender and
recipient therefore this makes it slower.
If any of the nodes fail then the ring is
broken and data cannot be transmitted
successfully.
It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring.
Because all stations are wired together,
to add a station you must shut down the
network temporarily.
In order for all computers to
communicate with each other, all
computers must be turned on.
 TOKEN RING
A token ring is a type of computer
network in which all the computers are
arranged (schematically) in a circle. A
token, which is a special bit pattern,
travels around the circle. To send a
message, a computer catches the token,
attaches a message to it, and then lets it
continue to travel around the network.

Although it is considered a more reliable

system, a token ring network is slower  
  and offers less flexibility than schools
and other businesses need.
 MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL
PROTOCOL
The Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol is
used to provide the data link layer of the
Ethernet LAN system. It defines the access
method and access control in different local area
networks.

The MAC layer provides an addressing

mechanism called physical address or MAC
address. This is a unique serial number assigned
to each network adaptor, making it possible to
deliver data packets to a destination within a
subnetwork.
 CMSA/CD PROTOCOL
• In computer networking, Carrier Sense
Multiple Access With Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) is a network control protocol in
which a carrier sensing scheme is used.

• A transmitting data station that detects

another signal while transmitting a frame,
stops transmitting that frame, transmits a
jam signal, and then waits for a random
time interval (known as "backoff delay")
before trying to send that frame again.

• Ethernet is the classic CSMA/CD protocol.

WAN TECHNOLOGIES
WAN is Wide Area Network.

A WAN is a data communications

network that covers a relatively broad
geographic area and that often uses
transmission facilities provided by
common carriers, such as telephone
companies(coaxial cables) or
communication satellites.

WAN uses no fixed Network Topology.

 PACKET-SWITCHING
EXCHANGES
PSEs are hardware devices (special
purpose computers) dedicated to the
task of data communication.

Communication channels of the

network interconnect the PSEs.

A computer of a WAN only interacts

with the PSE of the WAN to which it is
connected for sending and receiving
messages.
A WAN of Computers
Computer
s
E
B

1
PSE PSE
A
2 3

PSE PSE
C 4

D F
SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
The process moving data from one
interface and delivering it through
another interface, selecting the best
paths between machines that store
messages is known as switching.

There are a number of ways to

perform switching:
Circuit Switching
Packet Switching
Message Switching
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING
A type of communication in which a
dedicated channel (or circuit) is
established for the duration of a
transmission.

connection-oriented networks.

Ideal for communications that require

data to be transmitted in real-time or
for long continuous transmission.

Used in PSTN (Public Switched

ADVANTAGES :
No delay other than propagation
delay.
Full capacity of the circuit is
available.
Transmission time required to send a
message can be known and
guaranteed.

DISADVANTAGES :
Additional overhead during circuit
establishment and circuit
 PACKET SWITCHING

Packet Switching techniques switch

packets of data between destinations.

Each packet is then transmitted

individually and can even follow
different routes to its destination
(Store and forward).

connectionless networks.
ADVANTAGES :
Efficient usage of channels
(Bandwidths are shared).
Alternate paths may be used (Failed
paths may be ignored).
Suitable for small data bursty in
nature.

DISADVANTAGES :
Each packet needs to be buffered and
reassembled.
Inefficient for large messages.
 ROUTING TECHNIQUES
In a WAN, when multiple paths exist
between the source and destination
computers of a packet, any one of the
path may be used.

Packets are routed to their

destination as determined by a
routing algorithm.

An efficient routing technique

Reduces Network Latency.
Should be implementable in h/w.
 Routing algorithms are
classified based on the
following attributes :

Place where routing decisions

are made.

Time constant of the information

upon which the routing decisions
are based.

Control mechanism used for

 PLACE BASED
SOURCE ROUTING :
Source computer’s PSE selects the
entire path before sending the packet

• HOP-BY-HOP ROUTING :
Each PSE along the path decides only
the next PSE for the path.

