BUGEMA UNIVERSITY BACHELOR OF ARTS (ECDE) PECE 321: SCIENCE EDUCATION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD COURSE OUTLINE Lecturer: John

Ayieko Introduction Definition of terms Childs concept in science Development of science concept Concepts in science The family The school The society Teaching methods Play Discovery Problem solving Explanation Discussion Integration of science with other learning areas Language education Mathematics education Life skills Creative activities Music and movement Physical activities Social studies Basic science syllabus Materials to be used in science education Assessment Mode of delivery Lectures, demonstration ,question and answer, case study, discussion, educational trip Instructional materials Chalkboard,lecture notes,course books Course assessment CATS Examination 30% 70%

References Barbara ,J(1991).a child goes forth. New York: Macmillan publishing company Choudhurg, R.(2002).preschool children. New Delhi: new age international limited Cobb ,N.(2001)the child :California: Mayfield publishing KIE (2008) early childhood development and education. Nairobi: KIE KIE (1995) importance of toys in early childhood care and education news. Nairobi: KIE

What Is Science? Science is both a body of knowledge that represents current understanding of natural systems and the process whereby that body of knowledge has been established and is continually extended, refined, and revised. Both elements are essential: one cannot make progress in science without an understanding of both. Likewise, in learning science one must come to understand both the body of knowledge and the process by which this knowledge is established, extended, refined, and revised. Before turning to a deeper discussion of science for the very young, it is helpful to describe our view of science. The goal of science is to understand the natural world through a process known as scientific inquiry. Scientific knowledge helps us explain the world around us, such as why water evaporates and plants grow in particular locations, what causes disease, and how electricity works. Scientific knowledge can help us predict what might happen: a hurricane may hit the coast; the flu will be severe this winter. Scientific knowledge can also help solve problems such as unclean water or the spread of diseases. Science can guide technological development to serve our needs and interests, such as high-speed travel and talking on the telephone. Science means different things to different people. Some think of it as a list of facts once memorized in school. Others understand it as a body of knowledge, including facts, concepts, principles, laws, theories, and models that explain the workings of the natural world. But, as is clear from the quote above, science is more than knowledge and information; it also is a process of studying and finding outwhich we call scientific inquiry or science practice. According to the National Science Education standards, Science inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on evidence from their work (National Science Research Council, 1996, p. 23). Many scientists also speak of the fun and creativity of doing science. A famous scientist, Richard Feynman, once said of his work, Why did I enjoy doing it (physics)? I used to play with it. I used to do whatever I felt like doing [depending on] whether it was interesting and amusing for me to play with Some people, when they think of people doing science, imagine laboratories filled with scientists in white coats mixing chemicals and looking through microscopes. Such images are real, but there are other images of scientists charting the course of a hurricane, studying the behaviors of wolves, searching the skies for comets. But scientists are not the only people who do science. Many jobs involve science, such as electrician, horticulturalist, architect, and car mechanic. And people of all ages learn about the world through actions that begin to approximate scientific practicefor example, when an amateur gardener asks a question, How much light does my geranium need to flower well?, tries out different locations, and observes the results. These activities, by scientists and nonscientists, whether happening in the laboratory, in the field, or at home, have in common the active use of the basic tools of inquiry in the service of understanding how the world works. Children and adults, experts and beginners, all share the need to have these tools at hand as they build their understanding of the world.

The Science of Young Children These notes provide an image of science teaching and learning in the early childhood classroom in which teachers and children are engaged in inquiries into scientific phenomenaanimal behaviors and, more specifically, the behaviors of snails. They suggest the potential of 3- to 5-year-old children to engage in the practices of science. These notes also provide a small window into science for young children that is based on several beliefs that have guided my work: (1) doing science is a natural and critical part of childrens early learning; (2) childrens curiosity about the natural world is a powerful catalyst for their work and play; (3) with the appropriate guidance, this natural curiosity and need to make sense of the world become the foundation for beginning to use skills of inquiry to explore basic phenomena and materials of the world surrounding children; and (4) This early science exploration can be a rich context in which children can use and develop other important skills, including working with one another, basic large- and small-motor control, language, and early mathematical understanding. The Content of Science for Young Children Children entering school already have substantial knowledge of the natural world, much of which is implicit. Contrary to older views, young children are not concrete and simplistic thinkers. Research shows that childrens thinking is surprisingly sophisticated. Children can use a wide range of reasoning processes that form the underpinnings of scientific thinking, even though their experience is variable and they have much more to learn. The content of science for young children is a sophisticated interplay among concepts, scientific reasoning, the nature of science, and doing science. It is not primarily a science of information. While facts are important, children need to begin to build an understanding of basic concepts and how they connect and apply to the world in which they live. And the thinking processes and skills of science are also important. In our work developing curriculum for teachers, we have focused equally on science inquiry and the nature of science, and contentbasic concepts and the topics through which they are explored. In the process of teaching and learning, these are inseparable, but here I discuss them separately. Science Inquiry and the Nature of Science The phrase children are naturally scientists is one we hear often. Their curiosity and need to make the world a more predictable place certainly drives them to explore and draw conclusions and theories from their experiences. But left to themselves, they are not quite natural scientists. Children need guidance and structure to turn their natural curiosity and activity into something more scientific. They need to practice scienceto engage in rich scientific inquiry. In our work, we have used a simple inquiry learning cycle (Worth & Grollman, 2003, p. 19) to provide a guiding structure for teachers as they facilitate childrens investigations (Figure 1). The cycle begins with an extended period of engagement where children explore the selected phenomenon and materials, experiencing what they are and can do, wondering about them, raising questions, and sharing ideas. This is followed by a more guided stage as questions are identified that might be investigated further. Some of these may be the childrens questions, others may be introduced by the teacher, but their purpose is to begin the process of more focused and deeper explorations involving prediction, planning, collecting, and recording data; organizing experiences; and looking for patterns and relationships that eventually can be shared and from which new questions may emerge. This structure is not rigid, nor is it linearthus the many arrows. And while it is used here to suggest a scaffold for inquiry-based science teaching and learning it closely resembles how scientists work and, in interesting ways, how children learn. Young Children's Inquiry

