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Organisational Behaviour
Organisational Behaviour
Definition
Organisational Behaviour is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behaviour within organisation for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organisations effectiveness.
Organisational Behaviour is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behaviour within organisation for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organisations effectiveness.
OB is a field of study Means a distinct area of expertise with a common body of knowledge What does it study? It studies three determinants of behaviour in organisation Individuals, Groups, Structure Applying such knowledge OB applies knowledge about individuals, groups and the effect of structure on behaviour in order to make organisation work more effectively.
Therefore OB is concerned with the study of what people do in an organisation and how the behaviour affects the performance of the organisation.
It is concerned with employment related situations, and emphasises behaviour as related to concerns such as jobs, work, absenteeism, employment turnover (attrition), productivity, performance and management.
CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES TO THE FIELD OF OB Psychology The science that seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behaviour of human and other animals. Sociology The study of people in relation to their fellow human beings. Social psychology An area with psychology that blends concepts from psychology and sociology and that focuses on the influence of people on one another. Anthropology The study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities. Political science the study of the behaviour of individual and groups within a political environment.
CONTRIBUTING DISCIPLINES TO THE FIELD OF OB Behavioural Science Contribution Unit of Output Learning Job satisfaction analysis Motivation Decision making
Personality Emotions Perception Training Leadership Performance appraisal Attitude Selection Work design Stress
Psychology
Individual
Sociology
Formal organisational theory Organisational technology Behavioural change Attitude change Communication
Group
Study of OB
Social psychology
Anthropology
Organisation system
Political science
1. Responding to Globalisation 2. Managing Workforce Diversity 3. Improving Quality and Productivity 4. Responding to Labour Shortage 5. Improving Customer Service 6. Improving People Skill 7. Empowering People 8. Coping with Temporariness 9. Stimulating Innovation and Change 10.Helping Employees Balance Work/Life Conflicts 11.Improving Ethical Behaviour
Therefore subject of Organisational Behaviour deals with that part of life which we spend in working which is also called On the job life. Our off the job life is interrelated and interdependent on on the job life and vice versa.
PERCEPTION
PERCEPTION
Factors in the target Novelty Motion Sounds Size Background Proximity Similarity
A couple or a skull?
0 (ZERO)
Process of Perception
1. Confrontation of stimulus The Individual comes face to face with another Individual/group/object/situation/problem
Process of Perception
2. Registration
The individual registers the stimulus and its gravity
Process of Perception
3. Interpretation
The individual tries to understand the real meaning of the situation.
Process of Perception
4. Feedback
The individual evaluates the strength and weakness and gives a quick feedback to the sensory motor.
Process of Perception
5. Reaction
The individual gives the response in terms of reaction that can be positive, negative or neutral, depending upon the mutual interaction between the stimulus and the individual.
APPLICATION OF PERCEPTION ATTRIBUTION THEORY The theory is proposed to develop explanations of the ways in which we judge people differently, depending on what meaning we attribute to a given behaviour. The theory suggests that when an individual observes another individuals behaviour and they observer attempts to determine whether the behaviour is caused internally or externally. The determination, however depends upon three factors 1. Distinctiveness 2. Consensus 3. Consistency
PERSONALITY
Definitions
Personality is the dynamic organisation within an individual of those psychological systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment. - Gordon Allport Personality is the sum total ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. - Stephen Robins
PERSONALITY DETERMINANTS Individual Personality is the result of heredity and environment and the third factor is recognised to be situation.
HEREDITY
Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical stature, facial attractiveness, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are generally considered to be either completely or substantially who the parents are; that is, by their biological, physiological, and inherent makeup. The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individuals personality is the molecular structure of the genes.
ENVIRONMENT
Environment factor like culture in which one is raised, early conditioning; norms among family, friends, social group and other influences that one experiences, exert pressure on personality of an individual.
SITUTATION
Situation influences the effect of heredity and environment on personality. A individuals personality, although generally stable and consistent, does change in different situations. The different demands of different situations call for different aspects ones personality.
LOCUS OF CONTROL
Locus of control is the degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate
Some people believe that they are masters of their own fate. Other people see themselves as pawns of fate, believing that what happens to them in their lives is due to luck or chance.
INTERNALS Individual who believes that they control what happens to them. EXTERNALS Individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance.
TYPE A PERSONALITY
A person with a Type A personality is aggressively involved in chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or other persons.