• HYBRID ROUTING :
Source comps PSE specifies certain
major intermediate PSEs of the complete
path and the sub paths are decided
 TIME CONSTANT BASED

STATIC ROUTING (Fixed or

Deterministic) :
Routing tables (stored at PSEs) are
set once and do not change for a
very long time.

• DYNAMIC ROUTING (Adaptive) :

Routing tables are updated
relatively frequently, reflecting
shorter term changes in the network
 CONTROL MECHANISM
BASED
ISOLATED MANNER :
Individual PSEs update information
in their local routing table in an
isolated manner.
• CENTRALIZED MANNER :
Changes in the network
environment,connectivity, or
performance are constantly
reported to one centralized PSE
based on which global table is
maintained.
• DECENTRALIZED MANNER :
INTERNETWORKING
Interconnecting of two or more
networks to form a single network is
called INTERNETWORKING and the
resulting network is called an
INTERNETWORK (eg. Internet).

INTERNETWORKS are heterogeneous

networks composed of several
network segments that may differ in
topology and protocol.

Goal of internetworking is to hide the

details of different physical networks
 INTERCONNECTION
TECHNOLOGIES
Internetworking schemes provide some
common point of reference for the two
networks to communicate with each
other.
This point of reference may be
 High-Level protocol common to the
two networks.
 A Device that allows interconnection
of different topologies with
different physical and electrical
characteristics.
 BRIDGES

Bridges operate at the bottom two

layers of the OSI model (Physical and
Data Link).

They are used to connect networks

that use the same communication
protocols above the data-link layer
but may or may not use the same
protocols at the physical and data-
link layers.
 ROUTERS
Routers operate at the Network Layer of
the OSI model.

They are used to connect networks with

the same High Level protocols.

Routers unlike bridges only know which

is the next router for the data being
transferred across the network.

Routers choose the best route for data

based on the info in routing table.
 BROUTERS

Brouters are hybrid of Bridges and

Routers.

They are complex,expensive and

difficult to install.

They are used for connecting

segments with the same high level
communication protocols.
 GATEWAYS

Gateways are most sophisticated

internetworking tools.

Gateways operate at the top three

layers of the OSI model (Session,
Presentation and Application).

They are used for connecting networks

that are built on totally different
communication architectures.
Communication Medium to
be used
DEPENDS ON :
 Location of the two networks.
 Throughput desired.

• OPTIONS AVAILABLE :
 Leased Telephone Lines
 Dedicated Telephone Lines
 Public Data Networks
 Communication Satellites
 Network Management
Technologies
Network Management is monitoring
and analysis of network status and
activities.
They monitor Data Throughput, Node
and Link Failures and other Global
Occurrences on network.
They report existence and cause of the
problem.
They should enfold all the protocols
and devices on a typical
heterogeneous internetwork, should
COMMUNICATION
PROTOCOLS
• The term protocol is used to refer to
a set of rules and conventions
needed for communication between
communicating parties.

• Computer networks are

implemented using the concept of
layered protocols.

• Requirements of communication
protocols for network systems and
distributed systems are different.
Protocols for Network Systems

The OSI/ISO Reference Model

Provides a framework in which

standards can be developed for the
services and protocols at each
layer.

• It is a seven layer architecture in

which a separate set of protocols is
defined for each layer.
The OSI/ISO
  Reference
Model
Application
 
Layer
Presentation
 
Layer
 
  Layer
Session
 
Transport
Layer
 
  Layer
Network
 
Data  Link
Layer
  Layer
Physical
 
Physical Layer:
Transmits raw bit streams between
two sites.

Data Link Layer:

Detects and corrects any errors in
the transmitted data.

Network Layer:
• Sets up logical path between two
sites for communication to take
place.
• Two popular network layer protocols
Transport Layer:
Provides site-to-site communication
and hides all the details of the
communication subnet from the
session layer by providing network
independent transport service.
The two most popular protocols are
TCP and UDP.

Session Layer:
Provides the means by which
presentation entities can organize
and synchronize their dialog and
Presentation Layer:
Represents message information to
communicating application layer
entities in a way that preserves
meaning while resolving syntax
differences.