Scientific inquiry provides the opportunity for children to develop a range of skills, either explicitly or implicitly. The following is one such list: * Explore objects, materials, and events. * Raise questions. * Make careful observations. * Engage in simple investigations. * Describe (including shape, size, number), compare, sort, classify, and order. * Record observations using words, pictures, charts, and graphs. * Use a variety of simple tools to extend observations. * Identify patterns and relationships. * Develop tentative explanations and ideas. * Work collaboratively with others. * Share and discuss ideas and listen to new perspectives. This description of the practice of doing science is quite different from some of the science work in evidence in many classrooms where there may be a science table on which sit interesting objects and materials, along with observation and measurement tools such as magnifiers and balances. Too often the work stops there, and little is made of the observations children make and the questions they raise. Another form of science is activity-based science where children engage in a variety of activities that generate excitement and interest but that rarely lead to deeper thinking. There are a multitude of science activity books that support this form of science in the classroom. Thematic units and projects are yet other vehicles for science work in the classroom. These can be rich and challenging; however, they may not have a focus on science. Transportation or a study of the neighborhood are typical examples that have the potential for engaging children in interesting science but frequently focus more on concepts of social studies.If these projects or themes are to truly engage students in science, care needs to be taken to be sure that science is in the foreground, and the integration with other subject matter is appropriate and related to the science. Science Content With an of the practice of science that guides how we approach science inquiry in the early childhood classroom, we turn to the question of the content of science for this age. There are many phenomena that can be explored, many questions to be explored, many basic concepts to be introduced, and many topics to choose from, so rather than make a list of possible subject matter and topics, following are key criteria for guiding decisions about topic selection. At the core of inquiry-based science is direct exploration of phenomena and materials. Thus, the first criterion is that phenomena selected for young children must be available for direct exploration and drawn from the environment in which they live. The study of snails is an example of an exploration that meets these criteria. Others include light and shadow, moving objects, structures, and plant and animal life cycles. Examples of some that do not meet these criteria include such popular topics as dinosaurs or space travel. While these are often brought up by children because they are part of the media environment around them, they are not appropriate content for inquiry-based science in the classroom because they present no opportunity for direct exploration on the childrens part and even the simplest explanatory ideas are developmentally problematic. Other topics often chosen in early childhood classrooms such as the rain forest or animals of the Arctic (polar bears and penguins) may be based in appropriate concepts (habitat, physical characteristics, and adaptation of animals), but these too lack the possibility for direct engagement. Topics such as these need not be excluded. They can be the subject of important dramatic play, elaborate discussion, and exploration using books and other secondary sources. The problem arises when they take time away from or substitute for inquiry-based science experiences.