Type As
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly Feels impatient with the rate at which most event take place Strive to think or to do two or more things at once Cannot cope with leisure time Are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success
TYPE B PERSONALITY
Type B is exactly opposite to type A are rarely harried by the desire to obtain a wildly increasing number of things or participate in an endless growing series of events in an ever decreasing amount of time.
Type Bs
1. Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with the accompanying impatience 2. Feel no need to display or discuss their achievements 3. Play for fun and relaxation and not exhibit superiority 4. Can relax without guilt
PERSONALITY TRAITS
Personality are the enduring characteristics that describe an individual behavior. A study identified 17,953 individual traits. Another researcher isolated 172 traits and reduced set of traits that would identify underlying patterns and thereby 16 personality factors (called the source or primary traits) were identified These 16 traits are to be found generally steady and constant source of behavior.
Personality traits
ATTITUDES
ATTITUDES
Attitudes Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people or events. Attitude may be favourable or unfavourable concerning objects or events. Attitudes are not the same as values, but the two are interrelated.
COMPONENTS OF AN ATTITUDE
Attitude has three components and they are 1. Cognitive Component 2. Affective Component 3. Behavioural Component
COMPONENTS OF AN ATTITUDE
Cognitive component of an attitude It is the opinion or belief segment of an attitude Affective component of an attitude It is the emotional or feeling segment of an attitude Behavioural component of an attitude An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something
TYPES OF ATTITUDES
There may be thousands of attitudes in a person, OB focuses attention on a very limited number of work related attitudes. These work related attitudes are positive or negative and shows how employee feel about their job. Most of the research in OB has been concerned with three attitudes namely: 1. Job Satisfaction 2. Job Involvement 3. Organisational Commitment
JOB SATISFACTION The term job satisfaction refers to an individuals general attitude toward his or her job. An individual with high level of job satisfaction holds positive attitudes about the job, while a dissatisfied individual may hold negative attitudes about the job. Low job satisfaction can result in high attrition rate, absenteeism, and poor mental health.
JOB INVOLVEMENT Job involvement measures the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his or her job and considers his or her perceived performance level important to self worth. High level of job involvement reduces attrition and absenteeism.
ORGANISATIONAL COMMITTMENT
Organisation commitment is defined as degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organisation and its objectives and wishes to maintain membership in the organisation. An employee may be dissatisfied with his or her present job and consider it a temporary condition, yet not be dissatisfied with the organisation as a whole. But when dissatisfaction spreads to the organisation itself, individuals are more likely to resign.
The job satisfaction has an effect on the performance of an individual however in the organisation it tends to center on its effect on productivity, absenteeism and turnover.
Satisfaction and productivity Happy workers are productive workers is a myth, the concept productive workers are likely to be happy workers may hold good. Satisfaction and absenteeism There is a negative relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism. Absenteeism increases with decrease in job satisfaction Satisfaction and turnover Satisfaction is also negatively related to turnover , factors like alternative job opportunities, length of tenure, labour market condition will also effect the turnover.
EXPRESSION OF DISSATISFACTION
Employee dissatisfaction can be expressed in various ways, however the following four responses shall indicate different responses to employee dissatisfaction. Exit : Dissatisfaction expressed through behaviour directed toward leaving the organisation. Voice : Dissatisfaction expressed through active and constructive attempts to improve conditions, may include union activity. Loyalty : Passively but optimistically waiting for the condition to improve. It is trusting organisation and management to do the right thing. Neglect : Dissatisfaction expressed through allowing condition to worsen, it includes chronic absenteeism, reduced effort and increased error rate.
Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty. Satisfied employee are more likely friendly and responsive which customers appreciate. Satisfied employees are less prone to turnover, customers are more likely to encounter familiar faces and receive experienced service.
VALUES
Values Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end state of existence. Value System A hierarchy based on ranking of an individuals values in terms of their intensity.
TYPES OF VALUES
Value typologies can be developed in two approaches as per survey conducted by Milton Rokeach, the survey is popularly known as Rokeach Value Survey (RVS). RVS consists of two sets of values Terminal values and Instrumental values
TYPES OF VALUES
Terminal values Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime. Instrumental values Preferable modes of behaviour or means of achieving ones terminal values.
