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Abstract:
Hipotronics, Inc. P.O. Box 414, 1650 Route 22 Brewster, NY 10509-0414 Tel: (845) 279-3644 Fax: (845) 279-2467
When under ground cables fail it can a very difficult, time consuming, and an expensive process to repair or replace the cable. This paper discusses how Time Domain Reflection (TDR) can help speed up and reduce costs in replacing underground cable. TDR fault locating uses radar technology to help determine where the failures or imperfections are in an underground cable system. This is done performing calculations, which include velocity of propagation and reflection coefficients, on cables that are characterized by a simple RLC network. Failures in underground cable can include water in the cable, changes in insulation and concentric neutral corrosion. By using the three stake method and a TDR users can typical determine the location of the fault within 1% accuracy of the total cable length.
General:
TDR method can be compared to Radar. Suitably shaped electrical pulses are transmitted thorough the cable under test. Imperfections in the cable being tested cause reflections. By examining the shape, size and time delay of these reflections, it is possible to determine the nature and location of an imperfection, which may be caused by a splice, cable transition, transformer, short, open, fault, etc.
Transmit Pulse:
Size and shapes are described as Pulse Width and Pulse Amplitude. Pulses used in TDRs are very narrow. Most systems start as low as 50nS for short lengths ranging up to 5 or 10uS for long lengths. Internal pulse amplitude normally ranges between 15 to 20 volts with minimal amount of energy which poses no danger to the operator and does not cause any damage to the cable under test.
Characteristic Impedance:
Cable impedance designs can be described as a distributed parameter of an electric network. The network design of a power cable is shown in figure 1.
L= Series inductance of stored energy in the magnetic field per unit length C= Shunt capacitance of stored energy in the electric field per unit length R= Series resistance per unit length G= Losses in the dielectric by the shunt resistance per unit length Z0= Combined parameter characteristic impedance Z0 for power cables has a value between 10 75 ohms. Fig. 1 - Distributed parameter electric network
Fig. 2 - TDR pulse reflections for an open and short circuit. Other variations on these pulses are displayed in figure 3, 4, and 5
Velocity of Propagation
Different types of cables have an effect on how fast the TDR pulse travels down the length of cable. For accurate distance measurements it is important to look at the speed with which the pulse travels on a particular type of cable. This speed is referred to as velocity of propagation (typical values seen in Table 1 on the next page). Rather than expressing the Velocity of Propagation, (Vp ) in miles per hour it generally is expressed in feet, yards, or meters per microsecond (s). This Velocity of Propagation value varies from one type of cable to another and remains pretty constant for any one type of cable. This value of Vp for any particular cable depends on the dielectric constant of the insulating material used. In TDR measurements Vp/2 is used. Taking of Vp is done to eliminate confusion over the fact that reflection cannot be observed where and when it actually occurs. The pulse has to travel to the fault and back to the test set, which then will be displayed on the LCD screen of the TDR. This measurement would be twice the distance we are seeking. Using Vp/2 instead of Vp, the distance indicated on the LCD screen of the TDR is the true distance to the fault.
KV class 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 25 25 35 --
Typical velocity of propagation values Mils Cable Size Type Desc. 175 #1CU XLPE 175 #2AL XLPE 175 #2CU XLPE 175 #4CU XLPE 175 1/O XLPE 175 1/O TRXLPE 175 2/O XLPE 175 4/O XLPE 175 500MCM XLPE 175 750MCM XLPE 175 1000MCM TRXLPE 175 #2AL EPR 175 1/O EPR 175 4/O EPR 220 1/OAL TRXLPE 260 1/OAL TRXLPE 260 1/OAL TRXLPE CU Ribbon 345 1/O XLPE 2/O Mining Trailing 4/OMPF 2/OMPF 2/O GGC Round #2 GGC Round #4-4/c W Round Pilot Wire Avg.
Vp/2 277 248 257 258 261 255 243 236 263 268 215 272 254 286 275 270 285 283 215 270 260 250 270 265 300
* When sectionalizing values will vary depending on the number of transformers and splices * A typcial Vp/2 number to use on power cable is between 250 to 260 Table 1 Typical velocity of propagation values for various cable types
Reflection Coefficient
The magnitude of the pulse reflections depends on how much the fault impedance; Z differs from the characteristic impedance, Z0. The amount of reflection, r can be calculated from: r = Z Z0 Z + Z0 For a short circuit Z = 0 and the reflection r = -1, which means 100% of the pulse is reflected as a Negative pulse. If the fault resistance Z = Z0, the reflection r = 0; this fault occurs frequently on cables with lead sheath and oil impregnated paper insulation. The cable may have been burnt to lower the fault resistance; @ Z = Z0 no reflection exists. For an open circuit, Z is infinite and the reflection r = +1, which means 100% of the pulse is reflected a s a positive pulse.
Applications
Under field conditions, working with already buried lines, the reflection patterns are not always as well defined and easily recognizable as shown in idealized graphs. Good runs of cable usually will show quite a few reflections due to the changes of the uniform impedance along the cable run. These changes occur when splices, transformers, new cable is spliced in are introduced to the complete cable run. Interpretation of these reflections comes with experience as well comparing distances to these changes to mapping systems identifying these points. For fault location most TDRs utilize a low energy pulse (TDR) to be used to compare with the high-energy pulse (ARC Reflect) created by a thumper for distance measurements to the cable fault.
If the cable has a characteristic impedance Z0 = 30 and its ohm reading is 100,000. The reflection can be calculated as: r=(-30)/(200,00+30)=0.00015 which is 0.015%. This reflection cannot be seen with a TDR because other naturally occurring irregularities are considerably larger. High resistance faults on cables with solid dielectrics cannot be seen with the low energy TDR alone. Comparison of an Arc Reflective pulse to the TDR pulse is done to give a distance reference to the fault. Arc Reflection TDR is used with a High Energy Capacitor Discharge system, which is needed in order to break down the fault Resistive Fault.
Fig. 6 Wet section of cable Water and dissolved chemicals will change the dielectric properties of a cable and the velocity of propagation. While the beginning of the wet section will show accurately, the end of it will not. To get this measurement you would need to take a reading from the other end of the cable.
Conclusion:
The three stake method and a TDR is a easy way to locate and determine what type of fault there is in an under ground cable system. This can help the user save time and money. For more information on cable fault locating and using TDR technology please contact Hipotronics. sales@hipotronics.com +1 845-279-3644