The second criterion is that the concepts underlying the childrens work be concepts that are important to science. For example, in the exploration of snails, the underlying concept is the behavior of animals and how behaviors are related to physical structure and an animals way of meeting its needs. Such an experience provides a base from which children will gradually develop an understanding of adaptation and evolution. Studying shadows is another example, where childrens experiences build a foundation for understanding a key concept about lightthat it travels in straight lines. Working with balls on ramps is yet another example where skillfully guided experiences build a foundation for later understanding of forces and motion. A third criterion is that the focus of science be on concepts that are developmentally appropriate and can be explored from multiple perspectives, in depth, and over time. When children have many and varied opportunities to explore a phenomenon, they come to the final stages of inquiry with a rich set of experiences on which to base their reflections, their search for patterns and relationships, and their developing theories. In our example of the snails, the teacher focuses the childrens attention first on description. But the next step might be to compare the snails motion to that of an earthworm and a sow bug. This might be followed by observing their own movement and that of other familiar animals and a continuing discussion about similarities and differences and how movement relates to where an animal lives and how it gets its food. In contrast to this depth and breadth are experiences with phenomena such as magnets that are very engaging, but once children have noted what they do, there is little else to explore. With a range of experiences, children are more likely to be able to think about connections among them, question their nave ideas, and develop new ones. Equally important, the third criterion is that the phenomena, concepts, and topics must be engaging and interesting to the children AND their teachers. While not a criterion for the selection of content for an individual unit, across a year, the science program should reflect a balance of life and physical science. For many reasons, teachers are more comfortable with the life sciences and steer away from physical science. This leaves out explorations of deep interest to children and deprives them of the challenges and excitement of experimentation. Inquiry into life science is different from inquiry into physical science, the former being more observational, taking place slowly over time. Inquiry in the physical sciences is more experimental with immediate results. Both are important, so it is balance that is important in an early childhood science program. The Classroom Science activities Water tables continue to be one of the favorite centers in the room. I love seeing how engaged the kids become filling cups, emptying cups, moving water from one compartment in the water table to another. It was too cold for the kids to go outside today, so the kids in my small group did a clay project instead. The theme for the project was making things that can hold water. Tonya made a pot. Alex made a vase. Sam made a bowl. Ben made a pancake, then rolled it up. When I asked him what he was making, he said, a pipe. Tonya was quick to point out that pipes dont hold water, but Ben didnt care. The idea of making a pipe for water to go through, rather than a container for water to hold, captured his interest and everyone elses in the group, too. And suddenly, all the kids were making pipes! The kids in my small group asked if they could keep making clay pipes today, so we did. It was Tonyas idea to roll the clay around wooden cylinders, then remove the cylinders so that there is a hole for the water to move through, and everyone followed suit. After completing each pipe, they then told me where to attach itwatching very carefully to see if a hole needed to be bigger so that the water wouldnt get stuck. They can really imagine how the water is going to move. Later Sam and Ben worked on making a

long pipe. They wanted water to come out of both ends at once, so Sam suggested cutting a hole in the middle of the top so that they can add another pipe there. I asked him where that idea came from. He paused for a minute, and then said, I was riding my bike really, really fast, and it made me think of water going down the pipe. All of these pipes attached together are quite a sight. The kids have even given it a namethey call it Water Town. During free choice, the kids continue to spend lots of time at the water tableusing the tubes and Tconnectors, exploring how water goes up and down and around the water wire wall. Its almost as if the kids explorations at the water table are feeding their work with Water Town. At the same time, their work on Water Town feeds their work at the water table. After all, its at the water table where they can test out new ideas and possibilities that they can then bring back to Water Town. There are many implications for the classroom given this view of science. Here I will briefly address science in the child-centered curriculum, the role of materials, the use of time and space, the key role of discussion and representation, and the teachers role. Science in the Child-Centered Curriculum There are many definitions for child-centered curriculum that fall along a continuum. At one end is the belief that much of the curriculum is centered on the childrens ideas and questions. It is co-constructed by the child and the teacher. At the other end is a structured program with little child input except during free time. The reality of a good science curriculum is that it sits in between these extremes. The phenomena and the basic concepts are determined by the teacher, perhaps because of an interest she has observed in the classroom, but this need not be the case. Once a phenomenon is introduced and children begin their explorations, their questions may guide much of what follows. From this perspective, the question to be asked is not, Whose question is it? but rather, Are the children engaged? Children need to own the content, but it need not necessarily be initiated by them. In the example above, water was the teachers science focus. But the idea of pipes and Water Town clearly belonged to the children. Materials for Science The selection of and access to materials are critical to science. It is through the materials that children confront and manipulate the phenomenon in question. To the extent possible, the materials must be open ended, transparent, and selected because they allow children to focus on important aspects of the phenomenon. This is in contrast to materials that by their appearance and the ways in which they can be manipulated guide what children do and think. One example of the difference is the prefabricated marble run. Rather than creating their own roadway for marbles and struggling to make it work, the marble run has done the thinking for the children. All they need to do is drop the marble in and watch it roll. This is very different from using blocks and some form of gutter materials where they need to grapple with the slope, the corners, the intersection of the parts, and solve the problem of getting the marble to reach their finish line. Another example is the use of transparent tubing, droppers, and funnels in the water exploration as described in the teachers journal above. The materials themselves are open ended, and the movement of water visible. A third example is the use of multiple kinds of blocks and construction materials when investigating structures. In such an investigation, Legos might be temporarily removed because the fact that they snap together reduces the challenge of building towers and walls and thus reduces the focus on the forces at work. The exploration of the natural world is the stuff of childhood. Science, when viewed as a process of constructing understanding and developing ideas, is a natural focus in the early childhood program. As described here, childrens inquiry into appropriate phenomena is not only the place to build foundational experiences for later science learning, it is fertile ground for the development of many cognitive skills. It