Instrumental Values
Ambitious (hardworking, aspiring) Broad minded (open minded) Capable (competent) Cheerful (lighthearted, joyful) Clean (neat, tidy) Courageous (standing up for your beliefs) Forgiving (willing to pardon others) Helpful (working for the welfare of others) Honest (sincere, truthful) Imaginative (daring, creative) Independent (self-reliant, self-sufficient) Intellectual (intelligent, reflective) Logical (consistent, rational) Loving (affectionate, tender) Obedient (dutiful, respectful) Polite (courteous, well-mannered) Responsible (dependable, reliable) Self-controlled (restrained, self-discipline)
MOTIVATION
IT IS THE NEED OR DRIVE WITHIN AN INDIVIDUAL THAT DRIVES HIM OR HER TOWARD GOAL ORIENTED ACTION. THE EXTENT OF DRIVE DEPENDS ON THE PRESCRIBED LEVEL OF SATISFACTION THAT CAN BE ACHIEVED BY THE GOAL
-Definition-
MOTIVATION IS A PREDISPOSITION TO ACT IN A SPECIFIED GOAL DIRECTED MANNER -Hellriegel and Slocum
A process of stimulating the self or subordinates to get into the desired course of action -Michael Julius
Employees' performance is, of course, partially determined by the opportunities given them to demonstrate their abilities. If employees are never given opportunities to utilize all of their skills, then the employer may never have the benefit of their total performance. Work performance is also contingent upon employee abilities. If employees lack the learned skills or innate talents to do a particular job, then performance will be less than optimal. A third dimension of performance is motivation.
Mechanism of Motivation
Need
Deprivation
Drive
Direction
Barrier
Overt/Covert
Goal
Achievement
Frustration
NEEDS
An internal state of disequilibrium or deficiency which has the capacity to energise or trigger a behavioural response
MOTIVATION THEORIES
Achievement
Challenging job
Sustenance
Base Salary
Theory X Assumptions
It is the traditional assumptions about the nature of people and states that1. Average human being have an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if they can. 2. Because of this human characteristic of disliking work, most people must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort toward the achievement of organisational objectives. 3. Average human beings prefer to be directed, wish to avoid responsibility, have relatively little ambition, and want security above all.
Theory Y Assumptions
The assumption under this are _ 1. The expenditure of physical effort and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest. 2. External control and threat of punishment are not the only means for producing effort toward organisational objectives. People will exercise self direction and self control in the service of objectives to which they are committed. 3. The degree of commitment to objectives is in proportion to the size of the rewards associated with their achievement. 4. Average human beings learn, under proper conditions, not only to accept responsibility but also to seek it.
HERZBERGs VIEW
Satisfaction No Dissatisfaction Motivators No Satisfaction Dissatisfaction
Hygiene Factor
Herzbergs theory was based on a two-factor hypothesis that is factors leading to job satisfaction And factors leading to no job dissatisfaction. They were classified in two categories: 1) Motivational factors 2) Hygiene or maintenance factors
Motivational factors Recognition Advancement Responsibility Possibility of growth Achievement Work itself
Motivational factors are directly related to the job itself. Present of such factor create a highly motivating situation, but their absence does not cause job dissatisfaction. These factors are content oriented.
Hygiene or Maintenance factors Company policy and administration Technical supervision Interpersonal relations with subordinates Salary Job security Personal life Working conditions Status Interpersonal relations with supervisors Interpersonal relations with peers/colleagues
Maintenance factors are context oriented their presence does not significantly motivate the person. The presence of such factors prevents dissatisfaction and maintains a certain level of motivation but any reduction in the availabilities of these factors is likely to affect motivation and bring down the level of performance. According to Herzberg, Hygiene factors can dissatisfy by their absence but they cannot satisfy by their presence.
Status goes down with Hygiene factors; Recognition goes up with Motivators
Need for Achievement (nAch): The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards. Need for Power (nPow): The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. Need for Affiliation (nAff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationship
E R G Theory
Clayton Alderfer of Yale University has reworked Maslows need hierarchy. He devised three groups of core needs: 1. Existence 2. Relatedness 3. Growth
Maslows theory follows a rigid, steplike progression. ERG theory does not assume that there exists a rigid hierarchy. It demonstrates that (i) more than one need may be operative at the same time, and (ii) if the gratification of a higher level need is suppressed, the desire to satisfy lower level need increases. In ERG all the need categories could be operating at the same time
Individual Effort
Individual Performance
Organizational Rewards
Personal Goals
1. Effort-performance relationship: Probability perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance. 2. Performance-reward relationship: The degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. 3. Rewards-personal goal relationship: The degree to which organizational reward satisfy an individuals personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for individual.