Application Layer:
Provides services that directly
supports the end users of the
network.
The IEEE 802 LAN Reference
Model

It is a modified reference model

suitable for LANs built by IEEE.

The layers in this model are similar to

those of the OSI model the only
difference being that the last two
layers of the reference model are
modified.
  
Applicatio
n Layer
  
Presentati
on Layer
Session
 
Layer  
  
Transport
Layer  
Logical-Link
  
Network Control Layer
Layer Medium-
 
Data  Link Access
Layer Control Layer
Physical Physical
   
Layer Layer
   
Relationship between the
IEEE 802 LAN MODEL & OSI MODEL
The physical layer defines interface
protocols for the four types of media
that are commonly used in LANs :
baseband,broadband,fiber optics and
twisted pair.

The medium-access-control layer deals

with medium access control protocols
for LANs.

The logical-link-control layer contains

the IEEE 802.2 standard.
Protocols for Distributed
Systems
Requirements for distributed
systems
Transparency
Client-server based
communication
Group communication
Security
Network management
Scalability
 The Versatile Message
Transport
Protocol (VMTP)

It is a transport protocol designed for

distributed operating systems that
has special features to support
request/response behavior between a
client and one or more server
processes.
Entities are identified by 64 bit
identifiers.
It provides selective retransmission
The Fast Local Internet
Protocol (FLIP)

It is a connectionless protocol
designed to support transparency,
group communication, secure
communication and easy network
management.

The following FLIP properties helps to

achieve the efficiency requirements for
 FLIP identifies entities called
 
 
network service access points
(NSAPs)
FLIP uses a one way mapping between
the “private” address, used to register
an endpoint of a network connection,
and the “public” address used to
advertise the endpoint.

FLIP routes messages based on NSAP.

FLIP uses a bit in the message header

to request transmission of sensitive
messages across trusted networks.
ATM NETWORKS
 FEATURES
Enables high-bandwidth distributed
applications.
Provides high transmission speeds for
local and wide-area networks and
services.
Supports circuit switching and packet
switching.[CELL SWITCHING]
Uses the concept of virtual networking
to pass traffic between 2 locations.
Supports multi-casting.
Enables use of single network to
efficiently transport a wide range
 BASIC CONCEPTS
Fundamental types of network traffic-CBR
& VBR.

Connection oriented technology.

Cell Switching technology is based on the

digital packet switching technology which
relays and routes traffic over virtual path
by means of an address contained within
the packet.

In ATM, a virtual path is essentially a

ATM Protocol Reference
Model
Other layers not specified in ATM
protocol reference model

ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)

ATM Layer

Physical Layer
 PHYSICAL LAYER

By carrying cells as a synchronous data

stream.

By carrying cells in the payload portion

of an externally framed transmission.

SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork)

 ATM LAYER

Generic Flow Control (GFC)

Virtual Path Identifier (VPI)
Virtual Circuit Identifier
(VCI)
Payload Type Identifier (PTI)
Cell Loss Priority (CLP) Field
Header Error Control (HEC)
Field
 ATM CELL FORMAT
4 8 16 3 1 8 48 bits
bits bits bits bits bit bits
GFC VPI VCI PTI CLP HEC Payload

Header area Payload

area
ATM ADAPTATION LAYER
Responsible for providing different
types of services to different types of
traffic according to their specific
requirements.
It packages various kinds of user
traffics into 48-byte cells, together
with the overhead.
Four service classes defined by the
ITU:
CLASS A: Applications having delay
sensitive & CBR traffic & are
connection oriented.
Four service classes defined by the ITU:
• CLASS A: Applications having delay
sensitive & CBR traffic &
are connection oriented. It
uses AAL1 protocol.
• CLASS B: Applications having delay
sensitive & VBR traffic &
are connection oriented. It
uses AAL2 protocol.
• CLASS C: Applications that are not
delay sensitive &
VBR traffic & are connection
oriented. It uses AAL3/4 or AAL5
protocol.
• CLASS D: Applications that are not
ATM NETWORKS
Host
Computers

ATM
SWITCH

ATM ATM
SWITCH SWITCH
THANK YOU