also is a context in which children can develop and practice many basic skills of literacy and mathematics. Finally, science is a collaborative endeavor in which working together and discussing ideas are central to the practice Time and Space for Science Good science investigations take place over extended time, both short term and long term. Engaged children may stay with something for significant periods of time, and some children may need time to get involved. The typical schedule in the classrooms of young children often militates against inquiry-based science learning. Short 20- or 30-minute activity or choice times allow children to start but not continue their work. In addition, if science work is episodic and not available regularly during the week, continuity is lost and the opportunity to draw conclusions reduced. Science also needs to be talked about and documented. This, too, takes time. Science needs space. If children are to engage with phenomena in many different ways, activity may need to be spread out in the classroom and outdoors. Building structures may happen in the block area, on table tops, in the sand table. Germinating seeds need to be put somewhere, as do plants that are growing in other ways and interesting collections from outdoors. An investigation of shadows might include a shadow puppet theater, a darkened alcove for playing with flashlights, and a lamp and screen to explore shapes. The implication of this need for space and time is that focusing on a science study may require that other things be set aside or changed. The morning circle routine might become a science talk a couple of time a week. The dramatic play corner might be a shadow puppet theater, and the water table might be closed to dish washing and baby doll bathing. Discussion and Representation in Science Discussion and representation are both critical to science learning and an important part of the inquiry process and the development of science reasoning. Both in small groups and in large ones, discussion encourages children to think about what they have experienced, listen to the experiences of others, and reflect on their ideas. Similarly, representation using a variety of mediaincluding drawing, writing, and collageencourages children to observe closely and reflect on their experiences over time as well as build vocabulary and language structures. George Forman, emeritus professor at the University of Massachusetts, in an unpublished comment says it this way, Experience is not the best teacher. It sounds like heresy, but when you think about it, its reflection on experience that makes it educational (Conference presentation). The Teachers Role The teachers role is critical to childrens science learning, and it is a complex one that is informed by her knowledge of children, of teaching and learning, and of pedagogical science knowledge. I want to highlight just one of thesepedagogical science knowledge. Childrens scientific inquiry is guided by the teachers explicit understanding of the important underlying science concepts of the focus she has chosen. For example, the childrens work with water in the teacher journal above is indeed about pipes and Water Town, but it is also about how water flowsa basic property of liquids. While explicit teaching of the concept is not appropriate, the structure of the experiences and the teachers facilitation is guided by her understanding of the concepts and how children learn them. Her questions, comments, and probes draw the childrens attention to the conceptin this case, that water flows and flows down. In the study of snails, described earlier, the children were interested in lots of thingswhether snails liked each other, how they had babies, how they got in their shells. In the notes, we see the teacher picking up on one of those interests and a basic characteristic of animal behavior and adaptationhow they move. This kind of teacher guidance and facilitation is based in each teachers understanding of the concepts behind the childrens work and enables her to encourage children to notice and reflect on key aspects of the phenomenon they are exploring. Conclusion

For many years, the role of early childhood education has been focused on childrens social, emotional, and physical development as well as very basic skills in language and arithmetic. Although work with materials is fundamental to early childhood, focusing childrens thinking on the science of these experiences is rare. Science activities often are seen as vehicles for the development of vocabulary and skills such as small motor coordination, counting, and color and shape recognition. These activities are not parts of long-term explorations or sequenced into projects focused on the science concepts and emphasizing the processes of scientific inquiry. This is exacerbated when teachers are uncomfortable with science, have little science background, and lack confidence in their abilities to teach science to children. In many settings, the new knowledge about childrens cognitive potential is not being used to broaden and deepen the science curriculum to include more in-depth and challenging experiences. Instead, the increasing concern about reading has reinforced the almost singular focus on learning basic skills of literacy, numeracy, and socialization. It also is bringing to the early childhood setting increased pressure for accountability, leaving little room for childrens rich play and exploration of the world around them. How Fundamental Concepts and Skills Develop As any scientist knows, the best way to learn science is to do science. This is the only way to get to the real business of asking questions, conducting investigations, collecting data, and looking for answers. With young children, this strategy can best be accomplished by examining natural phenomena that can be studied over time. Children need to have a chance to ask and answer questions, do investigations, and learn to apply problem-solving skills. Active, hands-on, student-centered inquiry is at the core of good science education. Concepts are the building blocks of knowledge; they allow people to organize and categorize information. During early childhood, children actively engage in acquiring fundamental concepts and in learning fundamental process skills. As we watch children in their everyday activities at various stages of development, we can observe them constructing and using concepts such as * one-to-one correspondenceputting pegs in pegboard holes or passing one apple to each child at the table; * countingcounting the pennies from the penny bank or the number of straws needed for every child at the table; * classifyingplacing square shapes in one pile and round shapes in another or putting cars in one garage and trucks in another; and * measuringpouring sand, water, rice, or other materials from one container to another. Young children begin to construct many concepts during the pre-primary period, including mathematics and science concepts. They also develop the processes that enable them to apply their newly acquired concepts, expand existing concepts, and develop new ones. As they enter the primary period (grades one through three), children apply their early, basic concepts when exploring more abstract inquiries and concepts in science. Using these concepts also helps them understand more complex concepts in mathematics such as multiplication, division, and the use of standard units of measurement (Charlesworth and Lind 1995). Concepts used in science grow and develop as early as infancy. Babies explore the world with their senses. They look, touch, smell, hear, and taste. Children are born curious and want to know all about their environment. As children learn to crawl, to stand, and to walk, they are free to discover more on their own and learn to think for themselves. They begin to learn ideas of size: As they look about, they sense their relative smallness. They go over, under, and into large objects and discover the size of these objects relative to their own size. They grasp things and find that some fit their tiny hands, and others do