Vrooms Expectancy Theory Vroom explains that motivation is a product of how much one wants something and ones estimate of the probability that a certain action will lead to it. This relationship is given in the formula:VXE=M V = Valence is strength of desire for something E = Expectancy is probability getting it with a certain action M = Motivation is strength of drive towards an action
Valance -1 Expectancy 0 +1 0 +1
EQUITY THEORY
James Stacy Adams (1965) proposed the equity theory which was based on his belief that an individuals motivation is influenced by his perception of how equitably he is treated at work.
EQUITY THEORY
To express his ideas, Adam used following formula: Equity exists whenPersons Outcomes Persons Inputs Negative Inequity exists whenPersons Outcomes < Persons Inputs Positive Inequity exists whenPersons Outcomes > Persons Inputs Others outcomes Others inputs Others outcomes Others inputs Others outcomes Others inputs
EQUITY THEORY
In order to restore equity, individuals can make one of the six choices: 1. Change their inputs (reduce efforts) 2. Change their outcomes (earning more on a piece rate basis producing higher quantity) 3. Distort perception of self (changing self perception) 4. Distort perception of others (changing thoughts about others) 5. Choose a different referent (changing person with whom comparison is made) 6. Leave the field (quit the job)
Intrinsic rewards
Performance accomplishment
Effort
MORALE
MORALE
Morale indicates happiness of the employees within the organizational environment. It is essentially akin to job satisfaction and represents the integration of an individual with the team and the organization itself. Higher the morale higher is the productivity. Relationship between morale and productivity need not always be direct. With high morale there could be low productivity.
High
A Morale
B C
Low Low Productivity High Line A - High morale low productivity Line B High morale high productivity Line C High productivity low morale
LEADERSHIP
-Definition-
The Leader is a part of the group distinct from the group and can influence the behaviour of the group
Leadership is defined as influence, that is, the art or process of influencing people so that they will strive Willingly and enthusiastically towards the achievement of group goals. Leading involves influencing and interacting with people to attain goals
The leadership can be defined as the act of making an impact on other in a desired direction
The ability of a person to persuade others to seek achievement of the group goals efficiently & effectively '. (Keith Davis)
Leaders envision the future; they Inspire organization members and chart the course of the organization. Leaders must instill values whether they are concern for quality, honesty and calculated risk taking or concern for employees and customers.
LEADERSHIP STYLE
Psychologists, sociologists, political scientists and certainly, management scientists have become increasingly interested in leadership. There have been spurts of research on this topic from time to time. The more we research leadership, the more complexity comes to light. Leadership is broader than management. Managers can effectively run organizations but only leaders can build them.
Essential of Leadership
An organisation requires management to achieve the organisational goal including the economic performance A manager must be a good leader since he has to get work done by his people. Leadership in the manager plays a very important role.
Essential of Leadership
Some of the major factors of importance of leadership in business organisations may be summarised as follows : It helps to build of the group It helps to create confidence among the members It motivates the group members It inculcates discipline It helps to build work teams It helps to improve the organisational efficiency
Theories of Leadership
Various theories of leadership have been developed by different management experts. The major theories of leadership are as follows : Traits Theory Behavioural Theories Contingency Theories Leader-Member Exchange Theory Managerial Grid
Knowledge of the job/task Intelligence. Self-respect Self-confidence. Courage Logical thinking Rational judgment Decision-making Communication ability
Creativity Initiative & drive Problem-solving ability High morale & motivation Positive attitude Authority & Responsibility Flexibility in approach Conviction & Commitment Impressive Personality
THE FOUR LEADERSHIP STYLES The four leadership style can be stated as
Directive Supportive Consulting Delegating
A combination of high and low regulating and nurturing behaviour will give four quadrants, each representing four different leadership styles.
N U R T U R I N G B E H A V I O U R
REGULATING BEHAVIOUR
Style 3 CONSULTING LOW REGULATING HIGH NURTURING Style 2 SUPPORTIVE HIGH REGULATING HIGH NURTURING
The Managerial Grid is developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton. The grid has been used throughout the world as a means of training managers and of identifying various combination of leadership styles.
Concern for production includes the attitude of a manager towards wide variety of things, such as
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Quality of Policy Decision Procedure and Processes Creativeness of Research Quality of Staff Services Work Efficiency Volume of Output
Concern for people is interpreted in a broad way and includes1. Degree of Personal Commitment toward Goal Achievement 2. Maintenance of the Self Esteem of Workers 3. Placement of Responsibility on the basis of Trust rather than Obedience 4. Provision of Good Working Conditions 5. Maintenance of Satisfying Interpersonal Relations
1.9
Team managers
9.9
5.5
1.1
Impoverished
Task Managers
9.1
The theory is devised by Paul Heresy and Kenneth Blanchard who in this approach shows how well managers can match the appropriate style with the maturity level of the group being led. It focuses on followers maturity. The approach identifies two major styles1. Task Style: The leader organises and define roles for subordinates. The leader explain the task so that each subordinate does it effectively. 2. Relationship Style: The leader have close personal relationship with the members of the group with open communication and psychological support.
Four style of leadership 1. Telling Style: high task low relationship style and is very effective when followers are at very low level of maturity 2. Selling Style: high task high relationship style and is very effective when followers are at low level of maturity. Directive and supportive behaviour are provided by the leader 3. Participating Style: low task high relationship style and is very effective when followers are at high level of maturity 4. Delegating Style: low task low relationship style and is very effective when followers are at very high level of maturity
MANAGEMENT Of CONFLICT
CONFLICT
Conflict may occur due to disagreements, Employees and management have divergent interests in allocating resources which leads to conflict.
Conflicts leads to Non-cooperation, arguments, hostility, stress, absenteeism, morcha, gherao, loss of production, strike, lay-offs, lockouts, labour turnover, etc.
Conflicts Resolution 1. Direct observation 2. Open door policy 3. Personnel counselors 4. Suggestion boxes 5. Exit interviews 6. Ombudsman approach 7. Internal tribunal
The grievance handling procedure may not provide a satisfactory solution and that any of the following method of grievance handling may need to be resorted to -
1. Arbitration 2. Mediation 3. Union Management co-operation 4. Prior consultation 5. Joint study committees
COMMUNICATION
o rd en W Spok
Written Word
Bod y
La n
gua ge
2 Filter
Feedback
To get action
To persuade
To ensure understanding
Thoughts
Encoding
Reception
Decoding
Understanding
Sender Sender
Receiver
Noise
Communication
Oral
One-on-one conversations Meetings Phone calls Presentations Videoconferences
Written
Memorandums Letters E-mail Reports Miscellaneous
Direction of Communication
CEO
Upward
VP-1
VP-2
Downward
Cross-Channel
MGR-1
MGR-2
MGR-3
MGR-4
Lateral
Interpersonal Communication
ORAL
WRITTEN
NON VERBAL
Oral Communication
1. Speeches 2. Group Discussions 3. One to one Communication 4. Meetings 5. Grapevine Advantages 1. Speed 2. Feedback (instant) 3. Early Correction Disadvantages 1. Distortion
Written Communication
1. Letters 2. Electronic Mail 3. Memos 4. Fax 5. House Journals 6. Circulars 7. Notices on bulletin boards Advantages 1. Tangible 2. Verifiable 3. Record & Storage 4. Carefully written Disadvantages 1. Time Consuming 2. Feedback (lacking)
For simplification we have condensed these networks into three groups of five people each.
CHAIN
WHEEL
Central figure to act as conduit for all the group communication. This type of network is found with strong leader.
ALL CHANNEL
Permits all group members to actively communicate with each other. Often used by self-managed teams. All group members are free to contribute no one person has leadership role.
Characteristics of Grapevine
Not controlled by Management. Perceived by most employees as being more believable and reliable than formal communication. It is largely used to serve self interest of the people. Evidence show that 75%of what is carried in grapevine is accurate. Rumors emerge as response to situation that are important and when there is ambiguity. Rumors get spread because of anxiety. Rumors can not be eliminated, but can be minimized.
70 % of all our communication efforts are: misunderstood, misinterpreted, rejected, disliked, distorted, or not heard (in the same language, same culture)!
Sender
Receiver
Distortion
INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT LISTENING OUT OF THE TOTAL TIME IN COMMUNICATING YOU SPEND9% IN WRITING 16% IN READING 30% IN SPEAKING 45% IN LISTENING
Environment noise Preconceived notions/expectations Wordiness Attention span Physical hearing problem Speed of thought
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Stress
The physical, psychological, and behavioral reactions experienced by individuals in situations where they feel they are in danger of being overwhelmed. It is a common experience of people when any demands are placed on them by their work or personal environment.