not. Infants learn about weight when they cannot always lift items of the same size. They learn about shape: Some things stay put while others roll away. They learn time sequence: When they wake up, they feel wet and hungry. They cry. The caretaker comes. They are changed and then fed. Next they play, get tired, and go to sleep. As babies first look and then move, they discover space: Some spaces are big and some spaces are small. With time, babies develop spatial sense: They are placed in a crib or playpen in the center of the living room Toddlers sort things. They put them in pilesof the same color, the same size, the same shape, or with the same use. Young children pour sand and water into containers of different sizes. They pile blocks into tall structures and see them fall and become small parts again. The free exploring and experimentation of a childs first two years help to develop muscle coordination and the senses of taste, smell, sight, and hearingskills and senses that serve as a basis for future learning. As children enter preschool and kindergarten, exploration continues to be the first step in dealing with new situations. At this time, however, children also begin to apply basic concepts to collecting and organizing data to answer a question. Collecting data requires skills in observation, counting, recording, and organizing. For example, for a science investigation, kindergartners might be interested in the process of plant growth. Supplied with lima bean seeds, wet paper towels, and glass jars, the children place the seeds in the jars, securing the seeds to the sides of the jars with the paper towels. Each day they add water, if needed, and observe what is happening to the seeds. They dictate their observation to their teacher, who records their comments on a chart. Each child also plants some beans in dirt in a small container such as a paper or plastic cup. The teacher supplies each child with a chart for his or her bean garden. The children check off each day on their charts until they see a sprout. Then they count how many days it took for a sprout to appear, comparing this number with those of other class members, as well as with the time it takes for the seeds in the glass jars to sprout. The children have used the concepts of number and counting, one-to-one correspondence, time, and comparison of the number of items in two groups. Primary-level children might attack the same problem, but they can operate more independently and record more information, use standard measuring tools, and do background reading on their own. How Science Concepts Are Acquired Children acquire fundamental concepts through active involvement with their environment. As they explore their surroundings, they actively construct their own knowledge. Charlesworth and Lind (1995) characterize specific learning experiences with young children as naturalistic (or spontaneous), informal, or structured. These experiences differ in terms of who controls the activity: the adult or the child. Naturalistic experiences are those in which the child controls choice and action; in informal experiences, the child chooses the activity and action, but adults intervene at some point; and in structured experiences, the adult chooses the experience for the child and gives some direction to the childs action. Keep in mind that there are variations in learning styles among groups of children and among different cultural groups. Thus, science content should be introduced when it is appropriate to do so, as illustrated in the following examples. Naturalistic Experiences Naturalistic experiences are those initiated spontaneously by children as they go about their daily activities. These experiences are the major mode of learning for children during the sensorimotor period. Naturalistic experiences can also be a valuable mode of learning for older children. With naturalistic experiences, the adults role is to provide an interesting and rich environment for the child. That is, adults should offer many things for the child to look at, touch, taste, smell, and hear. The adult should observe the childs activity, note how it is progressing, and then respond with a glance, a nod, a smile, or a word of praise to encourage the child. The child needs to know when he or she is doing the appropriate things. Below are some examples of naturalistic experiences.