Definition
Stress is mentally or emotionally disruptive or disquitening influence. The non specific response of the body to any demands made upon it. -Hans selye An adaptive response to an external situation that results in physical, psychological, and/or behavioural deviations for organisational participants. - Fred Luthans
Classification of Stress
(2). DISTRESS
The stress which results when bad things occur or negative stress
Classification of Stress
(3). Neustress
When a person is indifferent to the stress and the result is neutral.
Sources of Stress
Stressors
External events or stimuli that are responsible for stress.
Characteristics of stressors
Produce state of overload Evoke incompatible tendencies Uncontrollable
Organisational factors
Task demands Role demands Interpersonal demands Organisational structure Organisational leadership Organisations life stage
Consequences of stress
Physiological & Psychological effects of stress go hand-in-hand and are complementary. They vary from organisation to organisation, situation to situation, time to time and person to person. It is found that some people collapse at the first signs of stress, while others have a great strength to cope with a very high level of stress and do not show any symptoms. We can learn from such people, the secrets of their success in coping with the stress and avoiding a break-down in their personalities.
Some of the basic principles of time management are: Preparing a list of the daily activities to be attended to. Prioritising the activities as per their importance & urgency. Re-scheduling the activities as per the priorities. Following up the schedule of the activities for early completion. Checking up the activities & taking the corrective action (if any). It is observed that effective time management result$ in: better physical health, better mental health, relaxed feeling in action, higher motivation & enthusiasm, higher efficiency, better job satisfaction, etc.
Physical Exercise It is rightly said that 'there is a sound mind in a sound body '. A physical' exercise at any age is a must. It helps people to cope with the stress. It is for this reason that people of all ages are seen taking morning walk, jogging, swimming, playing outdoor games like badminton or tennis.- etc:
Relaxation There are many ways of relaxation at the end of a hectic day of work & stress. We can have relaxation through meditation, hypnosis, biofeedback, yoga, etc. Whatever the method, the main objective is that one must have deep relaxation, where the person feels totally relaxed from the body sensations, At least 15 to 20 minutes a day of deep relaxation releases tension & provides with a pronounce sense of peace of mind. This practice causes significant changes in the blood pressure, heart rate, sleep, concentration, memory, etc.
Social Support, Man is a social animal. After the basic needs and the security needs are satisfied, an individual needs a social support with a sense of belonging. It is observed that social support plays an important role in relieving stress of the individual, because the person gets friends, colleagues, listeners, and confidence builders who help in networking and thus relieving the harmful stress. This also helps to control the ill effects of stress, by virtue of giving a vent to one's feelings, emotions, fears and frustrations to others, who can understand and possibly try help him/her out.
Yoga
Yoga is said to be the most effective way to relieve the stress. Yoga has been used in many. countries for centuries. There are many different aspects of Yoga which are said to be very useful for managing the stress. However, it is advisable that Yoga & Meditation should be followed under some expert's guidance for the maximum benefit to reduce the stress.
Organisational Strategies
Organisation Structure The organisation structure should be properly designed in order to have appropriate authority- responsibility relationships among the employees. It helps to have smooth organisational communication for faster decision making. Too many levels of hierarchy and too much of bureaucracy in day to day working can cause avoidable stress for all employees at all levels. The organisation structure should be simple to understand and easier to follow.
Organisational Communication This consists of various factors like: oral & written communication; downward, upward & lateral communication; interpersonal & Intergroup communication; grapevine; communication networking; etc. All these factors contribute to the efficiency & effectiveness of the organisation, which in turn affect the employees for their work related stress. Organisational communication with downward and upward channels, equally open for all employees, helps to reduce the work stress.
Job related activities Job re-design, job analysis, job descriptions, job specifications, job evaluation, job enlargement. job enrichment, job rotation. work-study, etc. are some of the modern tools & techniques for attracting & retaining good employees in the organisation, with the least stressful environment for all.
Recruitment / Selection / Placement Certain jobs are more stressful than others in the organisation. Individuals differ in their response to stress situations. Individuals with comparatively less experience with an external locus of control tend to be more stress prone. On the contrary, people with more experience with an internal locus of control may adapt better to high stress jobs with a better performance. These factors should be borne in mind while recruiting people. It is necessary to give some kind of an induction training to the new employees in order to orient them to the new organisation culture, so that they can be better prepared to take up the stressful jobs.
Appropriate training & development programmes should be organised for employees at all levels from time to time, so that they are updated in their knowledge, skills and attitudes towards their jobs & the organisation. This helps both the management & the employees to reduce the gap between the job requirements on the one hand & the capabilities of the employees on the other. This automatically reduces the possibilities of stressful situations, which can be caused by apprehensions about the changes if any.
Performance Appraisal There should be a systematic, scientific & periodic performance appraisal system in force for all employees. By this process, both the management & the employees know as to how they are doing & how they should do. Extra-ordinary performers should be rewarded extra-ordinarily. Average performers should be given counselling and the necessary training inputs for improvement. The mediocre/ below average performers should be given a clear idea for their improvement within a stipulated time limit. This helps to reduce the number of stressed employees and others may be relieved to some extent, at least from the unnecessary & avoidable stress.
Employee Counselling Employee counseling can be classified in two parts: on-the-job counseling and off-the-job counseling. Both these are skilled & sensitive jobs and need qualified & competent staff to do the job of counseling successfully. The objectives of the employee counseling can be three-fold : to improve the overall organisational efficiency, . to reduce the employee stress, and to improve the employee efficiency.
Employee counseling, if properly done, can yield very good results not only in terms of reducing the employee stress, but also in terms of improvement in the overall organisational Productivity.
Organisation Culture
Cultural Symbols are words, gestures and picture or other physical objects that carry a particular meaning within a culture. Shared Behaviours are norms in the organisation which are more vixsible snd somewhat easier to change than values. Cultural Values represents collective beliefs, assumptions and feelings about what things are good, normal, rational. And valuable. Shared Assumptions represent basic beliefs about reality, human nature, and the way things should be done.
Forming a Culture
An organisational culture forms in response to two major challenges that confront every organisation. They are: External adaptation and survival Internal Integration
Forming a Culture External adaptation and survival This involves addressing the following issues: Mission and Strategy: identifying primary purpose and selecting startegies. Goals: Setting specific targets. Means: Determining how to pursue the goals. Measurement: Establishing criteria to determine how well individuals, teams accomplish the goals.
Forming a Culture Internal Integration Internal integration involves addressing the following issues: Language and concepts: Identifying methods of communication and developing a shared meaning for important concepts. Group and team boundaries: Establishing criteria for membership in groups and teams. Power and status: determining the rules of acquiring, maintaining and loose power and status. rewards and punishments: developing systems for encouraging desirable behaviour and discouraging undesirable behaviour.
Organisational Culture
Bureaucratic Culture
An organisation that values formality, rules, standard operating procedures, and hierarchical coordination has a bureaucratic culture. concerns of a bureaucratic culture are: - predictability - efficiency and - stability Mangers view their role as as being coordinators and enforces written rules and standards. Tasks, responsibilities, and authority are clearly defined. Employees believe that they go by the book as rules and process are clearly defined in the manual..
Clan Culture
Tradition, Loyalty, personal commitment extensive socialization, teamwork, self management, and social influence are attributes of clan culture. Its member recognise an obligation beyond the simple exchange of labour for a salary.They understand that contribution to the organisation may exceed any contractual agreement. Long term security is given to the employee in exchange of his loyalty. A clan culture achieves unity through socialisation process.The serve as a mentors and role models of its new members. They have pride in membership and strong sense of identification and recognise their common fate in the organisation. A clan culture generates feelings of personal ownership of a business, a product or an idea.
Entrepreneurial Culture
The characteristics of Entrepreneurial culture are: - high level risk taking - dynamism - creativity - experimentation - innovation This culture do not react to changes in the environment it creats change. They are mostly small to mid-sized companies.
Market Culture
Its characteristics are: - achievement of measurable and demanding goals - hard driving competitiveness - Profit orientation In this culture relation between individual and organisation is contractual. The individual is responsible for some level of performance. Organisation promises some level of award in return. There is no promise of security Interaction between superior and subordinates are largely on negotiating performance and reward agreements. It is often tied to monthly, quarterly annual performance goal based profits.