* Tamara takes a spoon from the drawer and says, This is big. Mom says, Yes. * Cindy (age 4) sits on the rug sorting colored rings into plastic cups. * Sam (age 5) is painting. He puts down a dab of yellow. Then he dabs some blue on top. Hey! Ive got green now, he exclaims. Informal Learning Experiences The adult initiates informal learning experiences as the child is engaged in naturalistic experiences. These experiences are not pre-planned: They occur when the adults experience or intuition or both indicate that it is time to act. For example, the child might be on the right track in solving a problem but needs a cue or encouragement. In another situation, the adult might take advantage of a teachable moment to reinforce certain concepts. Some examples of informal experiences follow. * Im six years old, says three-year-old Kate while holding up three fingers. Dad says, Lets count those fingers. One, two, three fingers. You are three years old. * Juanita (age 4) has a bag of cookies. Mrs. Ramirez asks, Do you have enough for everyone? Juanita replies, I dont know. Mrs. R. asks, How can you find out? Juanita says, I dont know. Mrs. R. replies, Ill help you. Well count them. Structured Learning Experiences Structured experiences are preplanned lessons or activities that can occur in many different ways. For example, Cindy is four years old. Her teacher decides that she needs to practice counting. She says, Cindy, I have some blocks here for you to count. How many are in this pile? Teachers can also offer structured experiences in the following situations: * With a small group at a specific time. For example, a teacher shows the children balls of different sizes and asks them to examine the balls and discuss their characteristics. The teacher picks up a ball and says, Find a ball that is smaller. * At any opportune time. Mrs. Flores, knowing that Tanya needs help with the concept of shape, suggests a game to play and gives her directions to play the game. * With a large group at a specific time. Ms. Hebert realizes that classification is an important concept that should be applied throughout the primary grades. It is extremely important in organizing science data. For example, when it was time to study skeletons, Ms. Hebert had students bring bones from home so they could classify them. Commonalities of Science and Mathematics in Early Childhood There is a natural integration of fundamental concepts and process skills across content areas, including mathematics and science. When fundamental mathematics conceptscomparing, classifying, and measuringare applied to science problems, they are referred to as process skills. These mathematical concepts are necessary to solve some science problems. The other science process skillsobserving, communicating, inferring, hypothesizing, and defining and controlling variablesare equally important for solving problems in both science and mathematics. They might observe differences in speed and distance contingent on the size or weight of the ball, the height and length of the ramp, or other variables. In this example, children could use the mathematical concepts of speed, distance, height, length, and counting (how many blocks are supporting each ramp?) while engaged in scientific observations.

In another example, a preschool teacher brings several pieces of fruit to class: one red apple, one green apple, two oranges, two grapefruit, and two bananas. The children examine the fruit to discover as much about these pieces as possible. They observe size, shape, color, texture, taste, and composition using counting and classification skills. (How many of each fruit type? Juicy or dry? Segmented or whole? Seeds or no seeds?) These observations may be recorded. (What is the color of each fruit? How many are spheres? How many are juicy?) The fruit can be weighed and measured, prepared for eating, and divided equally among the students. Math and science concepts and skills can be acquired as children engage in traditional early childhood activities such as playing with blocks, water, sand, and manipulative materials, as well as during dramatic play, cooking, and outdoor activities. Providing young children with opportunities to see the math and science in their everyday activities helps them to build the basic understandings and interest for future learning. Encouraging Inquiry through Problem Solving A major area of interest in science education research is the teaching of science through inquiry. Research findings and the national reforms in science education overwhelmingly support this notion. The U.S. Inquiry-oriented instruction engages students in the investigative nature of science. As Novak (1977) suggested, inquiry is a student behavior that involves activity and skills, but the focus is on the active search for knowledge or understanding to satisfy students curiosity. In inquiry, educators should not expect children to discover everything for themselves, rather, they should focus on relating new science knowledge both to previously learned knowledge and to experiential phenomena, so students can build a consistent picture of the physical world. Science teachers can facilitate this process in several ways. For example, when children show an interest in learning more about a bean plant or a nearby tree, the teacher should ask questions to determine what each student already knows. In this way, teachers can modify learning experiences and classroom settings to best meet individual needs. One way to involve students in inquiry is through problem solving, which is not as much a teaching strategy as it is a child behavior. As with inquiry, the driving force behind problem solving is curiosity an interest in finding out. The challenge for the teacher is to create an environment in which problem solving can occur. Problems should relate to, and include, the childrens own experiences. From birth, children want to learn and they naturally seek out problems to solve. Problem solving in the pre-kindergarten years focuses on naturalistic and informal learning: filling and emptying containers of water, sand, or other substances; observing ants; or racing toy cars down a ramp. In kindergarten and the primary grades, adults can institute a more structured approach to problem solving. Most science educators agree that problem solving and reflective thinking play an important role in childrens science learning in school. In summarizing the findings of 26 national reports calling for reform in educationparticularly curriculum and instruction in mathematics and scienceHurd (1989) found that 18 of those reports specifically identify problem solving in science as an educational objective. Problem solving can be a powerful motivating factor to learn science. When students perceive the situations and problems they study in class as real, their curiosity is piqued and they are inspired to find an answer. Searching for a solution to a question or problem that is important to the student holds his or her attention and creates enthusiasm. The Theoretical Basis of Science Education The young childs understanding of science grows from the fundamental concepts they develop during early childhood. Much of our understanding about how and when this development takes place comes

from research that is based on theories of concept development as put forth by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky (DeVries and Kohlberg 1987/1990; Driver et al. 1985; Kamii and DeVries 1978; Osborne and Freyberg 1985). These theories gave rise to the constructivist approach, which places the emphasis on individual children as intellectual explorers who make their own discoveries and construct knowledge. Constructivism has important implications for science education, especially in todays classrooms, where students are encouraged to engage in the inquiry process rather than memorize isolated science facts. The current interest in the study of science concept learning owes much to the work of Novak (1977), whose book explores childrens explanations for natural phenomena. Since this text was published, numerous studies related to a wide range of topics in the science curriculum have been reported, reviewed, and summarized by many researchers. In science, teaching for conceptual change, or teaching for understanding, requires different strategies from those previously employed by educators. Many science education researchers agree that the key is to provide a developmentally appropriate context that progressively increases in conceptual depth and complexity as children advance through school and life. The assessment of prior knowledge is thought to be essential to this process. Von Glasserfeld (1989), Resnick (1987), and others caution that if we as educators do not take students prior knowledge into consideration, it is likely that the message we think we are sending will not be the message that students receive . Science Content and Cognitive Capacity: Avoiding a Mismatch Although Piagets (1969) developmental stages of learning are considered a major contribution to the teaching and learning of science, educators and curriculum developers do not always take these stages into account when designing science curriculum and experiences for young children. If children are to learn science and become scientifically literate, educators must choose appropriate science content and experiences to match childrens cognitive capacities at different stages of their development. Cowan (1978) underscores the importance of this alignment, stressing that mismatching content and developmental levels (e.g., expecting kindergarten children to understand the movements of the Earths crust) leads to misconceptions and frustrations for teacher, parent, and child. These types of mismatches often cause teachers to resort to telling the information in a didactic manner because the child cannot conceptualize the content. As Covington and Berry (1976) found, the results of mismatched content and cognitive capacity are that (1) children are not able to extend, apply, or interpret deeper meanings of the content; and (2) interest and positive attitudes toward science are likely to diminish. Many other examples in the literature also emphasize the match between science content and cognitive capacity as essential to learning science. The implication from the research is that the content must always be within the realm of possibility of comprehension. A prominent feature of cognitive research is the study of student misconceptions in science. These misconceptions are not merely errors in calculations or the misapplication of strategies. They are ideas that are based on misperceptions or incorrect generalizations that are consistent with the students general understanding of a phenomenon. For example, misconceptions can be seen in childrens ideas about light and shadows, which have been studied by Piaget (1930) and Feher and Rice (1987). Young children think of a shadow as an object. They think that light is the agent that causes the object to form or that allows people to see the shadow, even when it is dark. This example clearly shows that misconceptions are a very real and significant obstacle to learning, one that educators must overcome before broaching new science concepts. In considering all of the preschool and primary developmental stages described by Piaget, keep in mind that a childs view of the world and of scientific and mathematical concepts is not the same as yours. Their perception of phenomena is formed from their own perspective and experiences. Misconceptions

will arise. So, be ready to explore the world to expand their thinking, and be prepared for the next developmental stage. Teach children to observe with all of their senses and to classify, predict, and communicate, so they can discover other viewpoints. They also develop processes to apply these concepts and to develop new ones. Children acquire fundamental concepts through active involvement with the environment. Science content can be introduced effectively into naturalistic, informal, or structured learning experiences. Several examples are given to illustrate the natural integration of fundamental concepts and process skills in mathematics and science. It is noted that the national reforms in science education and research support teaching science through inquiry. Several theories underlying early science instruction, including Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories of concept development, and a constructivist approach are explored. The paper notes the importance of considering the child's cognitive capacity when developing science instruction and maintains that when there is a mismatch, children are unable to extend, apply, or interpret deeper meanings of the content, and their interest and positive attitudes are likely to diminish Obstacles of learning through inquiry: (1) Adults' inability to discover, either by reflection or analysis, the means by which children acquire science and technology concepts; (2) The fact that young children think differently from adults and do not organize their world along the same lines as do older children and adults; and (3) The fact that young children have their own curriculum priorities and construct their own math, science, and technology concepts which while age appropriate, may appear wrong from an adult perspective. how to overcome the obstacles : (1) the importance of observing young children's learning in order to make instructional decisions that truly reflect children's learning needs and processes; (2) the need to recognize the limits of instruction-for example, young children think transductively, and this limits the possibility of teaching abstract concepts; and (3) The value of employing capacity-linked and socially derived motivation, engaging the spontaneous learning motivation children experience as their cognitive capacity increases. Instilling social motivation by involving parents in ways that encourage their modeling of reading, question asking, and knowledge gathering are also crucial. Objectives of teaching science: (1) Develop good dispositions toward mathematics and science; (2) experience good teaching in mathematics and science; (3) focus on learning about children and the mathematics and science content of specific interest to them; (4) participate in a variety of professional development opportunities situated in a learning community; (5) demonstrate an ability to implement integrative curriculum; and (6) Utilize appropriate strategies to establish family partnerships. In child-centered education programs, children construct their own knowledge from their experiences and interactions with the world around them, and teachers foster children's growth and development by building on children's interests, needs, and strengths within a safe and caring environment. Initially directed at the preschool level for children ages 3 to 5, the series has been extended from birth to age 10