CLAN CULTURE
ENTREPRENEURIAL CULTURE
BUREAUCRATIC CULTURE
MARKET CULTURE
Stable
Forces for change Force Examples -------------------------------------------------------------------------Nature of the workforce More cultural diversity Increase in professionals Many new entrants with inadequate skills Faster and cheaper computers Technology New mobile communication device Deciphering of human genetic code Economic shocks Rise and fall of dot.com stocks Decline in the value of euro Collapse of Enron Corp
Forces for change Force Examples -------------------------------------------------------------------------Competition Global competitors Mergers and consolidations Growth of e-commerce Social trends Internet chat Increased interest in urban living Escalation of hostilities/terrorism Opening markets in China War on terrorism
World politics
Resistance to change
Individual Resistance
Sources of Individual Resistance to Change Selective information processing Individual Resistance Fear of the unknown Economic factors Security
Habit
Organisational Resistance
Sources of Organisational Resistance to Change Threat to established revenue allocation Threat to established power relationship Structural inertia Organisational Resistance Limited focus of change
Threat to expertise
Group inertia
1. Education and communication 2. Participation 3. Facilitation and support 4. Negotiation 5. Manipulation and cooptation 6. Coercion
Unfreezing change efforts to overcome the pressure of both individual resistance and group conformity. Moving changing, individuals learn to behave in new ways after having convinced that their present behaviour is inappropriate. Refreezing stabilising a change
1. Change is necessary 2. Become person oriented 3. Take opportunities for Advancement 4. Keep up with technology 5. Introduce change effectively 6. Have Personal Control over Life
GROUP DYNAMICS
Group
Two or more individual, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve particular objectives.
Formal Group
Informal Group
A group that is neither formally structured nor organisationally determined; appears in response to the need for social contact.
Command Group
A group composed of the individuals who report directly to a given manager and is determined by the organisation chart.
Task Group
Those working together to complete a job task and also organisationally determined.
Interest Group
Those working together to attain a specific objective with which each is concerned.
Group Dynamics
Group Dynamics Refers to Changes Which Take Place Within Groups and Is Concerned With the Interaction and Forces Obtained Between Group Members in a Social Setting.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
FORMING
Forming Stage
Forming Stage
Acceptance Within The Group Dependence On The Group Safe Patterned Behaviour Avoiding Controversy
STORMING
Storming Stage
Storming Stage
Conflict And Competition Within The Group Fear Of Failure Hostilities Are Formed Some Members Are Silent Few Members Are Dominant
NORMING
Norming stage
Norming stage
Bonding Among The Group Members Solving Of Personal Issues Leadership Is Shared Sense Of Group Belonging
PERFORMING
Performing Stage
The fourth stage in group development, when the group is fully functional.
Performing Stage
Members Adjust According To The Needs Group Is Highly Productive Group Unity Exist Emphasis On Achievement
ADJOURNING
Adjourning Stage
The final stage in group development for temporary groups, charecterised by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance.
Adjourning Stage
Termination Of Group Disengagement Of Relationships Recognition Of Work Can Create Some Apprehensions
Determinants of group Behaviour The elements of the organisation that will have influence on the group includes: 1.Organisation Strategy 2.Authority Structure 3.Formal Regulations 4.Organisational Resources 5.Procurement of Personnel 6.Performance Appraisal and Reward System 7.Organisational Culture 8.Physical Work Setting
CRITERIA Leadership
GROUPS
TEAMS
Sum of individual Collective and outputs synergistic Diverse Common goal Complementary Common commitment
Effective Teamwork
Effective Teamwork Organisational success depends on teamwork rather than individual output. Team work depends on: 1.Cooperation 2.Trust 3.Training 4.Rewards
Work
Work is use of individuals psychological and mental processes in attainment of some goal.
Characteristics of Work
A hypothetical work curve shows that decrement in productivity occurs after productivity reaches to certain level. This fall in productivity will vary according to the type of work
Reasons for Decrement The main reasons for decrement are: 1. Fatigue 2. Boredom
Fatigue
Fatigue is defined as the tiredness of the body as a result of continuous physical activity. Fatigue is reaction of the body to the continuous work. Fatigue can be avoided by introducing authorised rest pauses.
Boredom
Boredom is the reaction of the mind to having to do the same work continuously. It arises from conflict between the necessity for doing a dull job and wanting to turn to more interesting activities.
Creating Favourable Work Environment In order to create favourable work environment and better performance of the employee some changes in the work environment may be implemented. These are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Noise Music Illumination Colour Atmospheric effects
Person A
Person B
Person Bs goals
the potential to influence others people have power they dont use and may not know they possess power requires one persons perception of dependence on another person
Contingencies of power
Consequences of power
Sources of power Expert power Referent power Legitimate power Reward power Coercive power Consequences of power
Commitment
Compliance
Resistance
Organisational politics
Creating obligations
Controlling information
Cultivating networks
Forming coalitions
Personal characteristics
Scarce resources