. child-centered activities for 3- to 6-year-old children include: (1) Mathematics and manipulative; (2) Science; (3) Sand and water; (4) Dramatic play; (5) Literacy; (6) Art; (7) Outdoor activities; (8) Blocks; (9) Music. Science curricula typically do not capitalize on the hands-on, self-initiated learning style of young children. developmentally appropriate approach to science education with young children, involves the following topics: (1) science displays; (2) machines and pendulums; (3) science in the sensory table; (4) art activities that incorporate science, music and science; (5) exploring science through cooking activities; and (6) science in the gross-motor arena. How to Incorporate Science into your Classroom preschool program focuses on three process skills - observation, classification, and communication. The following science ideas can be taught to preschoolers and can be spiraled as needed. A good early childhood science program develops the science process skills of observation, classification, and communication. Young children, because of their innate curiosity eagerly embrace all types of science activities. The easiest way to incorporate science into the early childhood classroom is to "find" the science in the activities you are already doing. A lesson about "me" can include making pasta skeletons with the children's pictures as the head. Color mixing, exploring which materials dissolve in water, comparing similarities and difference in objects, and cooking are all science activities. Set up a science center. This does not need to be expensive. Large and small magnifiers, prisms, balance scales, mirrors, magnets, color paddles, and a variety of objects to observe and measure are a great way to start. Models and animal puppets are always a hit. Throw in a few theme-related books, puzzles, and writing materials and you're set. Change the materials on a regular basis to keep things interesting. Teach what you know. If you like animals or plants, start there. Meal worms make great class pets. They are easy to care for and you can observe their life cycle. Plants come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and textures. They can be observed and measured. Lima bean seeds are easy to plant and grow. Don't forget to include "Jack and the Beanstalk" with this activity. Even teachers without a green thumb can provide plant science activities for their students by bringing in flowers and leaves for children to observe and take apart. Use your surroundings.

Get pine needles from your Christmas tree vendor, dog fur from your local groomer, pick up pine cones, feathers, leaves, etc. whenever you find them. Ask you local pet shop for snakeskin, feathers, and other animal items. Once the word gets out that you collect these things, people will save them for you. Be a good observer. If your students start to do something unusual with an item or use it in a non-standard way, step back and watch. He/she may be making a new discovery and just might teach you a thing or two. Introduce new items and concepts to the group. The children need to understand what things are for, and how to use and take care of them. Let them play. Children must have time to freely explore new things before participating in a structured activity. Answer their questions honestly. If you don't know an answer, find out. Then, tell the children where you found the answer. Even preschoolers understand looking up information in books, on computer programs, and on the Internet. The best way to promote science literacy is to expose your students to a variety of books, from preschool level to adult. Just make sure the adult books have lots of pictures. You will need the information in the adult books to answer the children's questions. A few simple additions to your classroom and curriculum will provide endless opportunities for creative thinking, problem solving, and exploration. You're students will be on their way to becoming "Super Scientists." Early Childhood Education and Science Studentseven very young studentsbring a lot of curiosity about the natural world, and assumptions about how it works, with them to school. How can preschool teachers tap into this enthusiasm, and build students' understanding of science? Adults tend to think of science as a distinct subject to be taught and studied. But for students around preschool age, science is simply "finding out about the everyday world around them," as this article in the journal of the National Association for the Education of Young Children points out Preschool teachers can help develop students' science knowledge through relatively simple activities. Yet many educators are reluctant to do so, partly because they look back on their own experiences in school science lessons as unpleasant ones, the article notes. Preschool teachers, it says, should try to build coherence in science lessons from day to day, using well-planned curricula and lessons, and encouraging students, through hands-on activities and other means, to use some of the same processes that scientists follow. Science in Early Childhood Education Scientific knowledge is cumulative: To learn new things, you must build on what you already know. So, its important that your child start learning early U.S. Department of Education At this young age you are building a foundation for future learning and scientific understanding. The preschool child is naturally curious. There is nothing that you need to do to promote their wonder and fascination of the world. Their curiosity makes this the perfect time to answer questions and help them create an understanding of how the world works.

These young and curious children are able to dive into topics such as physics, biology and chemistry without bias or fear. Some tips to teaching science in Early Childhood. 1. You have to use real science terminology. Often there is no substitute for the scientific words. But do not worry, just like learning any other word, the more the child hears it the more they will understand. 2. A child must have multiple experiences on the same topic in order to gain understanding. Doing one experiment or project will not bring understanding. It is the repetition of a topic in different forms that will help the child to learn. Often times, doing the same project or experiment multiple times is also beneficial, it allows the preschool child to revisit what they know and gain deeper understanding and confidence. Questions Why should science be part of the Early Childhood Education Curriculum? Describe the following methods of teaching science Explanation Discussion Play Discovery Problem solving Explain ways of integrating science with other learning areas Develop materials to be used in teaching science Discuss ways of assessing childrens performance in science education Describe the following concepts in science Family Society school